UPPSC MAINS Paper 1

UPPSC Mains Paper I Updated-Part 2 2019
Integration of Princely States
Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562 princely states were given the option of joining either
India or Pakistan, or choosing independence. Indian nationalists and large segments of the public
feared that if these states did not accede, most of the people and territory would be fragmented.
The Congress as well as senior British officials considered Patel the best man for the task of
achieving unification of the princely states with the Indian dominion.
Patel asked v.p.menon a senior civil servant with whom he had worked over the partition of
India to become his right-hand as chief secretary of the States Ministry. On 6 May 1947, Patel
began lobbying the princes, attempting to make them receptive towards dialogue with the future
Government and trying to forestall potential conflicts. Patel used social meetings and unofficial
surroundings to engage most monarchs, inviting them to lunch and tea at his home in Delhi At
these meetings, Patel stated that there was no inherent conflict between the Congress and the
princely order. Nonetheless, he stressed that the princes would need to accede to India in good
faith by 15 August 1947.
Patel invoked the patriotism of India's monarchs, asking them to join in the freedom of their
nation and act as responsible rulers who cared about the future of their people. He persuaded the
princes of 565 states of the impossibility of independence from the Indian republic, especially in
the presence of growing opposition from their subjects.
He proposed favorable terms for the merger, including creation of privy purses for the
descendants of the rulers. While encouraging the rulers to act with patriotism, Patel did not rule
out force, setting . deadline of 15 August 1947 for them to sign the instrument of accession
document. All but three of the states willingly merged into the Indian union—only Jammu and
Kashmir, junagadh and Hyderabad did not fall into basket.
Integration of Junagadh: The West Gujarat known as Saurastra constituted a number of small
states which did not have much potential from the point of view of economic and political
independence. In all, 327 such States existed in Gujarat. Sardar succeeded in bringing the small
states together and it was a very important step towards national solidarity although the states
were in theory free to choose whether they wished to accede to India or Pakistan, Mountbatten
had pointed out that "geographic compulsions" meant that most of them must choose India.
In effect, he took the position that only the states that shared a border with Pakistan could choose
to accede to it. The Nawab of Junagadh, a princely state located on the south-western end of
Gujarat and having no common border with Pakistan, chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring
Mountbatten's views, arguing that it could be reached from Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two
states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh— Mangrol and Babariawad—reacted to
this by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the
Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states. The rulers of neighboring states reacted
angrily, sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and appealed to the Government of India
for assistance.
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A group of Junagadhi people, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the
Aarzi Hukumat ("temporary government"). India believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go
to Pakistan, the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, and refused to
accept the accession. The government pointed out that the state was 80% Hindu, and called for a
plebiscite to decide the question of accession. Simultaneously, they cut off supplies of fuel and
coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and reoccupied the
principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had acceded to India.
Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition
India rejected. On 26 October, the Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes with
Indian troops. On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing collapse, invited the Government of
India to take over the State's administration. The Government of India agreed.
A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, which went almost unanimously in favour of
accession to India.
Kashmir conflict: Kashmir was also a problem. At the time of the transfer of power, Kashmir
was ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu, although the state itself had a Muslim majority. Hari
Singh was equally hesitant about acceding to either India or Pakistan, as either would have
provoked adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom. He signed a Standstill Agreement with
Pakistan and proposed one with India as well, but announced that Kashmir intended to remain
independent. However, his rule was opposed by Sheikh Abdullah, the popular leader of
Kashmir's largest political party, the National Conference, who demanded his abdication.
Pakistan, attempting to force the issue of Kashmir's accession, cut off supplies and transport
links. The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition had also severed transport links with India,
meaning that Kashmir's only links with the two dominions was by air. Rumours about atrocities
against the Muslim population of Poonch by the Maharajah's forces caused the outbreak of civil
unrest. Shortly thereafter, Pathan tribesmen from the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan
crossed the border and entered Kashmir. The invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar.
The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India, asking for military assistance.
India required the signing of an Instrument of Accession and setting up an interim government
headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return. The Maharaja complied, but Nehru declared that it would
have to be confirmed by a plebiscite, although there was no legal requirement to seek such
confirmation. Indian troops secured Jammu, Srinagar and the valley itself during the First
Kashmir War, but the intense fighting flagged with the onset of winter, which made much of the
state impassable.
Prime Minister Nehru, recognizing the degree of international attention brought to bear on the
dispute, declared a ceasefire and sought UN arbitration, arguing that India would otherwise have
to invade Pakistan itself, in view of its failure to stop the tribal incursions. The plebiscite was
never held, and on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir, but
with special provisions made for the state. India did not, however, secure administrative control
over all of Kashmir. The northern and western portions of Kashmir came under Pakistan's
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control in 1947, and are today Pakistan-administered Kashmir. In the 1962 Sino-Indian War,
China occupied Aksai Chin.
Hyderabad Operation Polo: Sardar‘s greatest role in the integration of states was his able
handling of the Hyderabad crisis. Most of the states acceded to India, Hyderabad was a
landlocked state that stretched over 82,000 square miles (over 212,000 square kilometres) in
southeastern India. While 87% of its 17 million people were Hindu, its ruler Nizam Osman Ali
Khan was a Muslim, and its politics were dominated by a Muslim elite. The Muslim nobility and
the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, a powerful pro-Nizam Muslim party, insisted Hyderabad remain
independent and stand on an equal footing to India and Pakistan. Accordingly, the Nizam in June
1947 issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of power, his state would be resuming
independence. The situation deteriorated further in 1948. The Razakars ("volunteers"), a militia
affiliated to the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen and set up under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim
Razvi, assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling class against upsurges by the Hindu
populace, and began intensifying its activities and was accused of attempting to intimidate
villages.
The Hyderabad State Congress Party, affiliated to the Indian National Congress, launched a
political agitation. Matters were made worse by communist groups, which had originally
supported the Congress but now switched sides and began attacking Congress groups. Attempts
by Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed and, in August, the Nizam, claiming that he
feared an imminent invasion, attempted to approach the UN Security Council and the
International Court of Justice.
India now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed to continue its independence, the prestige of
the Government would be tarnished and then neither Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in
its realm. The date for the attack was fixed as 13 September, even though General Sir Roy
Bucher, the Indian chief of staff, had objected on grounds that Hyderabad would be an additional
front for the Indian army after Kashmir.
On 13 September, the Indian Army was sent into Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the
grounds that the law and order situation there threatened the peace of South India. The troops
met little resistance and between 13 and 18 September took complete control of the state. The
Nizam was retained as the head of state in the same manner as the other princes who acceded to
India.He thereupon disavowed the complaints that had been made to the UN and, despite
vehement protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from other countries, the Security Council
did not deal further with the question, and Hyderabad was absorbed into India.
Other States: Regarding the accession of the other states, Sardar acted like a magic-stick. In no
time, he could merge the States of Orissa, Chhatishgarh, Rajasthan, Punjab and so on. He
realized that the people of states were supreme and by organizing the States‘, people for
establishment of popular government, he could achieve success. He had, with him, able workers
and supporters who had worked untiringly to bring such a merger in record time. There are
innumerable instances where Sardar could bring down the rulers of the States to terms and agree
them to accession to India as per the terms and conditions stipulated by the Government of India.
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Sardar had to deal with diversified Kings having different attitude with caution and applying
varied, human, social, political and psychological approach.
Formation of Linguistic States:–
India is a land of many languages, each with its distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary
tradition. In 1917, the Congress Party had committed itself to the creation of linguistic provinces
in a Free India. After Congress's Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and
formalized with the creation of provincial Congress Committee by linguistic zones.
The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was encouraged and supported by Mahatma
Gandhi. After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of
dividing country further on the basis of language.
Dhar commission
During that time some Marathi speaking Congress members raised the pitches for separate
Maharashtra State. Following this demand, other language speaking people too demands a
separate state for them. Hence, Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces
Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar, to enquire into the desirability of linguistic
provinces.
The Dhar Commission advised against this at that time reason being it might threaten national
unity and also be administratively inconvenient.
JVP Committee
After some time the clamor for linguistic states again got momentum. To appease the vocal
votaries of linguistic states, the congress appoints a committee (JVP) in December 1948
consisting of Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to examine the question afresh. This
JVP Committee revoked the seal of approval that the congress has once put on the principle of
linguistic provinces.
The demands for separate state on the linguistic basis didn't subside. There were renewed
movements aimed at linguistic autonomy in 1948, 1949. There was the campaign for Samyukta
Karnataka, uniting Kannada speaking spread across the states of Madras, Mysore, Bombay,
Hyderabad, Samyukta Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat movement. In case of Punjab, struggle
brought together both the factors language and religion (Sikh).
Andhra Movement
After Independence, the speakers of Telugu asked the congress to implement its old resolution in
favour of linguistic states.
On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over
the demand for a separate Andhra and expired after fifty-eight days. After his death people were
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agitated and it was followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over Andhra.
The Vishalandhra movement (as the movement for a separate Andhra was called) turned violent.
Finally, the then PM, Nehru announced the formation of a separate Andhra State in December
1952.
State Reorganization Commission
The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making of other states on linguistic
lines in other parts of the country.
Hence Nehru appointed in August 1953 the states Reorganisation Commission (SRC) with
justice Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine "objectively and
dispassionately" the entire question of the reorganization of the states of the Union. The SRC
submitted its report in October 1955. It recognized for the most part on the linguistic principle
and recommended redrawing of state boundaries on that basis.
The then government accepted the SRC's recommendations. Finally, the states Reorganization
Act was passed by parliament in November 1956. It provided for fourteen states and six centrally
administered territories. SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.
Case of Bombay
Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC's report came from Maharashtra, where widespread
rioting took place. To fulfill their demand of separate Marathi speaking people's state, there was
the broad based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and on the other hand in Bombay state, there was
Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movement for Gujarati people.
After on years of the reorganization of states Act, the government finally agreed in May 1960,
the bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra, Gujarat with Bombay city being included in
Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the capital of Gujarat.
Case of Punjab
The other state where an exception was made to the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the
state of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab, which remained a trilingual state having three
language speakers-Punjab, Hindu and Pahari within its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of
the state, there was a strong demand for carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking
State). This demand got communal overtones. The Akali Dal led Sikh Communalists, while the
Jan Sangh, led Hindu communalists.
SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as it would not solve either the language or the
communal problem of Punjab. Finally in 1966, Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab
into two Punjabi and Hindi speaking status of Punjab and Haryana, with the Pahari speaking
district of Kangra and a port of the Hoshiarpur district being merged with HP.
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Finally, after more than ten years of continuous strife and popular struggles, the linguistic
reorganization of India was largely completed.
Industrial Revolution
Emergence and Background
Beginning of geographical discoveries and direct sea routes opened new avenues of trade and
commerce. It formed the bedrock of Industrial revolution as mismatch between demand and
supply led to new innovative ways of enhancing production.
Second factor was emergence of capitalist ideology. Profit making became the core of all
economic activities in Europe. Capitalists financed the voyages of sailors in search of new
markets and new sources of raw material. New industries were also financed by capitalists.
New inventions were made which enhanced productivity many fold. Invention of Steam Power,
Use of Mechanical Power instead of Man and Animal power changed the way production was
done Hargreaves‘s spinning mill, improvement of Arkwright and Crompton over that spinning
mill. Invention of steam engine led to birth of Cotton Jenny, a much improved cotton weaver.
Factory production arrived as new mode of production as community or home workshop

production failed to meet burgeoning demands.
Colonial quests led to discoveries of new cheap sources of raw materials and profitable dumping
markets for finished products.
Faster means of communication, commoditification of labor with introduction of wage System,

development of new sources of energy like coal, new durable materials like steel were the other
supporting factors for the rise of Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution in Britain
A number of factors contributed to Britain‘s role as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.
For one, it had great deposits of coal and iron ore, which proved essential for industrialization.
Additionally, Britain was a politically stable society, as well as the world‘s leading colonial
power, which meant its colonies could serve as a source for raw materials, as well as a
marketplace for manufactured goods.
As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more cost-effective methods of
production, which led to the rise of mechanization and the factory system.
There were many conducive factors. Britain had adequate capital which was accumulated
through colonialism Disappearance of serfdom and ‗enclosure movement‘ provided huge surplus
agricultural labor which looked for employment and became source of cheap labor. (As
Industrialization started, land became valuable commodity. Big landlords started snatching the
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land of small farmers and this was termed as ‗enclosure movement‘). Britain was also rich with
natural resources. Iron and coal proved twin pillars of Industrial Revolution and Britain was
lucky to have them in close proximity. Britain also had a stable polity unlike Europe. It also had
a strong navy – a symbol of military might. Inventions, capitalist ideology and communication
were other factors.
Salient Features of Industrial Revolution
First feature is that, Britain was the epicenter of this revolution in 1750.
Secondly, it started from textile sector. Britain used to spent huge wealth on import of foreign
clothes like Dhaka Muslin, Calicut Calico and so on leading to huge forex drain. So, textile
industries became a natural choice to start with.
It was also a revolution in infrastructure which was necessary for spread of it. Railways, steam
boats (reduced dependence on wind sails with heavier load), Macadamized roads (pucca roads
named after its inventor Macadam), new form of communication like telegraph and penny post
(now it was possible to send post in a mere penny) etc lead to new globalization.
It gave birth to ideology of mercantilism which viewed world resources as limited and merchants
vied for each other in a ‗zero-sum game‘
A process of new globalization started in which colonies were integrated in a highly subservient
manner.
It also affected agriculture. Cropping patterns were changed. Staple food crops were replaced
with cash crops like cotton, indigo, tea, opium etc.
Impact of Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution also had certain other fallouts which were not expected. There was also
opposition to these new developments. Luddite movement was such an even which was a
movement launched by workers who attacked machines as they feared that machines will replace
manpower. This and other movements forced Industrialists to give a serious consideration to
worker‘s condition
I. Social Impact – new urban centers (like Manchester, Leeds), slums, nuclear family,
urbanization, exploitation of women and children, new class formation
II. Economic Impact – birth of capitalism, transnational trade, cheap goods, ruin of handicrafts
III. Political Impact – colonialism gets a new fillip, new division of countries as developed and
und-developed, Europeanization of different parts of world, reforms movement like Chartist
Movement started. Unions also began to form. New movements like – Socialism, Marxism also
trace their roots to Industrial Revolution. Child labor laws were formed as exploitation of
children increased.
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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE EMERGENCE OF CAPITALISM
The Industrial Revolution refers to the greatly increased output of machine-made goods that
began in England during the 18th century. Before the Industrial Revolution, people wove textiles
by hand. Beginning in the middle 1700s, machines did this and other jobs as well. The Industrial
Revolution started in England and soon spread to Continental Europe and North America. It
brought economic changes which took place in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries and
completely transformed the European society. The Industrial Revolution brought about two main
changes, viz. it replaced the domestic system by factory system and small scale production by
mass production.
The Scientific & Technological Innovations, which made the Revolution Possible
Industrial revolution led to the rise of industrial capitalism and finance capitalism. Before the
industrial revolution goods were produced at home with the help of simple and cheap tools
which did not need much capital. But with the installation of big machines huge funds were
needed and a class of capitalist made its appearance.
Steam Power: The invention of the use of steam was one of the most revolutionary discoveries
which greatly facilitated the adoption of the machine methods of production. Prior to the
discovery of the system power also machines were in use, but the progress was rather slow due
to lack of good motive power. These machines were worked on water or wind-power
Iron and Steel: The introduction of steam-driven machinery also made it desirable that the wood
machinery should be replaced by machinery made of some durable material, and thus usage of
iron was a natural development. But as iron was not available in sufficient quantity an effort was
made to increase its production through the use of cocking process. In 1829 Nelson invented a
hot blast which made the use of raw coal, instead of coke, possible for the manufacture of iron.
This invention greatly helped the growth of iron industry of Clyde.
Development of Coal Industry: The increasing use of steam power and iron and steel
necessitated the development of coal industry. In fact the coal and the iron are the two
foundations of the modern industrial society and a country lacking in either stands at a
disadvantage.
Changes in Means of Communication: Between 1800 and 1820 about 200 miles of rail lines
were in operation in Britain. They were mainly used to carry raw material. Efforts were also
made to bring improvements in road and inland waterways. As a result of all these changes
Britain came to have thousand of good roads which greatly reduced the transportation cost.
Textile Industry: By 1800, several major inventions had modernized the cotton industry. In the
process one invention led to another.
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Improvements in Engineering Techniques: The mechanical engineers particularly played an
important role in the improvement of machinery as well as its efficient use. They made use of
iron and steel in place of wood to create complex machinery.
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Industrial revolution led to the rise of industrial capitalism and finance capitalism. Before the
industrial revolution goods were produced at home with the help of simple and cheap tools
which did not need much capital. But with the installation of big machines huge funds were
needed and a class of capitalist made its appearance. However, with the passage of time the
industrial operations grew still more complex and enormous funds were needed which could not
be provided by the capitalists from their individual resources. Therefore, they began to look to-
wards investment bankers for these funds. This ushered in era of Finance Capital. Though the
industrial revolution was majorly an economic phenomenon, it greatly affected the social and
political life of the countries it was prevalent in.
Social Impacts: In the special sphere also the industrial revolution produced far-reaching
consequences. In the first place, the growth of factory system resulted in the growth of new
cities. Workers shifted to places near the factories where they were employed. This resulted in
the growth of a number of new cities like Leeds, Manchester, Burmingham and Sheffield in
Britain, which soon became the centres of industry, trade and commerce. Secondly, the rise of
cities was accompanied by the growth of slums. Before the advent of industrial revolution, the
industry was scattered throughout the country. Artisans generally worked in their cottages or
shops and were not entirely dependent on trade for their livelihood. They often combined
manufacturing and agriculture.
Political Impact: In the political sphere also the industrial revolution had manifold impact. In
the first place it led to colonization of Asia and Africa. Great Britain and other industrial
countries of Europe began to look for new colonies which could supply them the necessary raw
materials for feeding their industries and also serve as ready market for their finished industrial
products. Therefore, the industrial countries carved out extensive colonial empires in the
nineteenth century. In fact these countries added so much territory to their empire that one
historian has described it as "the greatest land grab movement in the history of the world." It is
well known that colonialism produced adverse effects on the local people and resulted in their
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uthless exploitation. However, it cannot be denied that it also paved the way for the
industrialization of these territories because the European colonizers set up certain industries in
these areas.
Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
Industrialization led to the decline of feudalism in Europe. A new system of society called
Capitalism arose in its place. It was an economic system in which the means of production and
distribution were privately owned and operated for profit. This system gave rise to two new
social classes one was that of the factory owners who owned the factories and employed and paid
wages to factory workers. They also controlled the sale of goods and their main aim was to make
maximum profits. They controlled the sale of goods and their main aim was to make maximum
profits. They controlled the 'capital' or the money and, hence, were called capitalists. They were
a prosperous group of people and led luxurious lives. The other class comprised of workers who
worked in factories. They lived in great hardship and were exploited by the factory owners.
Imperialism is the policy of extending political and economic control over a weak country by a
powerful one. The phenomena gained strength in the nineteenth century AD, largely due to the
Industrial Revolution. A market for manufactured goods and sources for obtaining cheap raw
materials for producing more goods were desperately needed. Areas to invest surplus capital
were also required. This led the European nations to acquire colonies in the politically and
militarily weak countries of Asia and Africa. These countries could easily be conquered by the
powerful Europeans. They provided a good opportunity for the investment of surplus capital.
Besides, Asia and Africa were well provided with natural resources and had a huge potential to
absorb finished goods.
The Industrial Revolution was a mixed blessing. It had both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
1. Centre of economic life shifted from the villages to cities and towns where the factories
were situated.
2. Urban (cities) and rural (villages) life became dependant upon one another. Isolated life
of self-sufficient villages came to an end.
3. Men became free to develop their capabilities in areas other than farming.
4. It brought countries and people together. There was an international awareness among
people because developments in one country influenced the others.
5. The aristocracy and nobility with their feudal ideas were replaced by the newly rich
middle class capitalists (bourgeoisie) who also became politically powerful.
6. Better transport, communications and mechanized goods made life comfortable for man.
Disadvantages.
1. Cities became crowded, smoky, with problems of slums, housing, sanitation, accidents
and epidemics.
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2. Women and child labour was badly exploited.
3. Workers suffered from long working hours, low wages, and unemployment, unsafe
conditions of work, with no rights to vote strike or form trade unions.
4. Society, became divided into rich and poor, the 'Haves' and the 'Have- Nots'.
5. It led to wars of imperialism and colonization.
First World War
Background
It was a result of growing inter-imperialist rivalries, growing chauvinism, antagonism and

conflicts within Europe, formation of alliances and secret pacts, growing militarization, feverish
preparations for war, were some of the marked features that harbingered war. There had been a
number of crises which were temporarily resolved, but led to deep tensions.
Economic rivalries perhaps played the most important role. Struggle for colonies and resources
to fuel industries led to intense competition. Newly Industrialized countries like Germany
wanted a share in the colonial pie which was limited in its size.
Political development also didn‘t help either Change in economic conditions also prompted
Germany to adopt a new political stance Policy of ‗Cautious Continentalism‘ of Bismarck was
replaced by ‗ ggressive Imperialism‘ by Kaiser William II Bismarck adopted this policy as he
was aware that Germany was still in nascent phase of development and has different priorities.
His formation of Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy), adoption of neutral stance
towards France, pseudo-friendship with Russia, normalcy of relation with Britain were highlights
of his policy. He asserted that Britain was a naval power and Germany was a land power in a bid
to reassure Britain. This atmosphere of peace provided an atmosphere for German growth.
Kaiser Williams II assumed power in 1888 and he was an aggressive ruler and he removed
Bismarck as Chancellor on superficial grounds. He expressed his expansionist desires through
concepts like – ‗Welt Politics‘ or World Politics which called it fit for Germany tontervene in
other nations Simultaneously, military and navy were also strengthened. Germany took an open
anti-British stance regarding Boer War in South Africa. Similarly, in Moroccan crisis also, it
promised help to the sultan against Britain and France.
Kaiser Williams II took three important steps which shook supremacy of Britain –
I. Naval empowerment – Germany was first country to use submarines
II. Kiel Canal issue – to encircle Britain, the canal lied between North Sea and Baltic area
III. Proposed railway project from Berlin to Some important dates: Rise of Nationalism in
Europe
Alexander Czar proposed Britain to ally and eliminate Sick Man of Europe i.e. Turkey. Britain,
however, refuted this proposal as it saw Russia as a future threat to its power in West Asia. So,
Russia took unilateral decision which led to Crimean Wars of 1854-56 between Russia and
Turkey on pretext of saving of Christian brethren in the region under Ottoman Empire. However,
France and Britain sided with Turkey for their own self-interests and Russia was defeated
leading to Paris Peace Conference of 1856. Turkish Sultan promised of giving equal status to
Eastern European subjects and introduced reforms. However, this never happened and situation
became even worse after famine broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Taking advantage of this situation, Bulgaria, with Russian help, launched a war on Turkey and
defeated it leading to signing of Treaty of San Stefano, 1877. Under this treaty, Romania,
Greece and Serbia were accepted as independent states by Turkey. Autonomy was provided to
Bulgaria under Russia protection and Russian dominance was accepted in Asia Minor. This
treaty was unacceptable to Britain and Bismarck appeared as peacemaker leading to Berlin
Congress of 1878. This Congress was landmark for the following reasons –
I. Berlin became the center of European activity for the first time and this indicated rising status
of Germany in Europe.
II. Black Sea (Asia Minor) region was declared as neutral zone ending Russian dominance.
III. Cyprus was given to Britain and Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to Austria. It led
to an attack on Russian and Serbian interests as a significant part of Slav population was given to
Austria. This and other provision of Berlin Congress sowed seeds of First World War and
assassination of Archduke Ferdinand only hastened which was inevitable.
Berlin Congress complicated the Eastern Question instead of solving it. Two more events further
complicated the situation Serbia raised the slogan of ‗Pan Slavism‘ – creation of a Slav nation
under Serbian leadership including the Slav in other nations as well. This was countered by
‗Young Turk movement‘ in which the awakened youths of Turkey demanded greater political
reforms. This further created rift in the rival camps i.e. Serbia, Russia and Britain, Turkey. This
gave birth to Balkan League in 1911 which included Romania, Serbia and Greece. Montenegro
was apprehensive of a Turkish invasion and instead launched an offensive with the help of The
Balkan League which was known as First Balkan War in which Turkey was defeated and
through London Conference of 1913, Turkey left its claim over Eastern Europe forever. But this
was not the end of the problems of Balkan states and nationalism. They started fighting amongst
themselves. It led to Second Balkan War of 1913.
Immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian
throne in Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital on 28 th June 1914by a secret group ‗Black Hand‘ – an
extremist Serbian nationalist group which aimed at uniting all Serbians into a single Serbian
state. Sarajevo was recently annexed by Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary blamed it on Serbia
and served an ultimatum on 23 rd July making 11 demands on Serbia. Serbia accepted most of
them, but not all as total acceptance of them meant loss of sovereignty of Serbia. Unsatisfied by
the reply, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 th July and Serbian capital Belgrade
was bombarded on 29 th July 1914. World War had started with this event.
Events of First World War
ÿ Soon other countries which were also militarily linked to each other, also joined the war.
Russia mobilized her forces against Austria to force her to stop war against Serbia and Russia
also didn‘t want ustria to expand into Balkans Russia also had her own ambitions vis-à-vis
Serbia which could have suffered if Serbia were defeated. Russia also knew that Germany will
also soon join on sides of Austria.
ÿ France was not as easy as Germany has thought and the war entered into a long stalemate as
British forces joined French side. Trenches were dug by both sides. Trench warfare was a new
feature of this war. Unbroken chains of trenches were dug for hundreds of kilometers with
barbed wires. Soldiers in these trenches were protected from behind by machine gun and artillery
fire and neither side could break other side‘s trench defense Germany used poison gas and
England used tanks for the first time in the warfare, but that too couldn‘t overcome trenches.
ÿ Russia registered some initial gains, but suffered heavy losses in 1915. After October Russian
Revolution, Russia left the war on highly unfavorable terms as she signed a peace treaty – Treaty
of Brest Litovask – with Germany and had to cede many territories. Loss of Russia from side of
Allies was made up by joining of USA a few months back.
ÿ Soon the two sides prompted others two join their side to swell their support by promising
post- war territorial gains. In August, Japan also declared war on Germany as she had entered
into an alliance with Britain in a hope to acquire German territories in Pacific and China.
Portugal also joined on the British side and in May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria as Britain
and France promised her territories of Austria and Turkey. Later Romania and Greece also
joined British side and they all together came to be known as Allied Powers. In October 1915,
Bulgaria joined on German side and was promised territories of Serbia and Greece. Turkey also
joined on German side in November 1915. These countries – Germany, Austria and their allies
came to be known as Central Powers.
ÿ Later USA joined on the side of Allies in April 1917 and number of countries engaged \in war
was now 27 and there was at least one from each continent. More than 6.5 crore soldiers were
mobilized for war from all sides.
ÿ Outside Europe, major battles were fought in North Africa and West Asia. Britain and France
wanted to cease the territories of Ottoman Empire in Arab. Both the countries supported radical
groups in Turkey on the name of supporting their cause of their freedom, but had actually other
plans and had entered into a secret agreement – Sykes Picot Agreement – in 1916 to divide Arab
territories amongst themselves. Britain also made a pledge in 1917 to make Palestine a home of
Jews which had serious repercussions for stability of Arab region in coming years. German
colonies in Asia and Africa were taken over by allies and Japan made advances in China.
ÿ The war was now an all-out war, not only weaponry, but other resources were also diverted to
it. Every economic activity became subordinate to needs of war. Production lines were changed
to produce goods for war. Countries also employed policy of blockade on other enemy countries
to prevent any supply reaching to them and making them starve. Britain imposed naval blockade
on Germany successfully and Germany in turn used U Boats for the first time to prevent supplies
reaching to Britain. Often, these U Boats sank ships of neutral countries also and one of these
also sank a US ship which led to USA entering into war. Though aircrafts were also used, they
were less decisive in deciding the outcome of war.
ÿ USA had been supplying ammunition and goods to the Allied and its economy had gained
from the war enormously. It had also advanced loans to the Allied Powers and hence had high
economic stakes and it wanted them to win the war to recover its investments.
ÿ As the war protracted, both citizens and soldiers started to feel its heat and there were many
protests, strikes and even army mutinies. By about middle of July 1918, the tide had started
turning against Germany and it was now the only major Central Power by August 1918. In
September, Bulgaria surrendered and in October, Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. Most of the
ethnic groups of Austria-Hungary empire viz – Czech, Poles, Yugoslavs and Hungarians had
already declared their independence. In November, revolution broke out in Germany and
German Emperor fled to Holland and Germany was declared republic. New German government
signed an armistice and on morning of 11 th November 1918, war came to an end.
Impact of First Wold War
ÿ War took a huge toll on human life and material losses. More than 90 lakh people died.
ÿ It also led to great economic hardship. Inflation was at historic high levels in Europe. Coffers
of governments were empty as a result of war and people were heavily taxed. Situation of
uncertainty also provided momentum to trade union movement.
ÿ Monarchy was ended in many European countries. Kaiser William II left Germany and
took shelter in Holland.
ÿ The even led to rise of nationalism in colonies especially Africa which had not witnessed rise
of nationalism so far in a great manner. Propaganda of the rival camps exposed the hollowness of
racial superiority of Western countries. Promises of self- determination were also reneged which
further put colonial powers in bad light.
ÿ Fight for equal status for women and black also gained momentum as they played an important
role during war.
ÿ Another significant outcome was the birth of the League of Nation.
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference convened in January 1919 at Versailles just outside Paris. The
conference was called to establish the terms of the peace after World War I. Though nearly thirty
nations participated, the representatives of the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and
Italy became known as the ―Big Four.‖ The ―Big Four‖ dominated the proceedings that led to the
formulation of the Treaty of Versailles, a treaty that ended World War I.
The Treaty of Versailles articulated the compromises reached at the conference. It included the
planned formation of the League of Nations, which would serve both as an international forum
and an international collective security arrangement. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was a
strong advocate of the League as he believed it would prevent future wars.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland,

created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. Though
first proposed by President Woodrow Wilson as part of his Fourteen Points plan for an equitable
peace in Europe, the United States never became a member.
The idea of the League was grounded in the broad, international revulsion against the
unprecedented destruction of the First World War and the contemporary understanding of its
origins. This was reflected in all of Wilson‘s Fourteen Points, which were themselves based on
theories of collective security and international organization debated amongst academics, jurists,
socialists and utopians before and during the war. After adopting many of these ideas, Wilson
took up the cause with evangelical fervor, whipping up mass enthusiasm for the organization as
he traveled to the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, the first President to travel abroad in
an official capacity.
Major failures of the league were –
I. It lacked power to enforce its decisions. Only power it had was moral power. Ramsay
McDonald made a proposal through Geneva Protocol, but it didn‘t happen
II. League of Nations remained dominated by European Powers right from the beginning and
never had a democratic functioning.
III. At the earliest it worked as a platform to legitimize the unequal treaties and declaring the
erstwhile colonies of Central Powers as ‗mandates‘ – a disguised name for colonies – of the
Allied Powers countries.
IV. Russia and Germany were not included as members initially US didn‘t join the league
Germany was admitted in 1926 after a conference. Soviet became a member in 1934, but by then
both Germany and Japan had walked out. In 1937, Italy also left the League.
V. It proved a dismal failure when contentious issues big powers. It could not prevent even a
single major aggression and could neither penalize the aggressor post aggression. Japanese
aggression of Manchuria in 1931 was perhaps first major act of aggression. Though League
criticized it and refused to recognize the puppet government of Japan in Manchuria, but it didn‘t
ask Japan to take steps to return to original situation. Italy invaded Ethiopia and later annexed it
in 1936, but little was done to prevent invasion or penalize Italy.
VI. Finally, it collapsed completely in the storm of Hitler and fascism. Although it was largely a
failure,
Its achievements were –
I. It solved many smaller disputes like – dispute between Finland and Poland.
II. It played a role in rehabilitation of refugees after the war.
III. It laid down the principles for protection and promotion of minorities. In India too, Karachi
declaration had its echo.
IV. Most importantly, it played an important role in controlling deadly diseases like – malaria,
small pox etc and its specialized agency finally evolved in form of WHO.
V. It was first attempt at global platform to make an attempt towards formulating international
Second World War
The Second World War was arguably the most significant period of the 20th century. It brought
about major leaps in technology and laid the groundwork that permitted post-war social changes
including the end of European colonialism, the civil rights movement in the United States, and
the modern women‘s rights movement, as well as the programs for exploring outer space. The
primary combatants were the Axis nations (Nazi Germany, Facist Italy, Imperial Japan and their
smaller allies) and the Allied nations, led by Britain (and its Commonwealth nations), the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America. The Allies were the victors. Two
superpowers, the USA and USSR, emerged from World War II to begin a Cold War with each
other that would define much of the rest of the century.
Post WW-1 treaties prohibited political cooperation between Germany and Austria. Engelbert
Dolfuss had established his dictatorship in Austria during early 1930s and there were clamors in
Austria by fascist groups of its unification with Germany, but Engelbert was opposed to it and he
was also opposed to socialism as well. Engelbert was assassinated in 1934 and Austrian Nazis
tried to capture power through a coup, but it failed and Hitler also didn‘t intervene But after
success of fascist in Spain and success of Italy in Ethiopia embolden them and Hitler marched
with his forces into Austria in March 1938 and Austrian Nazis assumed power and unification
with Germany was complete in a gross violation of earlier treaties Western powers didn‘t make
an issue of it in furtherance of their policy of appeasement and according to them eastward
expansion of Germany was not a threat to peace and instead strengthen it.
Most shameful incidence of appeasement came when Czechoslovakia‘s Western allies –

including France with whom she had an entente as well – handed her over to Germany. It was a
democratic, Industrialized country which became independent after WW-1. A part of it called
Sudetenland had significant German population and Germany made it a basis of putting forward
its claim over it which Czechoslovakia had refused earlier. Only Soviet Union offered
Czechoslovakia of help against aggression as she had a pact with her in 1935. In September
1938, Hitler, Mussolini and PMs of France and Britain met in Munich to sign the Munich Pact
which made Czechoslovakia a part of Germany. Neither Czechoslovakia whose fate the pact
decided, nor Russia was invited to discuss it. Czechoslovakia surrendered Sudetenland without
seeking Soviet help. Later Hitler marched into Czechoslovakia to claim the remaining parts as
well.
Boundary settlements after the First World War
A century ago at the beginning of the First World War, the maps of Europe, Asia and Africa
looked much different than they do today. On July 28th 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia, starting a slaughter that would leave millions dead. War redrew borders and reshaped
economies, too. Europe‘s debt-financed splurge on munitions prompted a manufacturing boom
in America, boosting exports and transforming it from global debtor to global creditor.
Germany‘s industry was hammered. Its economy only returned to the size it had been in 1913
over a decade later.
The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 was one of several to carve new countries from what remained
of the pre-war empires. The Baltic states, given to Germany the previous year under the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk, which had taken Russia out of the war, became independent. Czechoslovakia
and Yugoslavia were created; Romania was enlarged; and Poland was rebuilt from former
Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian territories.
Boundary settlements after the Second World War
During the course of WWII political maps continuously changed. Poland being the most
noticeable change. The borders of Poland shifted completely. Poland's borders were redrawn
following the decisions made at the Potsdam Conference of 1945. Germany divided into two
seperate countries. Poland Germany split in two! Comunist East! Germanys east portion was
controlled by the soviet union. Soviet union being communist made the eastern half of former
Germany into a communist state. In 1949 Germany was split into a communist east and a non-
communist west. Non-Communist West! West Germany, also known as the Federal Republic of
Germany, remained a republic during the time of the split. At the end of WWII, the Allies
invaded Germany. The Soviets came from the East, and invaded up to the Oder-Neisse Line. The
Americans, French, and British gained up to the same point from the west. After the War, this
Western part of Germany went to the Americans, French, and British. They divided up their
share of Germany into their own sections... As tensions between the U.S. and the Soviets grew,
Berlin was also split, as both sides wanted it as the capital for its share of Germany (even though
Berlin lay deep in the heart of East Germany). Eventually, West and East Berlin came into
existence.
East Berlin, of course, fell into the hands of the Soviets. ...however, when West Germany was
formed, these regions united to form one state. It was strictly communist controlled by the Soviet
Union.
Fascist Ideology and its global implications
Fascism is an effective political ideology whose central theme is the notion of an organically
combined national community, exemplified in a belief in 'strength through unity'. The individual,
in a factual sense, is nothing; individual identity must be completely absorbed into the
community or social group. To simply elaborate, Fascism is an authoritarian Nationalist political
ideology that promotes nation above the individual, and that stands for a centralized autocratic
government controlled by a dictatorial leader, severe economic and social regulation, and
powerful suppression of opposition. It often claims to be concerned with concepts of cultural
decline or decadence, and seeks to achieve a national rebirth by subduing the interests of the
individual, and instead promoting cults of unity, energy and transparency.
In historical terms, fascism can be defined as a movement and a regime. Emilio Gentile – who,
with Zeev Sternhell and George Mosse,2 is the most insightful historian of fascism – presents
fascism as a modern revolutionary phenomenon that was nationalist and revolutionary, anti-
liberal and anti-Marxist. Gentile also presents fascism as being typically organized in a
militaristic party that had a totalitarian conception of state politics, an activist and antitheoretical
ideology as well as a focus on virility and anti-hedonistic mythical foundations.
Fascism is a highly nationalist, militaristic, totalitarian political ideology in which one person has
absolute power. World War I was the major event that procreated fascism. The war was the first
major war fought between industrialized nations, which were armed with technology such as
machine guns and chemical weapons. The result was complete destruction. Millions of people
died, entire countries malformed, and those who survived were often deeply disillusioned. For
many people, the war presented that contemporary ideas had failed and that a new way was
required. The majority of European fascist states developed from the amalgamation of and as a
consequence to a multitude of significant events, including a troubled society with destabilised
governments, the detrimental effect caused by the impact of World War and, by some, the
disappointment caused by signing the Treaty of Versailles. Fascism was the movement and
political response which offered European people the ability to reconstruct their nation and
escape the existing dilemma. Fascism emerged in Italy in the 1920s. Italy had battled on the
winning side of World War I, but it had agonised greatly. Many Italians were annoyed and
disappointed that the country gained very little for the price it paid. Some war veterans felt
alienated from society: They had grown accustomed to the fears of war, and now normal life
seemed unreal and incomprehensible. Some of these war veterans began to rally together, trying
to re-create the companionship of the war. Their meetings led to the increase of fascism. In its
original form, fascism was neither racist nor anti-Semitic. Undeniably, some early Italian fascists
were Jewish. Although Italy was the origin of fascism, it expanded to other countries. In the mid
to late twentieth century, the Spanish government under General Francisco Franco was fascist, as
were the Argentinean government under Juan Peron and some of the governments in Eastern
Europe before World War II. The Japanese government before and during World War II also
shared some fascist thoughts.
The fascist model is that of the 'new man', a hero, inspired by duty, honour and self-sacrifice,
prepared to devote his life to the magnificence of his nation or race, and to give unquestioning
obedience to a top leader. In many respects, fascism establishes a revolt against the ideas and
values that dominated Western political thought from the French Revolution onwards in the
words of the Italian Fascist slogan: '1789 is Dead'. Values such as rationalism, progress, freedom
and equality were upturned in the name of struggle, leadership, power, heroism and war. In this
respect, fascism has an 'anti-character'.
Fascist ideology based on national unity behind a single revered ruler and for the idea that
citizens must serve the state (as opposed to most forms of liberal democracy, which have an
inverse view of this relationship). Fascism is principally remembered for its oppressive treatment
of citizens, infringements on personal freedoms and cruel crushing of opposition. It usually
requires unusual of personality around a single central figure, hero worship, and a strong
emphasis on a particularly militaristic view of national security.
The theory of fascism makes society to be ordered in a corporatist fashion, favouring collective
bargaining for all groups in society, such as workers, farmers, employers, clergymen, etc., in
practice, this transformed to the fascist states simply favouring and strengthening the largest and
most sympathetic businesses, exercising heavy state control on them in return. In contrast to
communism, these businesses will remain formally under private ownership, with their profits
going to the owners rather than the state.
The French Revolution and its political inheritance had profound influence upon the expansion
of fascism. Fascists interpreted the French Revolution as a largely negative event that resulted in
the entrenchment of liberal ideas such as liberal democracy, anticlericalism, and rationalism.
Challengers to the French Revolution initially were conservatives and reactionaries, but the
Revolution was also later disparaged by Marxists and racist nationalists who opposed its
universalist principles.
Fascism emphasizes:
 Action: Human beings find meaning and purpose by acting, not by reasoning or thinking.
 Community spirit: People need to be part of a community. Individualism is dangerous
because it turns people away from their community.
 Nationalism: The community that matters the most is the nation. People should work
together to promote the glory and power of the nation.
 Militarism: The nation must have a strong, powerful military. The nation displays its
power by expanding its territory.
 The future: Fascists love the speed and power of technology. They look optimistically to
the future.
 One party: The nation must be unified and speak with one voice. Therefore, only one
political party is allowed, and that party rules with absolute power.
 Violence: The government rules its people through violence or the threat of violence.
Fascism usually involves in the following elements:
 Nationalism (based on the cultural, racial and/or religious attributes of a region).

 Totalitarianism (state regulation of nearly every aspect of public and private sectors).
 Statism (state intervention in personal, social or economic matters).
 Patriotism (positive and supportive attitudes to a "fatherland").
 Autocracy (political power in the hands of a single self-appointed ruler).
 Militarism (maintaining of a strong military capability and being prepared to use it
aggressively to defend or promote national interests).
 Corporatism (encouragement of unelected bodies which exert control over the social and
economic life of their respective areas).
 Populism (direct appeals to the masses, usually by a charismatic leader).
 Collectivism (stress on human interdependence rather than on the importance of separate
individuals).
Types of Fascism: There are several kind of fascism. Italian Fascism: It is the dictatorial
political movement which administrated Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the headship of Benito
Mussolini (1883 - 1945). It is the original model which motivated other Fascist ideologies, and is
generally denoted as Fascism. It grew out of Mussolini's desire to re-affirm Italian national
identity and pride after several centuries of disagreement leading up to the amalgamation of
1870.
Nazism refers to the philosophy and practices of the German Nazi Party (or National Socialist
German Workers' Party) under the headship of Adolf Hitler (1889 - 1945) between 1933 and
1945. It was a powerfully nationalist, totalitarian, racist, anti-Semitic and anti-Communist
movement, which grew up in the repercussion of German humiliation after World War I, which
was partly blamed on Germany's Jews. Hitler published his political beliefs in "Mein Kampf" in
1925 and, stimulated by the Italian Fascism of Mussolini, assumed dictatorial powers as
Chancellor in 1933.
Another category of fascism is clerical Fascism. It is an ideology that combines the political and
economic principles of Fascism with theology or religious tradition. The term initially arose in
the 1920s referring to Catholic support for the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, but has since
been applied to various regimes and movements, particularly in Europe and South America.
Neo-Fascism is any post-World War II creed that includes noteworthy elements of Fascism, or
that expresses specific admiration for Benito Mussolini and Italian Fascism, again particularly in
Europe and South America.
Socialist approach and Total Revolution
Socialist approach
 In simple language socialism can be regarded as a movement against the inequality

existing in the present social order.
 It is a plan for a new social order based on justice, equality, free from exploitation of man
by man, a co-operative commonwealth of mankind.
 Though socialists differ among themselves on a number of points, there are certain basic
principles, on which every socialist agrees.
 These are –
1. Socialism wants to establish the importance of the society over the individual.
2. It wants to abolish competition.
3. It wants to abolish private enterprise.
4. It wants to establish a proper system of distribution.
Nehru and Socialism
 It is well known that Nehru was vehemently opposed to doctrinaire Socialism, but for
almost half a century he was trying to formulate a set of mutually consistent principles
and ideas, which, if adopted as a whole, would ensure a socialist reconstruction of society
through the democratic process, rather than insurrectionary violence or a cataclysm, and
without democracy being undermined in the process of achieving the goal.
 To him the question of method was more important than anything else.
 When some people lost their patience with Nehru's reference to the 'pragmatic approach',
they hardly appreciated his anxiety to take account of the compulsions in the objective
situation in India, which make radical economic transformation impossible for various
reasons, including the lag in social transformation.
 Any general attack on the problem of poverty, any movement in the direction of an
egalitarian society, any basic change in the socio-economic institutions concerning the
masses of the population, requires the agency and support of a political organisation like
the Indian National Congress, which is India in microcosm with its divergent pulls of
ideas and interests.
 Any one who thinks of Nehru in the context of Socialism would do well to study how he
tried to influence this peculiar political organisation in favour of broad and simple
'socialistic' principles which have become accepted principles of democracy in capitalist
countries with free enterprise economies.
Marxian Approach and Socialism
 THE Marxian approach to socialism is based on a philosophy of history where the social
order changes as the process of historical progress reveals itself through the dialectical
relationship between the means of production and production relations. Socialism here
emerges out of capitalism as an objective necessity, not because some people will it as a
better and just social order, although once it is established it does prove to be so.
 But there is another approach to socialism which is quite rational, where a socialist makes
his value judgment explicit at the very outset and declares his preference for socialism
defined in terms of socio-economic categories.
 Socialism may be desirable because it is a rational, just, equitable and least wasteful
social order, and in an underdeveloped economy in addition to all these because it is most
helpful for rapid economic progress, and not simply because it is the ―necessary‖
outcome of a historical process.
 Having accepted socialism as a preferred system, one has to think of the best means for
achieving it and for that one has to study objectively the prevailing economic and social
conditions, the role of different classes, their relationships and conflicts, the stage of
development of production forces, etc
Fundamental Transformation & SOCIALISM
 SOCIALISM, after all, involves a fundamental transformation of the society and a

struggle against the forces of status quo deeply entrenched in the social organisation.
 Reliance on the state or administrative machinery and a bureaucracy, working within the
bounds of legal institution cannot bring about a social revolution unless there is a strong
sanction of mass movement behind it.
 A political organisation or a party has to enthuse the masses to socialist action, and unite
the progressive sections in the struggle against the vested interests to enable the socialist
policies to be implemented.
 In a parliamentary system the importance of a strong socialist party is increased, for then
in addition to being a vanguard organistion for determined action, it has to explain and
justify its action to broad sections of the masses so that they can carry it into power.
 The possibility of peaceful, parliamentary method of achieving socialism does not imply
that the state or bureaucracy is neutral or auto-nomous, and that it can function
independently of class struggle.
 On the contrary, for any implementation of a socialist policy, it can be effective only
when it is aligned with the progressive classes and when a political party, which
formalises and upholds the interests of these classes, organises them to united action.
Total Revolution
 The germs of the concept of Total Revolution lie deeply embedded in Gandhi‘s teachings
to which Jayaprakash Narayan, the leader of Total Revolution turned as a result of his
disillusionment with what might be called ―conventional wisdom of revolution and
conventional technique‖ of change.
 Total Revolution is a further extension of Gandhi‘s thought on socio-economic problems
and technique of change in the context of contemporary social, economic and political
reality.
 Total Revolution is a further extension of the Gandhian approach to social change. Social
change in the Gandhian paradigm is a very comprehensive and inclusive term. According
to Gandhi, a partial change in any one component of the social matrix is likely to produce
disequilibrium in society.
 Society, therefore, will tend to move towards a state of constant instability. In order to
ensure that the social organisation maintains a steady and dynamic homeostatic state, an
all-round change is needed. By an all-round change Gandhi did not mean only a change
in the social framework but also a qualitative change in the behavioural-attitudinal-
valuational and psyche texture of the individual. Gandhi, like Hegel, believed that
revolution begins in the minds of men. But Gandhi enlarged the Hegelian concept.
Gandhi‘s primary emphasis was that an individual wanting to change the society must
first of all change himself.
 Gandhi‘s revolution was evolutionary and a process of purification. Gandhi‘s approach
was not limited to a change in individual‘s lifestyle, thought-structure, and behaviour-
pattern only. Thus, together with a revolution in the individual, society must also change.
It spans the entire continuum along which values as well as social and institutional
structures are ranged. The emphasis is on each one of the elements constituting the
continuum.
 Gandhi talked of changing the society, he conceived of far-reaching and novel changes in
the entire social organisation which consisted of the economy, polity, technique of
production, personnel system of both the polity and economy, and, above all, the means
to be adopted for effecting the change.
 There are seven components of Total Revolution –
1. Social
2. Economic
3. Political
4. Cultural
5. Ideological
6. Intellectual
7. Educational
 These numbers may be increased or decreased. JP himself thought that the cultural
revolution could include educational and ideological. Similarly, social revolution,
according to him, in the Marxian sense can cover economic and political revolutions and
even more than that.
 Salient features of Indian Society and Unity in Diversity
 Features of Indian Society
 India is a vast country and has a long history. Its society has evolved through the ages and
has also been affected by foreign influences giving it extreme diversity and made unity
amidst diversity a characteristic of the Indian society. However, to understand the
process, we need to understand the meaning of diversity, unity and pluralism as well as
their relevance to the Indian society.
 Diversity
 In literary terms, diversity means differences. However in social context the meaning is
more specific; it means collective differences among people, that is, those differences
which mark off one group of people from another. These differences may be of any sort:
biological, religious, linguistic etc. On the basis of biological differences, for example,
we have racial diversity. On the basis of religious differences, similarly, we have
religious diversity. The point to note is that diversity refers to collective differences.
 Institutionalization
 Indian society is institutionalized in nature in the form of well developed systems like
Family, Marriage, Gotra and Caste System.
 Multi-class
 Indian society is a multi-class due to several classes exists in India. This classification is
based ones birth as well as his achievements.
 Multi-ethnic Society
 Indian society is multi-ethnic in nature due to various racial groups coexists in India.
Almost all the races of the world can be seen in India.
 Multi-Religious Society
 Although Hinduism is the major religion in India, there exist various other religions such
as Islam, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity, Bahai and Parsi etc.
 Multi-Lingual Society
 There exist more than 1600 languages in India. Major languages are Hindi, Telugu,
Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Bengali, Odia, Assamese etc
 Unity
 Unity means integration. It is a social psychological condition. It connotes a sense of one-
ness, a sense of we-ness. It stands for the bonds, which hold the members of a society
together. There is a difference between unity and uniformity. Uniformity presupposes
similarity, unity does not. Unity is of two types, first which may be born out of
uniformity, and second which may arise despite differences. French sociologist has
termed these two types as mechanical and organic solidarity respectively.
 Unity in diversity
 Inspite of diversities, Indian community shares certain bonds of unity. The first bond of
unity of India is found in its geo-political integration. India is known for its geographical
unity marked by the Himalayas in the north and the oceans on the other sides. Politically
India is now a sovereign state. The same constitution and same parliament govern every
part of it. We share the same political culture marked by the norms of democracy and
secularism. The geo-political unity of India was always visualized by our seers and
rulers. The expressions of this consciousness of the geo-political unity of India are found
in Rig-Veda, in Sanskrit literature, in the edicts of Asoka, in Buddhist monuments and in
various other sources. The ideal of geo-political unity of India is also reflected in the
concepts of Bharatvarsha (the old indigenous classic name for India), Chakravarti
(emperor), and Ekchhatradhipatya (under one rule).
 Another source of unity of India lies in what is known as temple culture, which is
reflected in the network of shrines and sacred places. From Badrinath and Kedarnath in
the north to Rameshwaram in the south, Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west
the religious shrines and holy rivers are spread throughout the length and breadth of the
country. Closely related to them is the age-old culture of pilgrimage, which has always
moved people to various parts of the country and fostered in them a sense of geo-cultural
unity. As well as being an expression of religious sentiment, pilgrimage is also an
expression of love for the motherland, a sort of mode of worship of the country. It has
acted as an antithesis to the regional diversity and has played a significant part in
promoting interaction and cultural affinity among the people living in different parts of
India.
 Indian culture, has a remarkable quality of accommodation and tolerance. There is ample
evidence of it. The first evidence of it lies in the elastic character of Hinduism, the
majority religion of India. It is common knowledge that Hinduism is not a homogeneous
religion, that is, a religion having one God, one Book and one Temple. Indeed, it can be
best described as a federation of faiths. Polytheistic (having multiple deities) in character,
it goes to the extent of accommodating village level deities and tribal faiths. For the same
reason, sociologists have distinguished two broad forms of Hinduism: sanskritic and
popular. Sanskritic is that which is found in the texts (religious books like Vedas, etc.)
and popular is that which is found in the actual life situation of the vast masses. Robert
Redfield has called these two forms as great tradition of Ramayana and Mahabharata and
the little tradition of worship of the village deity. And everything passes for Hinduism.
What it shows is that Hinduism has been an open religion, a receptive and absorbing
religion, an encompassing religion. It is known for its quality of openness and
accommodation. Another evidence of it lies in its apathy to conversion. Hinduism is not a
proselytising religion. That is, it does not seek converts. Nor has it ordinarily resisted
other religions to seek converts from within its fold. This quality of accommodation and
tolerance has paved the way to the coexistence of several faiths in India.
 Indian society was organized in such a way that various social groups were independent
of each other. One manifestation of it is found in the form of Jajmani system, i.e., a
system of functional interdependence of castes. The term ―jajman‖ refers generally to the
patron or recipient of specialised services. The relations were traditionally between a
food producing family and the families that supported them with goods and services.
These came to be called the jajmani relations. Jajmani relations were conspicuous in
village life, as they entailed ritual matters, social support as well as economic exchange.
The whole of a local social order was involved (the people and their values) in such
jajmani links. A patron had jajmani relations with members of a high caste (like a
Brahmin priest whose services he needed for rituals). He also required the services of
specialists from the lower jati to perform those necessary tasks like washing of dirty
clothes, cutting of hair, cleaning the rooms and toilets, delivery of the child etc. Those
associated in these interdependent relations were expected to be and were broadly
supportive of each other with qualities of ready help that generally close kinsmen were
expected to show.
 Sociologist M.N.Srinivas has called this ‗vertical unity of castes‘. The jajmani relations
usually involved multiple kinds of payment and obligations as well as multiple functions.
No caste was self-sufficient. If anything, it depended for many things on other castes. In a
sense, each caste was a functional group in that it rendered a specified service to other
caste groups. Jajmani system is that mechanism which has formalised and regulated this
functional interdependence. Furthermore, castes cut across the boundaries of religious
communities. We have earlier mentioned that notions of caste are found in all the
religious communities in India. In its actual practice, thus, the institution of jajmani
provides for inter linkages between people of different religious groups. Thus a Hindu
may be dependent for the washing of his clothes on a Muslim washerman. Similarly, a
Muslim may be dependent for the stitching of his clothes on a Hindu tailor, and vice-
versa.
 Efforts have been made from time to time by sensitive and sensible leaders of both the
communities to synthesise Hindu and Muslim traditions so as to bring the two major
communities closer to each other. Akbar, for example, founded a new religion, Din-e-
Ilahi, combining best of both the religions. Some bhakti saints like Kabir, Eknath and
Guru Nanak, as well as some sufi saints made important contributions in forging unity
among to communities. At the time of independence struggle, Mahatama Gandhi laid
extreme emphasis on Hindu Muslim unity which was instrumental in India becoming a
secular state and moving on the path of progress.

Role of Women and Women's Organization
Role of Women
Historical data signified that women have many role in civilisation since ancient time and these
roles are changing over the period. In a society, status of people can be assessed by importance
of women in that culture. Many factors that rationalise the magnitude of India's ancient culture is
the respectable place granted to women. Several research studies have demonstrated that women
have raised their position and made a place in different sectors which has led to liberation and to
live better life. In ancient culture, women had to suffer from unequal condition, and but as the
time passed, females had enhanced their status to get equality to the men (Christina S.
Handayani, Ardhian Novianto, 2004). Earlier, women were only allowed for doing domestic
activity and their contribution in public was very restricted. It entails that the political sector was
only for male communities and the women were concern to the private sector. This notion is the
basic understanding of classic feminist theory which wants that women get the equal condition
comparing to men (Ann Brooks, 2009). The status of women in India has been subjected to many
great changes over the past decades. From equal status with men in ancient times through the
low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the
history of women in India has been exciting. In contemporary India, women have joined high
offices. However, women in India generally are still exposed to numerous social issues.
According to a global study conducted by Thomson Reuters, India is the "fourth most unsafe
country" in the world for women.
According to Christina S. Handayani and Ardhian Novianto (2004), females only work in
western countries and their role in Asian countries in public-private is not limited like in western
countries. It is established in studies that Women are important in our society. Every woman has
her own job or duty in this modern society in which men are still dominant. A woman has to take
care of her own personal life and if she is a mother, she has to take care also about her children's
life too. Married women have lots of worries and they carry out a more stressful life than married
men.
Many studies have indicated that physiologically women are not equal to men and both are also
dissimilar psychologically. But there is not much difference between women and men in the
normal activities like eating, drinking, working, sleeping, resting and speaking. But women have
physical and physiological differences based on their functions like child-bearing and child-
rearing. It is well established in theoretical studies that women and men react differently when
they groom their children. Both women and men do what they have learnt during their childhood
as far as their reactions to various situations in their life.
Women in India
The status of women in India has undergone drastic changes over a Past few millennia. In
ancient time, the Indian women were completely devoted to their families. In the Medieval
period, known as 'Dark Age', the status of women was declined considerably. They were not
allowed to go out, and move with others. They were asked to stay at home and take care of their
children. In India, early marriage of a girl was practiced. After Independence women came
forward in all the sectors and there is remarkable changes in the status of women in the field of
education, Art and Culture. A historical viewpoint to the complexities, India continues to face
from time to time since Independence. But the status of women in contemporary India is a sort of
inconsistency.
Role of Women in Prehistoric Time
Indus valley civilization: During the period of Indus valley civilization, status of women were
fairly good. They were given equal honour along as men in the culture. The adoration of mother
goddess demonstrates that they were respected in the form of mother. During Rig Vedic period,
woman had superior status and they got more liberty and equality with men. The position of wife
was a privileged one in the household and women had enhanced status to that of a man in
performing religious rites. In education sphere, both boys and girls were having equal
opportunities. After observing Upanayana Samskar, girls were permitted to spend their life in
Gurukul. In intellectual and spiritual life they occupied a position as man. Education of girls
were considered as an important qualification for marriage.
In Uttar Vedic Period: In this period, freedom of marriage continued and remarriage of widows
continued to be allowed. Though dowry system continued but not in the form of today's society.
The marriage ceremony was the same as in the previous period. As in the previous period the
picture of an ideal family life continued.
The Age of the Upanishads
Age of Sutras and Epics: The Grihya-sutras give comprehensive rules concerning the proper
seasons for marriage, qualifications of bride and bridegroom. The bride is at a mature age, over
15 or 16. The elaborate rites indicate that marriage was a holy bond and not a contract. The
women held a respectable status in the household. She was permissible to sing, dance and enjoy
life. Sati was not generally predominant. Widow Remarriage was permissible under certain
circumstances. On the whole the Dharma-sutras take a more humane attitude than the Smritis of
a later age. The Apastamba enforces several penalties on a husband who unfairly forsakes his
wife. On the other hand, a wife who forsakes her husband has to only perform self-punishment.
In case a matured girl was not married at a proper time by her father, she could choose her
husband after three years of waiting. The appealing feature of this period is the presence of
women teachers, many of whom possessed highest spiritual knowledge. The famous dialogue
between Yajnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi and Gargi Vachaknavi indicated how enlightened the
women of that age were. According to the Sarvanukramanika, there were as many as 20 women
among the authors of the Rig Veda. These stories stand in contrast to the later age when the
study of Vedic literature was prohibited to women under the most severe penalty.
In The Age 600 BC to 320 AD
In this period, marriage between the same caste was preferred although inter caste marriages
were widespread. Of the eight forms of marriage prescribed by the Dharma-sutras, the Arhsa
form of marriage was most popular. The bridegroom was selected by the girl's father. According
to Nearchus the Indians "marry without giving or taking dowries but the girls, as soon as they are
marriageable, are brought forward by their fathers and exposed in public, to be selected by a
person who outclasses in some form of physical exercise". This designated a modified form of
Svayamvara. While girls continued to be married around 16, there was a propensity to marry
them before they attained puberty. It was perhaps due to the anxiety to maintain their body
purity. Lowering of the marriage age affected their education and culture unfavourably. After
Extreme emphasis was now laid on the physical chastity of women which dejected widow
remarriage, divorce and encouragement of sati.
It was also found that females during this period were active in such public economic activities
as wage-labour in state-owned textile factories as well as serving as temple dancers, courtesans,
and court attendants. There is less information on lower class women other than some comments
on labouring women and the need to give works as spinners to such underprivileged women as
widows and "defective girls."
In the beginning of this period, there were well educated women holding an honourable position
in society and household. There were lifetime students of sacred texts or those who followed
their study till marriage. Buddhist and Jain nuns relinquished the world for the sake of spiritual
salvation. Jain texts refer to Jayanti who performed discussions with Mahavira himself and later
on became a nun.
In spite of the advancement, there were increasing infirmities. Earlier the girls went through the
Upanayana ceremony but now it was only a formality. Manu laid down that marriage was equal
to Upanayana while Yajnavalkya took the step of prohibiting Upanayana ceremony for girls. The
wife who performed Vedic sacrifices was denied the right to do so. Narada is however, more
thoughtful towards women. Greek writers have indicated that sati existed, was in trend in Punjab,
possibly confined to the fighter class only. Women courtesans were not looked down by spiritual
leaders or kings. Some of them were highly accomplished and in the point of culture, standing
resembled the Hetairai of Athens. A famous courtesan Amrapali who lived during the
sovereignty of Bimbisara (300 to 273 BC) was a beauty whom Buddha visited.
Chandragupta Maurya, the originator of the dynasty, was apparently assisted by Kautilya, a
Brahman prime minister, who composed the Arthasastra, a handbook of state craft which is often
compared to Machiavelli's The Prince. This collection documents that women had property
rights to the Stridhan, which was the gift made to a woman at the time of her marriage by her
parents and subsequently increased by her husband. Stridhan was generally in the form of
jewellery, which many cultural groups was a suitable way of carrying extra wealth, but could
include certain rights to immovable property. There were eight forms of marriage. They ranged
from the most significant, involving the gift of a virgin daughter (Kanyadan) by her father to
another male, to marriage by kidnapping while the woman is incapacitated through sleep or
intoxication. Marriage was both a secular and sacred institution. Widows had a right of remarry.
Although, when they did so, they lost rights to any property inbred from their deceased
husbands. In this period, women were allowed to participate in public economic activities as
wage-labour in state-owned factories as well as serving as temple dancers, courtesans.
Period of 320 to 750 A D
The Gupta Empire was observed as the classical age of Indian culture because of its legendary
and artistic happenings. Some information on roles for leading women comes from the Kama
Sutra, a manual about the many ways to acquire pleasure, a legitimate goal for Hindu men in the
householder, or second stage, of their lives. Women were allowed to be educated, to give and to
receive sexual pleasure, and to be faithful wives. There was an increasing tendency to lower the
marriageable age of girls with girls being married before or after puberty. Marriage within the
same caste was preferred but forbidden within certain degrees of relationship. Girls of high
families had ample opportunities for acquiring ability in higher learning. In Vatsyayana's
Kamasutra, instances of princess are mentioned whose intellect was sharpened by knowledge of
the Sasatras. The literary evidence of the Gupta age demonstrates that girls of high class also
those living in hermitages read works on ancient history & legend. Girls living in royal courts
were trained in singing & dancing too.
In the Gupta period, Sati was inscribed by some but strongly criticised by others. It was thought
that the custom was not extensively prevalent during this period. Probably due to the foreign
invasions and its significances for women, the custom of sati, though confined to the warrior
class earlier began to gain pervasive acceptance, be perceived as a great sacrifice. The tendency
to regard women as feebler and not of strong moral fibre got stronger during this period although
women as mother, sister continued to be highly esteemed. Remarriage of widows though coming
into disfavour was not forbidden. The only direction in which the position of women improved
was in the arena of proprietary rights. During this period, society began to discourage widow
remarriages, there began to arise a class of childless widows who needed money to maintain
themselves. Due to a lowering of the age of marriage, girls were not literate as earlier. This
degraded the status of women. Brides being too young and they did not have any choice in
marriage decisions. Love marriages were a thing of the past. During this period, marriage
became a binding union, but it was one sided in favour of the husband. Since women were not as
educated as before they did not know how to lead life in right way. The most striking
modifications may be the increased recognition in Katyayana of the women's right to property
and a noteworthy rule in Atri that allowed women ill-treated by robbers to recuperate her social
status. Some women enjoyed political power e.g. Prabhavati-gupta, daughter of Chandra-gupta II
who ruled the Vakataka kingdom on behalf of her son, in the 4th century a.d. Available Exisitng
literature designated that married women in higher families did not usually appear in public
without coverings.
Women in Early medieval Period
In this period as in previous time, women were generally considered mentally sub-standard.
Their responsibility was to obey their husband blindly. Women continued to be deprived of the
right to study the Vedas. Furthermore, the eligible age for girls to marriage was lowered, thus
depriving their opportunities to get higher education. However, from some of the dramatic works
of the period, it was found the court ladies and even the queen's maids capable of composing
excellent Sanskrit and prakrit verses. Daughters of high administrators, courtesans and
concubines were also supposed to be highly skilled in the various arts, including poetry.
If a girl's guardian cannot find her a match before she becomes of marriageable age, then she can
choose her partner. While love marriages were known they were honoured after approval of the
girl's custodians. Sometimes, girls with the approval of their parents opted for a Svayamvara
ceremony. Remarriage was allowed under certain condition when the husband had deserted or
died, or adopted the life of a recluse, or was impotent or had become an out caste.
In general, women were mistrusted. They were kept in privacy and their life was governed by the
male relation, father, brother, husband, son. However, within the home they were given
privileged. If a husband abandoned even a guilty-wife, she was to be given maintenance. With
the evolution of property rights in land, the property right of women also increased. In order to
preserve the property of a family, women were given the right to inherit the property of their
male relations. With some reservation, a widow was permitted to the entire estate of her husband
if he died sonless. Daughters also had the right to succeed to the properties of a widow. Thus, the
growth of feudal society supported the concept of private property. The practice of sati was made
mandatory by few authors, but predestined by others. Purdah was not dominant during this
period. Generally, their culture was high
Women in medieval India
Medieval Indian history continued for 500 years. It is principally dominated by Muslim rulers.
Muslim appeared in India as a warrior class. Their rule in India is divided into two Eras; The Era
of Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Era. The only women who has power and gained the thrown
of Delhi was Razia Sultan. She was not only a wise monarch but also a women of determined
courage. She proved herself as the role of model for politically empowered women in India. In
Mughal Period, India saw the rise of some renowned Muslim women. Qutluq Nigar Khanm
Babar's mother gave wise advice to her son Babar, during his difficult campaign for the recovery
of his father's heritage. Another example was Gulbadan Begum, women of excellent poetic talent
who wrote Humayun-namah. Nur Jahan and Jahan Ara took an active part in the state affairs.
Nurjahan was the greatest Muslim queen of India. She had good persona and military courage.
Mumtaj Mahal a princess of an exceptional beauty along with excellent intellectual talents and
aesthetic tastes. In India, there was also heroic women. Chandbibi, who appeared on the
battlements of the fort of Ahmednagar dressed in male outfit and put heart in the protectors of
that town against the influences of Akbar himself; Tara Bai, the Maharata heroine who was the
life and soul of Maharata resistance during the last determined attack of Aurangazeb;
Mangammal, whose benevolent rule is still a green memory in the South, and Ahalya Bai
Holkar, to whose administrative mastermind Sir John Malcolm has paid magnificent honour. The
Moghul princesses had vital role in the court life of Agra and Delhi. Jehanara, the partisan of
Dara Shikoh, Roshanara, the partisan of Aurangazeb, Zebunnissa, the daughter of Aurangazeb,
whose poems have come down to us and others represented the culture of the court. Jija Bai, the
mother of Shivaji, was more representative of Indian womanhood than the bejewelled princesses
who wrote poetry, played within the walls of their palaces or administered states. In the medieval
period, there were drastic changes in the social life of women. Dependence of women on their
husbands or other male relatives was a protuberant feature of this period. During this period
women were deprived of opportunities of any education, having lost the access to Streedhana or
dowry, they virtually became the subjugated class with dreadful results for themselves and the
nation. Indian women were politically, socially and economically indolent except for those
engaged in farming and weaving. Political demotion includes the barring of women from all
important decision- making processes. With the initiation of Muslims in India, the social
movement of Indian women was limited. They were banned to attend public functions and were
not free to partake as men's equals in religious functions like yajnas, obviously indicating a
deprivation of her role as she was kept in isolation. Another social malevolent that existed in
society during this period was child marriage. These pre-pubescent marriages harmfully affected
the health of the girls. These child brides were deprived of all intellectual, physical and spiritual
development. It virtually stabbed the delicate mind of Indian girl child. Her self-image was
wavering into shreds by the patriarchal family which repudiated her basic freedom. Indian
womanhood was cruelly locked. Likewise, most of the women thought that they have to serve at
home. Thus they were influenced by circumstances to accept their subordination and secondary
position. Men being providers, women became dependent on them economically, for their
survival except for the labour classes, where both men and women contributed in existence
farming and other occupations.
Other social evils in this period were female infanticide, sati, child marriages, Purdah system or
zenana. The seclusion of women developed during the middle ages, due to the political
instability of Northern India, particularly due to various assaults. Muslims who came to India
were mainly soldiers and they did not give much importance to Hindu principles like chastity
and Pativrata dharma so the seclusion of women was fortified mainly by the Rajputs and the
other high castes like Brahmins. Polygamy was the first reason which contributed to the
demotion of women. Muslim rulers in India had big aim. Thus women came to be regarded as
tools of sensual satisfaction. Even among the Hindus, there was no limit for wives a man could
take. Marriage in Islam is a contract. But a Muslim man can have as many as four wives. Thus
even religion encouraged, there was the hopeless subservience of women. Islam also made
husband the head of the family and insisted that a wife should follow all his commands and
should serve him with greatest loyalty, whether he deserved for it or not.
Purdah gained acceptance with the advent of the Muslims. The purdah system existed among
Kshatriyas in the period of Dharma Sastras. But the Hindu women veiled only their face or
sometimes only covered their heads with sarees or "dupattas." But for Muslims it meant
complete covering. Dowry system was also prevalent during this period. It actually meant
"Stridhana" which included gifts, ornaments, property, and cash presented to her by her father or
her relatives. But in the medieval period, the term had special importance. It meant money or
"Dakshina" which was actually presented to the bride groom along with the bride. In Vedic
times, it guaranteed security for her. But during the middle-ages, women was not free to use it as
it was owned by her husband and his kith and kin. During the middle Ages, the term "Stridhana"
acquired huge magnitudes. The Hindus and Muslims favoured this custom of dowry. It could be
paid in cash or kind along with the bride. During the Vedic ages, it was given to bride for her
security when a crisis occurs. She was free to make use of this "Dhana". But the middle Ages
observed a sudden change. The Stridhana received by the groom belonged completely to the in-
laws. The bride did not have free access to this wealth, which lawfully belonged to her. Dowry
system existed even among the Muslims, especially among the Shias. With time, dowry became
a vital part of the marriage ceremony. This in a way contributed to female infanticide, as it
became a heavy burden on the poor. The birth of girls became a frightening to the majority of the
population. Another negative effect of the dowry system was that there was degradation of the
Indian woman. She began to be regarded as transportable and removable property by her
husband. Many law intellectuals and upholders of religion in the medieval age stated that it
literally induced physical as well as intellectual impairment on women in medieval India.
In the medieval period, widow's condition were more miserable. Inflexibility of caste system
deprived of them the right to freedom and social movement. Inhuman treatment was given to the
widow. She was forced to lead a life away from sophisticated pleasures. A widow was also
isolated from society as well as family. Another pre-requisite for a widow was shaving the head.
She was thus shamed mercilessly by modern society. The condition of the Muslim widow was
somewhat better owing to the fact that she could marry after a certain gap of time following her
husband's death.
According to Jauha, there was the practice of voluntary immolation by wives and daughters of
overpowered warriors, in order to avoid capture and resulting molestation by the opponent. The
practice was followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who are known to place a high
premium on honour. The medieval society of the time stimulated "Sati" which referred as self-
immolation of the widow. It was thought that by burning herself on the fire of her husband, she
proves her devotion. Even the child widows were not safe from this grisly ritual. According to
Saroj Gulati "because of the continuous wars, there were chances of too many widows young
and old, and main issue was how to accommodate them without getting shame to the family or
creating problems for society." In this period, Sati was considered as the best course though it
was the nastiest crime committed on Indian women as it was inhumane.
Another heinous torture of women was prostitution which became a recognised institution. The
Devadasi system which was predominant among the Hindus and the courtesans who ornamented
the court of Muslim rulers, dishonoured the status of women in civilisation. Under the Devadasi
system, women were the brides of gods. But they were supposed to amuse kings, priests and
even members of the high classes. Actually, they were abused by the existing male-dominated
society.
Women in the Bhakti Movement
Bhakti movements which succeeded during the medieval age gave rise to a new course of man
and women who cared slightly for gender prejudice. The liberal current, which to some extent
extended the prospect of women, was the Bhakti movements, the medieval saints' movements.
Female poet-saints also played a significant role in the bhakti movement at large. However,
many of these women had to fight for acceptance within male dominated movement. Only
through demonstrations of their absolute devotion to the Divine, their outstanding poetry, and
persistent insistence of their spiritual equality with their contemporaries were these women
unwillingly acknowledged and accepted within their ranks. Their struggle shows to the strength
of patriarchal values within both society and within religious and social movements attempting
to pave the way for more egalitarian access to the Divine.
The imagery of bhakti poetry is chastised in the everyday, familiar language of ordinary people.
Women bhaktas wrote of the obstacles of home, family tensions, the absent husband,
meaningless household chores, and restrictions of married life, including their status as married
women. In many cases, they excluded traditional women's roles and societal norms by leaving
husbands and homes altogether, choosing to become wandering bhaktas; in some instances they
formed communities with other poet-saints. Their new focus was sheer devotion and worship of
their Divine Husbands.
While it is attractive to realise women's participation within the bhakti movement as a rebellion
against the patriarchal norms of the time, there is less evidence to support this perspective.
Women bhaktas were simply individuals attempting to lead lives of devotion. Staying largely
within the patriarchal philosophy that upheld the chaste and dutiful wife as ideal, these women
transferred the object of their devotion and their duties as the "lovers" or "wives" to their Divine
Lover or Husband. However, that their poetry became an important aspect of the bhakti
movement.
Additionally, it would seem that with the movement's northward advancement (15th through
17th centuries), its radical edge as it related to women's inclusion was toughened. Women took
part in the movement's earlier development (6th to 13th centuries). It is mainly male bhaktas and
saints that are today perceived as the spokespersons for the movement in its later manifestations.
The poetry of women bhaktas from this latter time period is normally not revealing of a rejection
of societal customs in terms of leaving family and homes in chase of divine love. Instead, some
of the later poet-saints stayed within the limits of the household while expounding on their souls'
journeys, their perpetual love for the Divine, as well as their never-ending search for fact.
Women in Modern India
Modern India denotes to the era form 1700 A.D. to 1947 A.D. In the back ground of the
intellectual disturbance of the 18th and 19th century, there observed a worldwide demand for
establishing of independent and democratic nationalist societies which consistently emphasized
the fairness of women with men. Women in modern India have been influenced by the programs
of modification and upliftment which brought about a fundamental change in their status. With
the numerous reform movements and a steady change in the opinion of women in society, there,
a radical change in the position of women in modern India was seen. Before the British rule in
India, the life of women was rather domineering, and they were subject to a continual process of
subjugation and social domination. The women's youth was spent in the preparation of marriage
and her whole life was dependent on the male members of her family. Though a few women
became educated, got fame and commanded armies but most were deprived of men's
opportunities to gain knowledge, property and social position.
Status of women in India during the British period:
If comparing with past records of women status with contemporary life, it can be said that there
are important change in the position of women. Numerous studies of the English literature by a
section of the Indians which helped them to integrate the western democratic and liberal
ideology, an philosophy successively utilized by them to start social and religious reform
movements in India. During the British rule, several changes were made in the economic and
social structures of Indian society, and some considerable progress was accomplished in removal
of inequalities between men and women, in education, employment, social rights. Earlier to this
period, the status of women was in gloomy state.
In the British period, women were given opportunities for education. After the Bhakti
Movement, the Christian Missionaries took interest in the education of the girls. The Hunter
Commission too highlighted on the need for female education in 1882. The Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras institutions did not permit the admission of girls till 1875. It was only after 1882 that
girls were permitted to go for higher education. Since then, there has been a constant progress in
the extent of education among females. Though the number of girls studying at various levels
was low, yet there has been a marked increase in the number of female students at every level
from 1941 onwards. At the end of the Nineteenth Century, women in India suffered from
infirmities like, child-marriage, practice of polygamy, sale of girls for marriage purposes, severe
restrictions on widows, non-access to education and restricting oneself to domestic and child-
bearing functions. The Indian National Conference started in 1885 by Justice Ranade contained
these disabilities.
Renowned social reformer, Raja Ram Mohun Roy, who contributed immensely in getting the
Sati system abolished, raised voices against the child-marriage and fought for the right of legacy
for women. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar propelled a movement for the right of widows to re-
marry and also begged for educating women. Maharaja S. Rao, ruler of Baroda State worked for
deterrence of child-marriages, Polygamy and getting the rights of education to women, and the
right of re-marriage to widows. Other eminent personality like Swami Vivekananda, Annie
Besant, and Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Dayanand Saraswati also had interest in the social and
political rights of women. Gandhiji thought that, women should labour under no legal disability.
He said that equal treatment should be given to both boy and girl.
Indian woman are well-known in various fields of life as politicians, orators, lawyers, doctors,
administrators and diplomats. They are not only trusted with work of responsibility but also they
do in their duties honestly and sincerely. In modern time women are actively participating in
every field of life. Women exercise their right to vote, contest for Parliament and Assembly, seek
appointment in public office and compete in other spheres of life with men. This demonstrates
that women in India has got more liberty and equality as compared to earlier period. They have
learned more liberty to contribute in the affairs of the country. They have been given impartiality
with men in making their future and sharing responsibilities for themselves, their family and
their country.
It is a truth that women are intelligent, devoted and efficient in work. In various fields, they are
now competing successfully with men. There are many women working in the Central
Secretariat. They are striving very hard to gain highest efficiency and perfection in the
administrative work. Their honesty of character is probably better than men. Generally it was
found that women are less vulnerable to corruption in form of bribery and favouritism. As a
matter of fact, they are progressively monopolising the jobs of receptionists and air-hostesses.
Another job in which Indian women are doing so well is that of teachers. Women's contributions
in politics and social services have also been significant. Lively example of Indira Gandhi who
excelled so brilliantly and ecstatically in the expanse of India's politics. She ruled this country for
more than a decade and took India winning out of Pakistan-war which resulted in the historic
creation of a new country, Bangladesh. In the field of social service, Indian women have also
done outstanding works. They have not only served the cause of the suffering humanity but have
also brought highest successes for the country, for example, Mother Teressa who sacrificed
whole life for welfare of society. She brought the Nobel Prize for India by her selfless services to
the poor, destitute and suffering people of our country in particular and the deprived and
handicapped people of the world in general.
It is well understood that the progress of a nation depends upon the care and skill with which
mothers give their children. The first and primary duty of Indian women should, therefore, be to
bring forth noble generations of patriots, warriors, scholars and statesmen. Since child's
education begins even in the womb and the impressions are formed in the mind of a child while
in mothers arms in which women play vital role (Tripathi, 1999).
There is no refuting of the fact that the role of women in India is significant and they contribute
in success of nation. Though they have to struggle against many handicaps and social evils in the
male subjugated society. The Hindu Code Bill has given the daughter and the son equal share of
the property. The Marriage Act no longer regards woman as the property of man. Marriage is
now considered to be a personal matter and if a partner is disappointed she or he has the right of
divorce. In order to prove themselves equal to the self-esteem and status given to them in the
Indian Constitution they have to shake off the restraints of slavery and fallacies. They should
help the government and the society in eliminating the sins of dowry.
Women's organization in India
Women's Organisations emerged in India as a result of the spread of education and the
establishment of the notion of the new woman. There was an improved level of communication
among women which made them aware of the different problems that they faced and their rights
and accountabilities in society. This awareness led to the upsurge of women's organisations that
fought for and signified women's causes.
Pre-Independence:
An exclusive feature of the Indian women's crusade is the fact that early efforts at women's
liberation were set in motion by men. Social reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Maharishi
Karve and Swami Dayanand Saraswati challenged the conventional subservience of women,
stimulated widow remarriage and supported female education and impartiality in matters of
religion, among other issues. Mahila mandals organised by Hindu reformist organisations such as
the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj encouraged women to go out of the boundaries of their
homes and interact with other members of society. Pandita Ramabai, who was considered as one
of the innovators of the feminist movement, with the help of Justice Ranade established the Arya
Mahila Samaj in 1882. She envisioned creating a support network for newly educated women
through weekly lectures and lessons at homes, where women could learn and gain confidence
through interactions.
Women's auxiliaries of general reform associations also served as a ground for women to
deliberate social issues, express opinions and share experiences. The Bharata Mahila Parishad of
the National Social Conference was the most protruding among such opportunities. Though the
National Social Conference was formed at the third meeting of the Indian National Congress in
1887, the Mahila Parishad was launched only in 1905.
These initiatives greatly influenced the social status of women. Early attempts at encouraging
women to converse outside their families and local committees thus, stemmed from the broader
social reform movement and efforts to upgrade the conditions of women.
But a major inadequacy of the movement at this juncture was that it was essentially exclusive in
character. The reforms were planned for restricted upper caste women and did not take up the
cause of the huge masses of poor and working class women. Also, male‐ guided organisations
still perceived the household as the woman's first priority and did not make efforts to employ
education as an instrument to improve their contribution in society.
In the beginning of nineteenth century, there was concerted efforts towards education of women.
Schools and educational institutions promoting female public education mushroomed across the
country.
The pre‐ Independence period saw women's issues related to the nationalist agenda at various
junctures. In this period, major enhancement of women was in terms of political participation of
women, calling for a redefinition of conventional gender roles. Women began openly
demonstrating their opposition to foreign control by supporting civil disobedience actions and
other forms of protest against the British. Opportunities to organise and participate in agitations
gave women the much‐ needed confidence and a chance to develop their leadership skills.
Cutting across communal and religious barriers, women associated themselves with larger
problems of society and opposed sectarian issues such as communal electorates. Political
awareness among women grew, owing to a general understanding that women's issues could not
be separated from the political environment of the country. During this period, the initial
women's organisations formed within the historical background of the social reform movement
and the nationalist movement were as follows.
1. The Women's India Association (WIA).

2. National Council of Women in India (NCWI).
3. The All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1917, 1925 and 1927 correspondingly.
Each of these organisations emphasised the importance of education in women's progress. The
WIA, created by Margaret Cousins in Madras, worked widely for the social and educational
emancipation of women. Associated with the Theosophical Society, it encouraged non‐ sectarian
religious activity and did creditable work in promoting literacy, setting up shelters for widows
and providing relief for disaster victims. Women in Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata through
networks developed during World War I work, allied their associations together and created the
NCWI in 1925. A national branch of the International Council of Women, its most prominent
member was Mehribai Tata, who aggressively campaigned against inert charity and advised men
to support female education. The most important of the women's organisations of the time was
the All India Women's Conference. Though its initial efforts were directed towards improving
female education, its scope later extended to include a host of women's issues such as women's
franchise, inheritance rights.
Period of Post-Independence:
The Constitution of India enlisted in 1950 which permitted equal rights to men and women.
Rights such as the right to vote, right to education, right to entry into public service and political
offices brought in satisfaction among women's groups. In this period, there was limited activity
in the area of women's rights. Many women's organizations such as National Federation of
Indian Women (1954) the Samajwadi Mahila Sabha (1559) were formed to work for supporting
the cause of Indian women. Since the country was facing a social, political crisis after the British
rule, many demands of the women activists were not supported by the Government. But during
this period from 1945, the Indian women got an opportunity to participate in confrontational
politics.
In post-independent India, the women's crusade was divided, as the common opponent, foreign
rule, was no longer there. Some of the women leaders formally joined the Indian National
Congress and took powerful position as Ministers, Governors and Ambassadors. Free India's
Constitution gave universal adult franchise and by the mid-fifties India had fairly liberal laws
concerning women. Most of the demands of the women's movement had been met and there
seemed few issues left to organize around. Women's organizations now observed that there was
an issue of implementation and consequently there was a pause in the women's movement.
Women displeased with the status quo joined struggles for the rural poor and industrial working
class such as the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh or
the Naxalite movement. Shahada, which acquired its name from the area in which it occurred, in
Dhulia district in Maharashtra, was a tribal landless labourers' movement against landlords.
Women actively participated and led demonstrations, developed and yelled militant slogans and
mobilized the masses. As women's belligerency developed, gender based issues were raised.
For the meantime in Ahmedabad the first attempt at a women's trade union was made with the
establishment of the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) at the initiative of Ela Bhat
in 1972. Major objective was to improve the condition of poor women who worked in the
unorganized sector by providing training, technical aids and collective bargaining. Based on
Gandhian ideals, SEWA has been a remarkable success.
The Nav Nirman movement, initially a student's movement in Gujarat against rising prices, black
marketing and dishonesty launched in 1974 was soon joined by huge number of middle class
women. Their method of protest reached from mass hunger strike, mock funerals and prabhat
pheris.
The 1970s and 1980s observed the development of numerous women's groups that took up issues
such as dowry deaths, bride burning, rape, and sati and focused on violence against women.
They stressed the sexual coercion of women in a way previous reform or feminist groups had
never done. They questioned the patriarchal assumptions underlying women's role in the family
and society based on the biological sex differences implying a "natural" separation of human
activities by gender differentials, the public political sphere being the male domain and the
private familial sphere as that of the female which eventually translates into a supremacy of male
over female. Some of the earliest self-governing women's groups were the Progressive
Organization of Women (POW, Hyderabad), the Forum Against Rape (now redefined as Forum
Against Oppression of Women), Stree Sangharsh and Samata (Delhi). Among the first
campaigns that women's groups took up was the struggle against rape in 1980.
The modified law was passed in 1983 after heated debate with women's groups. Since then,
women's groups have lobbied again to have the law further changed to make it more severe and
have also fought for an implementation machinery to be set up without which the law is less
effective than it was intended to be. The POW in Hyderabad planned new and fresh
remonstrations against dowry. In the late 1970s, Delhi became the focus of the movement against
dowry and the violence imposed on women in the marital home. Groups which took up the
campaign included 'Stree Sangharsh' and 'Mahila Dakshita Samiti'. Later, a joint front called the
'Dahej Virodhi Chetna Mandal' (organization for creating consciousness against dowry) was
made under which a large number of organizations worked.
In 1975, the Lal Nishar Party structured a joint women's conference which was well attended by
women in Pune in Maharashtra. Similarly the communist party in India in 1975 organized a
National Seminar which was attended by women in Maharashtra. The famous women's
organisations which were established during this time are the Stree Mukhti Sangkatana, the Stree
Sangharsh and Mahila Dakshata in Delhi. Vimochana in Chennai, Baijja in Maharashtra,
Pennurumai in Chennai. The Feminist Network in English and Manushi in Hindi were some of
the first women's newsletters and magazines to appear. The issues that they raise are rape, wife-
battering, divorce, maintenance and child custody along with legislative reforms. This
progressive outlook is indeed a by-product of the changing economic, social and political climate
in the country. Therefore, the women's movement in India after Independence struggle not only
struggled for liberation but also averred the need for creating a non-class socialist society where
women can be completely free from apprehension and violence. The reverberations of changes,
recurrent and sporadic at the beginning, began to be heard rather loudly from the middle of the
20th century.
Some women organizations such as the Banga Mahila Samaj, and the Ladies Theosophical
Society functioned at local levels to promote contemporary ideas for women. These
organizations deal with issues like women's education, abolition of social evils like purdah and
Child marriage, Hindu law reform, moral and material progress of women, equality of rights and
opportunities. It can be believed that, the Indian women's movement worked for two goals.
1. Uplift of women.
2. Equal rights for both men and women.
All the major political parties, the Congress, BJP, CPI, CPI (M) have their women's wings. The
new women's groups declare themselves to be feminist. They are dispersed with no central
organization but they have built informal networks among themselves. Their political
commitment is more leftist than liberal.
Currently there are many women organizations of India:
1. All India Federation of Women Lawyers

2. All India Women's Conference
3. Appan Samachar
4. Association of Theologically Trained Women of India
5. Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh
6. Bharatiya Mahila Bank
7. Confederation of Women Entrepreneurs
8. Durga Vahini
9. Friends of Women's World Banking
10. Krantikari Adivasi Mahila Sangathan
National alliance of women: The National Alliance of Women (NAWO) is a national web of
women. It is affiliation or membership is open to all liberal minded women's groups and
institutions, non-governmental organizations, women workers, women's unions, individuals and
others who share the principles, objectives and values of NAWO, as defined in the NAWO
vision. Major objective of this organization are:
1. Strengthening and building new initiatives, networks, forums etc., for protecting women's
rights
2. Monitoring the Government of India's commitments, implementing the Platform for
Action with special focus on the eight point agenda discussed at the Conference of
Commitment, CEDAW, the Human Rights and other United Nations Convention.
3. Advocacy, lobbying and campaigning on women related issues.
4. Information Dissemination and Documentation.
5. Solidarity and linkages with other regional and global forums.
Another women organization in India is Swadhina (Self-esteemed Women) which was formed in
1986. It is principally a civil society organization focused on Empowerment of women and Child
Development based on Sustainable Development and Right Lively hood. At Swadhina, it is
believed that positive social change has a direct effect on the lives of women and that change is
possible only through an equal and spontaneous participation of Women. Organization members
are active in five states across the country in remote tribal districts of Singbhums in Jharkhand,
Purulia and West Midnapur in West Bengal, Kanya Kumari in Tamil Nadu, Mayurbhanj in
Orissa and East Champaran in Bihar.
Major projects of this organization are as follows:
1. Women's Empowerment Through:

o Promoting Grass-Root level Women's Organization
o Fostering Functional Literacy, Education & Social Awareness generation
o Augmenting Participation of Women in Local Governance
o Encouraging Women's Income Generation & economic capacity building
o Strengthening Women's Participation in Agriculture & Food Security support
o Upholding Non-Violence & Social Empowerment
o Improving Family Health & Nutrition
2. Child Development Through:
o Supporting Child Education
o Promoting Sports & Games
o Advancing Environment & Eco-logical awareness
All India Democratic Women's Association is also dominant woman organization which is an
independent left oriented women's organisation committed to achieving democracy, equality and
women's emancipation. AIDWA members are from all strata in society, regardless of class, caste
and community. It has an organizational presence in 22 states in India. AIDWA was created in
1981 as a national level mass organisation of women. AIDWA believes the liberation of women
in India requires fundamental systemic change. It upholds secular values and challenges and
resists cultural practices demeaning to women.
To summarize, women from earlier time has significant role in shaping of civilization. Historical
data indicated that though the struggle for women's rights is long and hard, but currently, status
of women is enhanced and society recognized their importance. It was observed that after
Independence, the Indian women gained considerable importance within their country in social
and political spheres. The women's movement has a long way to go in its struggle for bringing
about new values, a new ethics and a new democratic affiliation. The objectives were to get
equality based on gender, job opportunities, improving the existing laws which gave women only
partial justice, and creating a society which did not dominate women intellectually, physically
and emotionally. Even though the efforts made by women activists and concerned organization
were slow in getting a real break-through, despite the conservative outlook of their counterparts,
they thrived in creating a focussed awareness among middle-class and upper middle-class
women at large. Currently, Indian woman is working throughout the country at high post and
virtually in all professions at different positions. She is not only visible as the top politician as
seen above in politics. Even as managers in industrial firms, director of nationwide operating
banks, top bureaucrats, active members of micro-credit groups or as independent fashion
designers. Government is going to help women in every sphere of life in society. Numerous
programs are implementing to empower women in India.
Population and associated issues
India is the second most populous country in the world next only to China. On March 1, 2011 the
total population of India was at 1.247 billion. This accounted for 17.5% of the world‘s total
population. In other words, about every sixth person in the world there is an Indian. China, the
most populous country of the world, is a step ahead of us as every fifth person in the world there
is a Chinese. While India possesses only 2.42% of the world‘s total land area, she is required to
sustain almost 17.5% of the world‘s population.
Two components of population growth are: Natural growth: It is analysed by assessing the crude
birth and death rates. Induced growth: It is assessed by the volume of inward and outward
movement of people in any given area. There are four phases of population growth in India. The
period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant growth of India‘s population. The
high birth rate was counterbalanced by high death rate. The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as
the period of steady population growth. The mortality rate started showing downward trend as a
result of improvement in general health and sanitation conditions after 1921.
The density of population is expressed as the number of persons per square kilometre. According
to 2011 census, the density of population in India is 382 persons per square kilometre. Over the
last 100 years density has increased more than four times.
Density and its variation across states can be accessed by the following table:-
Density
State Area Sq. Km Density 2011 Density 2001
2011
- India (Average) 3,287,240 382 324
1 Delhi 1,483 11,320 9,340
2 Chandigarh 114 9,258 7,900
3 Puducherry 490 2,547 2,034
4 Daman and Diu 111 2,191 1,413
5 Lakshadweep 30 2,149 1,895
6 Bihar 94,163 1,106 881
7 West Bengal 88,752 1,028 903
8 Kerala 38,852 860 819
9 Uttar Pradesh 240,928 829 690
Dadra and Nagar
10 491 700 449
Haveli
11 Haryana 44,212 573 478
12 Tamil Nadu 130,060 555 480
Density
State Area Sq. Km Density 2011 Density 2001
2011
13 Punjab 50,362 551 484
14 Jharkhand 79,716 414 338
15 Assam 78,438 398 340
16 Goa 3,702 394 364
17 Maharashtra 307,713 365 315
18 Tripura 10,486 350 305
19 Karnataka 191,791 319 276
20 Gujarat 196,244 308 258
21 Andhra Pradesh 275,045 308 277
22 Orissa 155,707 270 236
23 Madhya Pradesh 308,252 236 196
24 Rajasthan 342,239 200 165
25 Uttarakhand 53,483 189 159
26 Chhattisgarh 135,192 189 154
27 Meghalaya 22,429 132 103
28 Manipur 22,327 128 103
29 Himachal Pradesh 55,673 123 109
30 Nagaland 16,579 119 120
31 Sikkim 7,096 86 76
32 Jammu and Kashmir 222,236 56 46
33 Mizoram 21,081 52 42
Andaman and Nicobar
34 8,249 46 43
Islands
35 Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 17 13
India was the first nation to launched a family planning programme in 1952. Though the birth
rate started decreasing, it was accompanied by a sharp decrease in death rate, leading to an
overall increase in population.The early concept of population policy covered both mortality and
fertility and did not exclusively focus on fertility. There was also a recognition of the need to
improve the quality of life of the people by lowering the burden of disease or morbidity,
promoting universal primary education and eradicating illiteracy, exploitation and poverty.
In 1976, the first National Population Policy was formulated and tabled in Parliament.
The intent of National Population Policy-NPP-2000 is to eliminate unmet contraceptive needs by

providing high quality reproductive healthcare. In particular, the NPP-2000 aims to address flaws
in healthcare infrastructure and to achieve a total fertility rate of 2.1 births per woman by 2010.
Main objectives of NPP-2000 are:-
 Converge service delivery at village level

 Empowering women for improved health and nutrition needs for family welfare services
 Child health and survival

 Meeting the unmet needs of the under-served population groups
 Use of diverse health care providers
 Collaboration with and commitments from the non-government sector
 Mainstreaming Indian systems of medicine and homeopathy
 Contraceptive technology and research on reproductive and child health (RCH)
 Providing for the older population x. Information education and communication
Population Growth Rate in India has reduced substantially which is evident from the following:-
 The percentage decadal growth rate of the country has declined significantly from
21.5% for the period 1991-2001 to 17.7% during 2001-2011.
 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) was 3.2 at the time when National Population Policy, 2000 was
adopted and the same has declined to 2.3 as per Sample registration Survey (SRS) 2013
conducted by the Registrar General of India.
Poverty and developmental issuesThe World Bank defines poverty in

absolute terms. The bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US$1.90 per day>
(PPP), and moderate poverty as less than $3.10 a day. Types of Poverty Absolute poverty
measures poverty in relation to the amount of money necessary to meet basic needs such as food,
clothing, and shelter. The concept of absolute poverty is not concerned with broader quality of
life issues or with the overall level of inequality in society.
The concept of absolute poverty is based on absolute norms for living (measured in terms of
consumption expenditure) laid down according: to specified minimum standard and all such
individuals or groups whose consumption expenditure is found to be below this standard are
classified as poor. Under the relative concept of poverty, a family (or an individual) is deemed to
be poor if its level of income or consumption expenditure falls below a predetermined level.
Poverty in India is measured as the head-count ratio of the population living below the official
‗poverty line‘, which is calculated using the methodology prescribed by the Expert Group on
Methodology for Estimation of Poverty appointed by the Planning Commission in order to arrive
at a threshold consumption level of both food and non-food items. The methodology uses the
Consumer Expenditure Surveys (CES) conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)
of India once every five years to attain the poverty line; and, hence, poverty figures in India are
obtained once every five years. The Planning Commission‘s latest poverty line, using
methodology suggested by the Tendulkar Committee in 2010, is apparently defined as the
spending of Rs. 27.20 per capita per day in rural areas and Rs.33.40 per capita per day in urban
areas.
Problems with measurement of poverty in India
 Multiple indicators, depending on which agency or department is counting are used for
identification of the poor
 Divergence of official estimates of poverty ratio with the actual incidence of poverty
 No poverty census in urban areas
 Use of different methodologies for estimation and identification of BPL households
 Restricting the identification of poor in states to the cap fixed by the Planning Commission
 Variation in estimates
 Wrong targeting of beneficiaries of welfare schemes
Non-income dimensions of poverty: Multi-dimensional poverty index
Poverty Alleviation Schemes
 Poverty alleviation programmes can be in form of employment generation programmes or social

assistance programmes so that different dimensions of poverty are addressed.
 At present there are three centrally sponsored employment programmes in operation
o MNREGS: Rural, wage employment
o SGSY: Rural, self-employment
o SJSRY: Urban, self and wage employment
 MNREGS
o 2006
o Launched in 200 most backward districts in the first phase. At present 619 districts are
covered under the NREGS
o During 2008-09, 4.51 crore households were provided employment under the scheme
 Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
o 1999 after restructuring the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and allied
programmes, viz., Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA),
Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), Supply of improved tool-kits to
rural artisans (SITRA), Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and Million Wells Scheme (MWS)
o Self-employment programme for rural poor
o Objective is to bring the assisted swarozgaris above the poverty line by providing them
income generating assets through bank credit and government subsidy
o Centre: State – 75:25; 90:10 for NE states
 Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)
o It is a unified centrally sponsored scheme launched a fresh in lieu of the erstwhile urban
poverty alleviation programmes, viz, Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), PM’s Integrated Urban
Poverty Eradication Programme (PMIUPEP), and Urban Basic Services for the Poor
(UBSP)
o Revamped in 2009
o Self-employment + Wage employment
 The revamped SJSRY has 5 components
o Urban Self-Employment Programme (USEP)
o Urban Woman Self-help Programme (UWSP)
o Skill Training for Employment Promotion amongst urban poor (STEP-UP)
o Urban Wage Employment Programme (UWEP)
o Urban Community Development Network
History of poverty alleviation/employment generation programmes
Poverty and Inclusive Growth
 Direct relationship between aggregate poverty and average consumption

 Growth in aggregate income is hence needed for reduction in aggregate poverty
Urbanization- problems and remedies

Demographically it‘s the increase in population of cities and towns ,while sociologically it‘s the
spread of urban way of life to the country side .
Urbanization in India has occurred more slowly than in other developing countries and the
proportion of the population in urban areas has been only 28 per cent based on the 2001 census.
The pace of urbanization is now set to accelerate as the country sets to a more rapid growth.
Economic reform has already unleashed investment and growth offering its citizens rich
opportunities. Surging growth and employment in cities will prove a powerful magnet. 300
million Indians currently live in towns and cities. Within 20-25 years, another 300 million people
will get added to Indian towns and cities. This urban expansion will happen at a speed quite
unlike anything that India has seen before. It took nearly forty years for India‘s urban population
to rise by 230 million. It could take only half the time to add the next 250 million. If not well
managed, this inevitable increase in India‘s urban population will place enormous stress on the
system.
In Census of India, 2001 two types of town were identified (R.G,2001):
a) Statutory towns : All places with a municipality, corporation, Cantonment board or notified
town area committee, etc. so declared by state law.
b) Census towns : Places which satisfy following criteria :-
i) a minimum population of 5000 ;

ii) atleast 75% of male working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits; and
iii) a density of population of atleast 400 persons per sq km
Dimensions of urbanization :-
1. detrographic - growth of urban population and metropolitan cities .
> pattern of urbanization
> urban -agglomeration (>1 million)
> rapid urbanization or over - urbanization
1. Social
- urbanism as a way of life
> distinct Social relationship due to large lense and permanent setlelement of socially
heterogeneous individuals.
> effects of city wider than city itself - urban infuence in surrounding area
- primary ( by great tradition ( carry regional traditions) ) & secondary urbanization ( due to
industrialization disintisgrate regional tradition by bringing external element to city )
- changing social and economic institutions
> increased secondary & tertiary activities
> visible change in caste system ,joint family ,neighbourshood
> induces ruler urban migration
Problems of urban areas
1. Over - urbanisation - excessive population pressure on civic amenities ,housing ,etcs

2. Inadequate housing - nearly 70 % live in substances housing .
3. Unsafe and insufficient water supply
4. Pollution
5. Inefficien and inadequate transport
6. Environmental decay
7. Slums - poor housing
- higher density of population
- lack of public utilization - sanitation ,water
- crime , drug abuse , alcoholism , poverty ,
prostitution, beggary
- social isolation
1. Crime
2. Isolation -lack of social interaction
3. Mala adjustment
4. Power shortage
5. Garbage
State policy on urban problem
 Legislation related to urban land and holding
= rent control act ,1948
=urban land ceiling and regulation act ,1976
 Programes of slum clearence & construction of new house
= national housing bank ( 7th plan )
 Finance of housing
 Town water supply and swage
 Urban transport
 Master plan for development (2030)
Meaning of liberalization, privatization and globalization and

their effects on economy, polity and social structure
The Indian Government had undertaken industrial policy reforms since 1980, but the most
radical reforms have occurred since 1991, after the severe economic crisis in fiscal year 1990-91.
These reforms mainly aim at enhancing the efficiency and international competitiveness in
Indian industry. India‘s industrial policy of 1991 towards liberalisation, deregulation, market
orientation has been hailed as ushering in a new era of freedom from government controls,
licence raj and red carpetism and one which promises greater prosperity for the Indian people.
Main Objectives of the Industrial Policy of the Government are –
 to maintain a sustained growth in productivity;

 to enhance gainful employment;
 to achieve optimal utilisation of human resources;
 to attain international competitiveness and
 to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena.
Till 1970's:-
• The Indian planners emphasized the role of heavy industry in economic development and
sought to build up as rapidly as possible the capital goods sector.
• The plans envisaged a leading role for the public sector in this structural transformation of the
economy.
• Major investments in the private sector were to be carried out, not by the test of private
profitability, but according to the requirements of the overall national plan.
• The plans emphasized technological self-reliance, and for much of the period, an extreme
inward orientation in the sense that if anything could be produced in the country, regardless of
the cost, it should not be imported.
India‘s industrial policy of 1991 towards liberalisation, deregulation, market orientation has been
hailed as ushering in a new era of freedom from government controls, licence raj and red
carpetism and one which promises greater prosperity for the Indian people. Industrial licensing
was liberalized or abolished. Moreover, the Monopolies and Restricted Trade Practices (MRTP)
Act deregulated. The numbers of activities reserved for the public sector enterprises (PSE) were
also reduced.
Promotion of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) forms an integral part of the Industrial Policy.
FDI helps in accelerating economic growth by means of infusion of capital, technology and
modern management practices. Government has put in place a liberal and transparent foreign
investment regime, wherein FDI, upto 100%, is allowed, under the automatic route, in most
sectors/activities. The FDI policy is announced through issue of Consolidated FDI Policy
Circulars.
Merits of the New Industrial policy :
1.To raise the level of industrial efficiency, time consuming hurdles of regulations, licenses and
restrictions would either be done away with or made industry friendly. Inflow of FDI and foreign
technology transfers would be encouraged.
2.Additions to the supply of investible resources and technology would result in increased
industrial production and productivity.
3.With the abolition of licensing system in most industries except 5, the wave of liberalization
would boost the entrepreneurial skills in the economy.
4.Pruning/de reservatioin of Industries for the public sector would boost professionalism in this
secotr. Increased autonomy would usher in dynamism for the betterment.
5.NIP-1991 made a special mention about the role and importance of small scale industries. The
state would initiate measures to promote and strengthen small, tiny and village industries, which
have large potential to deal with the problems like unemployment, regional disparities, income
inequalities and inflation.
6.As the government of the country is obliged to protect the interest of workers, this policy
would lay special emphasis to enhance the welfare and upgrade the economic and social status of
the worker. To ensure long-lasting and cordial relations between the workers and the
management, they (workers) would participate in the management decisions of the enterprises.
Privatization in generic terms refers to the process of transfer of ownership, can be of both
permanent or long term lease in nature, of a once upon a time state-owned or public owned
property to individuals or groups that intend to utilize it for private benefits and run the entity
with the aim of profit maximization.
ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATIZATION
Privatization indeed is beneficial for the growth and sustainability of the state-owned enterprises.
• State owned enterprises usually are outdone by the private enterprises competitively.
When compared the latter show better results in terms of revenues and efficiency and
productivity. Hence, privatization can provide the necessary impetus to the underperforming
PSUs .
• Privatization brings about radical structural changes providing momentum in the
competitive sectors .
• Privatization leads to adoption of the global best practices along with management and
motivation of the best human talent to foster sustainable competitive advantage and improvised
management of resources.
• Privatization has a positive impact on the financial health of the sector which was
previously state dominated by way of reducing the deficits and debts .
• The net transfer to the State owned Enterprises is lowered through privatization .
• Helps in escalating the performance benchmarks of the industry in general .
• Can initially have an undesirable impact on the employees but gradually in the long term,
shall prove beneficial for the growth and prosperity of the employees .
• Privatized enterprises provide better and prompt services to the customers and help in
improving the overall infrastructure of the country.
DISADVANTAGES OF PRIVATIZATION
Privatization in spite of the numerous benefits it provides to the state owned enterprises, there is
the other side to it as well. Here are the prominent disadvantages of privatization:
• Private sector focuses more on profit maximization and less on social objectives unlike public
sector that initiates socially viable adjustments in case of emergencies and criticalities .
• There is lack of transparency in private sector and stakeholders do not get the
complete information about the functionality of the enterprise .
• Privatization has provided the unnecessary support to the corruption and illegitimate ways
of accomplishments of licenses and business deals
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRIVATISATION IN INDIA
 Privatization loses the mission with which the enterprise was established and profit
maximization agenda encourages malpractices like production of lower quality products,
elevating the hidden indirect costs, price escalation etc..
• Privatization results in high employee turnover and a lot of investment is required to
train the lesser-qualified staff and even making the existing manpower of PSU abreast
with the latest business practices .
• There can be a conflict of interest amongst stakeholders and the management of the
buyer private company and initial resistance to change can hamper the performance of
the enterprise .
• Privatization escalates price inflation in general as privatized enterprises do not enjoy
government subsidies after the deal and the burden of this inflation effects common man
Impacts of Globalisation:-
Definition of Globalization :- Its a process(not an outcome) characterized by increasing global
Interconnections by gradual removal of barriers to trade and investment between nation and
higher economic efficiency through competitiveness.
Various economic, political, social and cultural effects of globalization are as follows:-
Economic:-
 Breaking down of national economic barriers

 International spread of Trade, Financial and productive activities
 Growing power of transnational cooperation and International financial
Institutions(WTO, IMF)Through the process of:-
1- Liberalization- relaxation of restrictions, reduction in role of state in economic

activities,decline in role of govt in key industries, social and infrastructural sector.
2- Privatization- Public offering of shares and private sale of shares, entry of private sector in
public sector and sale of govt enterprises.
3- FDI
4- International regulatory bodies(WTO,IMF)
5- MNC‘s
6- Infrastructural development
7- Expansion of information and communication technology and birth of information age.
8- Outsourcing of services- ie BPO and Call Centres.
9- Trade related intellectual property rights(TRIPS)- product based patent rather than process
based.
Social effects:-
 Withdrawal of National govt from social sectors ie declining share of govt in public
spending, reducing social benefits for worker(social dumping,pension cuts,subsidies
reduction)
 Labor reforms and deteriorating Labor welfare:-
o Labour Market deregulation:-
 Minimum wage fixing
 Employment security
 Modifying tax regulation
 Relaxed standards of security
o Increased Mechanization demands skilled labour and thus loss of job for unskilled
labour
o Loss of jobs for traditional workers for example bihar silk workers due to
imported Chinese- Korean silk
 Feminism of Labour ie increased women participation specially in soft industries
 Trickle down theory of poverty reduction has limited success and in agricultural nations
poverty has infect increased.
 Unsustainable development practices such as:- excessive use of fertilizers, irrigation, fish
trawling by mnc‘s(Protein flight ),Exploitation of natural resources by MNC‘s.
 Migration and urbanization have lead to problem of slums
 Commercialization of indigenous knowledge:- patenting
 Rising inequality in wealth concentration
Cultural:-
 Increased pace of cultural penetration

 Globalization of culture
 Development of hybrid culture
 Resurgence of cultural nationalism ie shivsena opposing valentine day
Political:-
 Globalization of National Policies- Influenced by International agencies

 Reducing economic role of govt
 Political lobbying
Positive effects of Globalization
 Increased competition
 Employment generation
 Investment and capital flow
 Foreign trade
 Spread of technical know how
 Spread of education
 Legal and ethical effects
 Improved status of women in the society
 Urbanization
 Agriculture:- greater efficiency,productivity, use of HYV seeds, Future contracts and
cooperative farming
 Higher standard of living
Social empowerment, Communalism, Regionalism
Social empowerment
In societal development, conception of empowerment has vital role. This phrase is linked with
gender equality. Modernization of global development will need a reappraisal of the concept and
its application to many facets of human life. The notion of empowerment entails numerous
things to many people. Concepts of choice, liberty, agency, capacity, contribution, self-
sufficiency, and increased resources are common to almost all definitions. Most of the
researchers agreed on the idea of empowerment as ways to improve quality of life and expand
the basis of human well-being. Briefly, empowerment can serve as a tool for effecting deep and
broad-based social revolution.
In social science literature, it is documented that the process of social change can be discovered
at the personal and structural levels. At one end, social change is visualized as a consequence of
the development of individuals, gained through education, training, access to material resources,
and the like. From this perspective, structural change is supposed to be an automatic result of
personal alteration. On the other end, the human being is seen as a part of society, and change is
considered impossible unless social structures related to political power are changed primarily.
Individual and structural transformation are closely associated with the individual's inner life
shapes, social environment, and that environment, in turn, exerts a deep influence on one's
mystical and psychological well-being. The symbol of the body politic, likening all of humanity
to a single social organism gives a valuable framework to discover empowerment as means to
follow the transformation of individuals and civilization. Empowerment depends on and
contributes to a system in which different actors are provided the resources needed for each to
make a unique contribution to the whole. From this conception, it can be established that
individual and collective empowerment can be considered as the extension of vision, capacity,
and choice necessary for people to act as active agents of human well-being and affluence.
The Protagonists of Social Transformation: It suggests that there are three elements critically
important such as the individual, the institutions of society, and the community. In this view
empowerment is described as the act assisting individuals to manifest constructive capacities in
creative and disciplined ways, institutions to exercise authority in a manner that leads to the
progress and upliftment of people and communities to provide an environment in which culture
is improved and individual wills and capacities combine in collective action. Ideas of "us" and
"them" deserve particular consideration. Discourse in development spheres is often entrenched in
conceptions of the "empowered" members of society that help the "disadvantaged" or
"downgraded group." Many researchers revealed that the desire to eliminate social inequalities is
indisputably moral feeling, but us/them dichotomies only extend and reinforce existing divisions.
Careful thought needs must be given in which empowerment can be approached as a universal
and shared enterprise. It has been observed that Historical processes have developed inequalities
that must be addressed. But the development basis should be one in which every individual and
group is presumed to have scope for progression. From this viewpoint, the marginalized are not
without capacity, and the privileged are not all strong. All have capacity to develop and all have
a responsibility to advance the welfare of the whole. Lastly, though empowerment signifies
someone or something being invested with authority, the social dynamics of power seem to have
been generally overlooked in debates on development at the United Nations.
Prerequisites for Social Transformation:
Scholars stated that participation in the systems and structures of society is important
prerequisite for social transformation. It is not sufficient for people to get projects, even if they
have a voice in certain decisions. They must actively involve in decision-making processes:
identify problems, formulate solutions and approaches, enjoy benefits, and determine criteria for
appraisal.
At last, the ability to recognise the root causes of inequality will be decisive to the empowerment
of populations to become agents of social transformation. Though population gets benefits of
advancement, if it is unable to discriminate the drivers of social injustice and inequity, they
cannot eliminate such practices from social structure. If empowerment is to lead to social
transformation, it must involve the ability to identify the forces that modernize one's social
reality, to recognise the opportunities and challenges offered by that reality, and to plan
initiatives for the improvement of civilization.
Communalism
Communalism is practiced in society since ancient and it is part of human life. When appraising
in Indian context, it is great faithfulness to one's own holy group. Communalism is defined as a
mechanism to energize people for or against by raising an appeal on communal lines. It is
revealed in literature that Communalism is related with religious fundamentalism and
intransigence. Studies have demonstrated that the communalisation was first began in nineteenth
century. The British historian (James) categorized ancient period as Hindu period and medieval
period as Muslim period and this ordering was further used by both the British and Indian
historians. Social literature documented that in medieval period, Muslim people were
underprivileged, they were also oppressed as then people of Hindu community and the ruling
class included both the Muslims and Hindus. Abdul Ahmed explained that "Communalism is a
social phenomenon characterized by the religion of two communities, often leading to acrimony,
tension and even rioting between them". Communalism is also described by few other eminent
theorists. According to Prabha Dixit, "Communalism is a political doctrine which makes use of
religious and cultural differences to achieve political ends". It is a dominant force in Indian
scenario. Many factors such as casteism, communalism and religious fundamentalism pose
challenge in India that are the major threats to Secular state. They deteriorate the working and
strength of democratic secular Federal state and influence against the fundamental beliefs of
national life and provide means to new individuality. 'Casteism' and 'Communalism' are
destroying the Indian cultural diversity.
In academic literature, Communalism is elucidated as multi-dimensional, complex, social fact.
Numerous social, political, economic, cultural and religious factors affect the occurrence of
communalism and communal ferocity. Communalism is sometimes aggravated by non-religious
forces. A careful inquiry of the demands which have been and are made by communal leaders
will reveal the true character and objective of communal politics under the cover of religion,
ritual and culture. It has been documented in reports that Previously, British imperialism used
communalism as a divide and rule policy. Similar kind of policies are continued by leaders after
independence using various factors. The origin of communalism is very deep and diversified.
Some of the roots lie in the structure and nature of Indian civilization which has different
religions, multi-racial, multi-lingual, multi-castes and multi-regional. A society divided on these
grounds helps the development of communal organizations. It may be emphasised that the
financial condition of the Hindu and the Muslim and other communities and their different
development also contributes to the development of communalism. It is established that the
communalism of society is a response of the communalism of another community.
Communalism has three stages. First stage include insight of people believing in a particular
religion that have similar interests such as political, financial, social and cultural interests. For
political perspective of India, Indian society is group of people from different religion, language
and regions but not as a country. For citizen of India, different people have different leaders, who
declare themselves as national/regional/religious/caste leaders. The second stage of
communalism begins when people consider that the social, monetary, cultural and political
interests of people following a particular religion are dissimilar from that of the believers of
other religions. This phase of communalism is termed as Liberal Communalism. People who
have belief in Liberal Communalism assumed that the interests of the people of India can be
amalgamated and India can be integrated as one country. The third stage of communalism is
considered when people of one religion are the opponents of the people of other religions. The
third phase of communalism is extremist communalism which has a concept of fear and
revulsion.
Characteristics of Communalism
1. Communalism is a philosophical notion.

2. It is a multifaceted process.
3. It has a wider base which incorporates social, economic and political aspects for its
manifestation.
4. It causes competition, ferocity and tension among different communities.
5. Communalism is used by the upper class people and elites as advice for separation and
mistreatment of the communal identities of the poorer groups of their co-religionists.
6. Communalism is simply planned by opportunistic political and economic interest of contending
groups and factions within a political party or by political parties.
7. Communalism assaults at the roots of egalitarianism, secularism and national amalgamation.
8. The consequences of Communalism are ruinous.
Causes of Communalism
There are numerous of causes for the occurrence of communalism. First is the tendency of the
Minorities. The Muslims fail to be intermixed in the national mainstream. Some reports indicated
that majority of Muslim people do not partake in the secular nationalistic politics and insist to
sustain separate identity. Another cause of communalism is Orthodoxy and Obscurantism. The
orthodox members of minority groups feel that they have a distinct entity with their own cultural
pattern, personal laws and thought. There are strong elements of conservatism and
fundamentalism among the Muslims. Such feeling has prevented them from accepting the
concept of secularism and religious tolerance.
Design of the Leaders is also a cause of communalism. It has grown in India because the
communalist leaders of different religious communities such as Hindu and Muslim desire to
succeed it in the interest of their communities. The demand for separate electorate and the
organization of Muslim league were the practical indicators of this belief. The British rule which
gave the divide and rule policy, separate electorate on the basis of religion, reinforced the basis
of communalism in India. Finally the partition of the country into India and Pakistan provided
further an aggressive feeling towards each other.
The cause of communalism is due to weak Economic Status. Most of Muslims in India did not
embrace the scientific and technological education and they lagged behind on educational front.
Due to poor education, they have not been represented satisfactorily in the public service,
industry and trade. This leads the feeling of withdrawal which causes communalism.
There are geographical Causes for communalism. The regional settlement of different religious
groups particularly Hindus Muslims and Christians causes more variation in the style of life,
social standards and belief system. These patterns are clashing and leads to communal tension.
Communalism also evolves from historical causes. It has been revealed in literature that the
Muslims in some of the regions are converted from Hinduism under the compulsions of Muslim
rulers. The problems of social separation, illiteracy and poverty that had set apart the low caste
people remain unresolved for them, as the foreign elite that polished never shared power with
them. Their work ended with the conversion of the Indians and the converts began by replicating
the masters in thought, speech and costume. It caused their hostility. Progressively,
communalism developed in the Muslim community.
Social Causes of communalism also emerges as there is cultural similarity in fostering

harmonious relations between any two social groups. But the social institutions, customs and
practices of Hindus and Muslims are so deviating that they think themselves to be two different
communities.
Psychological factors have vital role in increasing communal tension. The Hindus group
considers that the Muslims are crusaders and fundamentalists. They also have a feeling that
Muslims are unpatriotic. On the other hand, the Muslims believe that they are not treated as
superior group in India and their religious beliefs and practices are sub-standard. These feelings
cause communal tension.
Aggravation of rival Countries is also cause of communalism. Some overseas countries weaken
Indian nations by setting one community against the other through their representatives. They
encourage and promote communal riots in the nation.
Negative Impact of Mass Media also create communal tension. The messages related to
communal tension or riot in any part of the country spread through the mass media. This results
in further tension and riots between two rival religious groups.
Communalism has been a severe threat to national unity in India. It harmed numerous elements
of modern India, such as, secularism, democracy and world harmony. Communal ideology leads
to many cases of communal violence and riots. Gujarat violence of February -March 2002 which
terrorized the whole country was consequence of prior spread of communal ideology (Chandra,
2004).
Ways to eradicate Communalism: Communalism can be lessen between different religious

groups through taking some measures.
1. Eradication of Communal Parties: All the political parties which prosper on religious loyalties
should be banned or abolished by the government. Even non-political cultural organizations
should always be kept under constant watch so that they cannot expound communalism.
2. Spread of the Past Heritage: Feelings of patriotism should be taught to the people by reminding
them about the wonderful moments of history in Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs who were united
for the wellbeing of the nation.
3. Public Opinion: Mass media must play imperative role to generate awareness about harmony
between different communities and make efforts to change the attitude of people towards
other communities. People must be aware of the dangerous consequences of the communalism.
Both the Government and people should create mindfulness to eradicate communal tension and
clash.
Abundant of literature have demonstrated that the practice of communalism leads to communal
politics and communal violence. It is supposed that communalism is the bequest of the past
because they use the thought of ancient and medieval times. But communalism is a modern
thought and political movement. The origin of communalism is linked to the politics of modern
times when the people are more inclined towards politics. The economic slowdown of the people
of India was primary reason for communalism.
Regionalism
In current global trade system, regionalism is spreading at great pace. The huge spread of
regionalism is encouraged by the explosion of regional institutions that give rise to substantial
academic interest in both their sources and consequences. In bulk of academic literature, Regions
are described as groups of countries situated in the same geographic space but it is not clear
where one region ends and the next begins. According to Russett (1967), a region is based on
geographic closeness, social and cultural similarity, shared political attitudes and political
institutions, and financial interdependence. Deutsch et al. (1957) stated that high levels of
interdependence across multiple dimensions that include economic transactions,
communications, and political values as determining whether a group of countries constitutes a
region. Thompson (1973) debated that regions comprises of states that are geographically close
to each other, interact extensively, and share numerous facts, behaviours and culture.
Regionalism is an arguable concept among scholars, sociologists and theorists. Regionalism is a
national phenomenon and took shape of organized agitations and campaigns. Regionalism has
widely spread in Indian politics since the independence of India. It has the major basis of various
regional political parties. In Indian scenario, regionalism has increased in close identification
with the regions. After independence, it is a great force of conflicts as well as collaboration,
which depends on the manner of accommodation. Regionalism is elaborated as situations in
which different religious or ethnic groups with idiosyncratic identities exist within the same state
borders, often concentrated within a particular region and share strong feelings of shared
individuality.
Regionalism is basically an intense feeling of a particular region or an area in preference to the

nation or any other region. It often involves ethnic groups whose major objective is to get
freedom from a national state and the development of their own political influence. In Indian
perspective, regionalism denotes to proclamation of different ethnic, linguistic or economic
interests by various groups within the nation. It has been well documented that the roots of
regionalism lie in linguistic, ethnic, economic and cultural identities of the people who stay in
particular geographical area. Political scholars have elaborated various types of regionalism
which include economic regionalism, linguistic regionalism, political regionalism and even sub-
regional movements. Various political scientists have contested that regionalism is a political
process discernible by cooperation and policy harmonization, whereas regionalization is viewed
as an economic process in which trade and investment within the region develop more fast than
the region's trade and investment in other part of world (Haggard 1993). Pempel (2015)
described regionalism in different manner. According to him, regionalism involves the process of
institution creation and is the deliberate product of interstate collaboration. Regionalism is a
topic of debate among theorists. Katzenstein (2006, p. 1) described regionalism as
institutionalized practices and regionalization as "a process that engages actors". According to
Fawcett (2004), regionalism is as a policy or a project. Regionalism is basically associated with
ideas, identities, and ideologies to a regional project. Munakata (2006) stated that regionalism
comprises of institutions established by governments to support regional economic integration
but emphasizes the changeable degrees of promise by members. Extensive research has been
conducted on regionalism that focused on preferential trading arrangements (PTAs), institutions
that offer each member state with better access to the other participants' markets. Such
arrangements involve states in close geographic closeness, for example the European Union or
Mercosur.
In Indian context, regionalism is extremely engrossed in its diversity of languages, cultures,

tribes, religions, communities. It instigates from the sense of regional awareness, which is often
powered by a sense of regional withdrawal. In India, there is huge population of different castes,
creeds, customs and cultures and its broad regions are dissimilar from one another. For example,
southern India, the home of Dravidian cultures, itself a region of many regions is very different
from the north.
Major Characteristics of Regionalism
1. Regionalism is accustomed by economic, social, political and cultural inequalities.

2. Regionalism sometimes is a psychic phenomenon.
3. Regionalism is developed as an expression of group identity as well as devotion to particular
region.
4. Regionalism assumes the concept of development of one's own region without considering the
interest of other regions.
5. Regionalism proscribes people from other regions to be benefited by a particular region.
Causes of Regionalism
There are many reasons for the eruption of regionalism in Indian setting. First is the efforts of the
national government to execute a particular ideology, language or cultural pattern on all people
and groups. People are forced to cultivate the regionalism movements. With these policies of
regional groups, the states of the South began to fight the imposition of Hindi as an official
languages they feared this may make north more powerful. Second major cause for the
development of regionalism is constant negligence of an area or region by the ruling parties and
focus of administrative and political power has given rise to demand for decentralization of
authority and divide of unilingual states. Thirdly, there is a wish of the various units of the Indian
federal system to maintain their sub cultural regions and self-government has promoted
regionalism and given rise to demand for greater independence. Fourth reason for the rise of
regionalism is the desire of regional leaders to gain power. In Southern state, political parties like
DMK, AIADMK, Akali Dal, Telugu Desam, Asom Gana Parishad have encouraged regionalism
to dominate these regions. Other reason for huge growth of regionalism is the interaction
between the forces of modernisation and mass contribution in India. Feeling of regionalism is
developed among the people of backward areas as they are being discriminated from other
powerful groups. The local political leaders exploited this issue and stimulate people against
Central Government for deliberately trying to maintain regional imbalances by neglecting social
and economic development of some regions.
Types of Regionalism in India:
Regionalism in India is of various types that include demand of the people of certain areas for
separate statehood, demand of people of certain Union Territories for full-fledged statehood,
demand of certain people for favourable settlement of inter-state disputes, and the demand of the
people of certain areas for secession from the Indian Union.
1. Supra-state regionalism is a manifestation of group identity of numerous states. In this form of

regionalism, the group of states unites to make common views on the issue of mutual interest
vis-à-vis another group of states or at times against the union. The group identity forged is
negative in character and based on specific issue. But it is not permanent unification of state
identities in the collective identity. Even at times of inter-group rivalries, tensions and conflicts
may tend to continue, concurrently along with their cooperation. North-eastern states in India
have the supra-state regionalism.
2. Inter-state regionalism is coterminous with local territories and involves contrasting of the
identities of one or more states against another. This form of regionalism is issue specific. For
example disagreements between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the distribution of Kaveri
water may be interpreted as inter-state regionalism.
3. Intra-state regionalism is a type of regionalism that signify that wherein a part of the state
strives for self-identity and self-development and therefore, it is taken in a positive sense. In
negative terms, it affects against the collective interest of the state as well as the nation. For
instance there is a feeling of coastal region and western region in Odisha, coastal region and
Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh.
Process of combating regionalism
Regionalism is considered as significant facet of Indian political system. Sometimes, it poses

threat to the harmony of the nation. Therefore, it is imperative to take immediate steps to curb
such feeling among Indian populace. Social scholars have recommended numerous measures to
reduce the propensity of regionalism. First major step is to promote uniform development of the
hitherto abandoned areas so that people feel a part of the national mainstream. Secondly, the
central government must not interfere in the matters of the State unless it is unescapable for
national interest. Another remedy for reducing regionalism is to resolve Problems of people in a
peaceful and constitutional manner. Politicians must not be allowed to misappropriate the issue
of regional demands. The states must be given authority to resolve their issues except the major
issues that are related to national interest. Some necessary changes must be done in the Central-
State relations in favour of the states, and to introduce a system of national education that would
assist people to overawed regional feelings and develop patriotic sense towards the country.
It is established in political studies that regionalism has unfavourable impacts which lead to a
reduction of world welfare as compared to free trade. A clash between regionalism and global
free trade occurs, but these negative effects are lessened by the continuing globalisation process
and the efforts for multilateral liberalisation. Regional parties have dominant role for spreading
regionalism and generating awareness for regional issues among inhabitants. Since these parties
have their political reality in regional support, they give rise to regionalism for their interest and
to gain power. It is a recognised strategy of the regional leadership to propagate their agenda
against the Centre, such as blaming the opposition party for discriminating against the state with
political motives. Alongside, the regional press, which is mainly language-oriented, immensely
play lead role in developing the feeling of regionalism.
Secularism
India is a multi religious and multi cultural country from its known history.Greatness of our
nation is highlighted by the unity in diversity maintained by various sections of Indian society.
Secularism in the multi-cultural, multi-lingual and plural society of India a significant role to
play in reducing religious conflicts and persecution, upholding human rights and on the whole
building a „strong‟ and „unified‟ nation.
Secularism has its origin in western countries and it is related to the separation of the church
from the state, which gives the state a position of neutrality between different religions, while at
the same time, it guarantees all citizens right to adhere any religion.
In Indian secularism emerged as a basic political ideology in the course of the Indian national
struggle for independence. It emerged as the concept of Secular Nationalism in opposition to the
nationalism based on the interests of one or the other of the religious communities, therefore also
called communalism.
Concept of secularism is based on two basic principles:
(i) Separation of religion from politics.
(ii) Acceptance of religion as purely and strictly private affairs of individuals having nothing to
do with the state.
Communalism can be considered an ideology which states that society is divided into religious
communities whose interests differ and are at times even opposed to each other. The antagonism
practiced by members of one community against the people of other community and religion can
be termed communalism.
Secularism even though in modern terms a new concept for India, but Emperor Ashoka was the
first great emperor to announce, as early as third century B.C. that, the state would not prosecute
any religious sect. In his 12th Rock Edit, Ashoka made an appeal not only for the toleration of all
religion sects but also to develop a spirit of great respect toward them. He pleaded for restrain of
criticism of other religious sects. He asked people to become perfect in the scriptures of other
religions.
In medieval India the Sufi and Bhakti movements bond the people of various communities
together ? with love and peace. The leading lights of these movements were Khwaja Moinuddin
Chisti, Baba Farid, ? Sant Kabir Das, Guru Nanak Dev, Saint Tukaram and Mira Bai. They
contributed to the development of a composite culture in such a manner that nobody dares to
challenge them.
The Mughal emperor the great Akbar also to a great extent promoted the policy of toleration of
different religions. His propagation of Din-e-Illahi (Divine faith) and Sulh-e-kul (Peace with all)
were ? highly inspired by the spirit of secularism.
The idea of Secular Nationalism became dominant in the Indian national movement under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. It provided an ideological framework
within which the many religious communities of India as well as the plurality of traditional
linguistic caste and ethnic cultures (in the formation of which one or other of the religions had
played a dominant role) could participate together with the adherents of secular ideologies like
Liberalism and Socialism.
The British administration deliberately created rift between the two communities through
favouring one against the other. The sphere head of resistance was flattened through offering
more concessions and privileges. The Hindu community were generously supported and
encouraged at a time when the Muslims rose against the British. Similarly the Muslim
community got the patronage of the British when the Hindu nationalism was on the rise.
The ideology and practice of secularism has been most severely criticized by the Hindu
fundamentalists. They attack secularism as the principle behind the appeasement of minorities,
particularly Muslims. The rise of Hindu fundamentalists create fear in the minority and lead to
the rise of communalism.
The communalist tries to divide the society on the basis of religion and they are not doing so for
the sole good of the religion, but to attain materialistic benefits in the name of religion.
The Preamble to the Constitution of India signifies that India is a secular state. The Preamble
reflects the way of life adopted by Indian citizens for themselves after independence. In fact
every civilization has also been a mirror of way of life as well as reflecting movement of human
spirit. Religion in each civilizastion has indicated about the faith of human beings in absolute
values and a way of life to realize them.
Distribution of major natural resources of World-Water, Soils, Forests in reference to

South and South-East Asia
Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the
Indian subcontinent)
Natural resources are highly valued because human beings are dependent on them to fulfil their
fundamental needs that changes with time. While natural resources are distributed in all through
the world, specific resources often require particular conditions and so not all natural resources
are spread equally. Consequently, nations trade their natural resources to make certain that their
needs can be fulfilled.
Definition of Natural Resources
In simple term, natural resources are material and constituent formed within environment or any
matter or energy that are resulting from environment, used by living things that humans use for
food, fuel, clothing, and shelter. These comprise of water, soil, minerals, vegetation, animals, air,
and sunlight. People require resources to survive and succeed. Everything which happens
naturally on earth are natural resources that is minerals, land, water, soil, wind that can be used
in many ways by human being. It can be explained by several environmentalist scholars that a
natural resources is any kind of substance in its natural form which is needed by humans.
Classification Of Natural Resources
The general classifications of natural resources are minerals for example as gold and tin and
energy resources such as coal and oil. The air, forests and oceans can also be categorised as
natural resources. Theoretical studies have documented that Land and water are the natural
resources, which include Biological resources, such as flower, trees, birds, wild animals, fish
etc., Mineral resources, such as metals, oil, coal, building stones and sand, and other resources,
like air, sunshine and climate (UNEP, 1987). Natural Resources are used to make food fuel and
raw materials for the production of finished goods (Adriaanse, 1993). Natural resources change
in value over time, depending on what a society most needs or considers most valuable.
Resource distribution is defined as the geographic occurrence or spatial arrangement of resources

on earth. In other words, where resources are located. Any one place may be rich in the resources
for people desire and poor in other. The availability of natural resources is based on two
functions that include the physical characteristics of the resources themselves and human
economic and technological conditions. The physical processes that govern the formation,
distribution, and occurrence of natural resources are determined by physical laws over which
people have no direct control. We take what nature gives us. To be considered a resource,
however, a given substance must be understood to be a resource. This is cultural, not purely a
physical circumstance.
Types of natural resources
The various types of natural resources are often categorizes as renewable and non-renewable
resources.
Renewable resources
Renewable can be described by scientists as a resource that can be replenished or reformed either
naturally or by systemic recycling of used resources. Renewable is resource or source of energy
that is replaced naturally or controlled carefully and can therefore be used without the risk of
finishing it all (Oxford dictionary). Another way to define is a resource that is able to be renewed
and be capable of being begun or done again. Renewable resources are usually living resources
such as plants and animals and they also include air and water. These resources are termed as
'renewable' because they can usually reproduce or restock themselves. Renewable resources are
significant aspect of sustainability. Renewable resources are valuable because they provide green
energy. Renewable natural resources include those resources beneficial to human economies that
demonstrate growth, maintenance, and recovery from exploitation over an economic planning
horizon. The natural environment, with soil, water, forests, plants and animals are all renewable
resource. In the case of air and water, they are renewable elements because they exist as part of a
cycle which allows them to be reused. Renewable resources can only exist as long as they are not
being used at a greater rate than they can replenish themselves.
Non-renewable resources
Non-renewable resources cannot be re-produced or re-grown and are, therefore, they are
available in limited supply. Scholars affirmed that Non-renewable resource is a natural resource
that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful
human timeframes. Non-renewable resources are resources for which there is a limited supply.
The supply comes from the Earth itself and, as it typically takes millions of years to develop, is
finite. Non-renewable resources can generally be separated into two main categories; it includes
Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels. Coal is considered a non-renewable resource because even though it is
continually being formed, it is incapable to refill its stock at a rate which is sustainable (David
Waugh, 2002). A non-renewable resource cannot maintain the demands for current human needs
while still preserving the ecosystem for future generations.
Types of natural resources:
How are natural resources distributed throughout the world?
Distribution of resources is varied. Since the formation of earth, it has experienced numerous
physical processes which have resulted in great variations between different areas. Since natural
resources often need specific conditions in which to form, they are not distributed evenly across
the world. For instance, Coal is usually found in areas which were originally swampland during
the greatest coal-forming era in history, the Carboniferous Period. It has been observed that as
the distribution of natural resources is varied, it is not unusual for some nations to have one type
of natural resource in plentiful quantity and for other countries to have many different types but
with only a small supply. This indicates that the nations which are rich in some kind of natural
resources do not necessarily use them all themselves. As an alternative, countries often export
the natural resources that they have plenty of and import those which they require.
It has been observed that generally populaces tend to settle and cluster in places that have the
resources they need to survive and prosper. The geographic factors that most influence where
humans settle are water, soil, vegetation, climate, and landscape. Because South America,
Africa, and Australia have fewer of these geographic benefits, there is less population as
compared to North America, Europe, and Asia.
Due to uneven resource distribution, human beings migrate to other regions where plenty of
resources are available. Majority of people often migrate to a place that has the resources they
need or want and migrate away from a place that lacks the resources they need. Lively examples
in historical migrations are The Trail of Tears, Westward Movement, and the Gold Rush related
to the desire for land and mineral resources. Economic activities in a region relate to the
resources in that region. Economic activities that are directly associated with resources include
farming, fishing, ranching, timber processing, oil and gas production, mining, and tourism. Many
business scholars have affirmed that nations may not have the resources that are important to
them, but business movement enables them to acquire those resources from places that have. For
example, Japan has very limited natural resources but it is one of the wealthiest in Asia. Sony,
Nintendo, Canon, Toyota, Honda, Sharp, Sanyo, Nissan are prosperous Japanese corporations
that make products that are highly-desired in other countries. As a result of trade, Japan has
enough wealth to buy the resources it needs.
Distribution of Key Natural Resources in the World
It has been seen that most of the countries in the world are having natural resources. Some have
less amount while other countries are rich in particular natural resource. Economists stated that
natural resources add wealth to nations.
When it is evaluated for resource distribution around the world, Australia has many natural
resources. These resources include mineral resources, such as copper, gold and diamonds, energy
resources, such as coal, oil, and uranium, and land resources that are used for farming and
logging. These resources are financially important to Australia. Many people consider that the
monetary system of Australia is resource dependent, which means that if these resources were to
be depleted, Australia's economy would suffer. Australia has more coal than is needed and so
exports it to countries like Japan which are lacking in it. Australia does not, however, produce
enough oil to meet the demands of consumption and it is forced to import it. Some countries,
especially developing nations, have the availability of natural resources but they do not use them
fully. Sometimes countries do not have a great demand for the resource or simply lack the
technology to develop or extract it. Rich transnational corporations (TNCs) often pay a fee to do
the mining or extraction of the natural resources and then export them to developed countries.
Mineral resources: Australia is major producer of minerals at global scale. The most important
mineral resources in Australia are bauxite, gold and iron ore. Other mineral deposits in Australia
include copper, lead, zinc, diamonds and mineral sands. A majority of Australia's minerals are
excavated in Western Australia and Queensland. The minerals mined in Australia are exported,
or shipped abroad.
Energy resources: Australia has huge deposits of coal. Coal is generally found in the eastern
part of the country in the Sydney and Bowen basins. Majority of Australian coal is exported to
nations like Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Western Europe. The rest of the coal mines in Australia
are burned for electricity within Australia.
Natural gas is also plentiful in Australia. Natural gas is used to heat homes and power certain
types of vehicles. Natural gas reserves in Australia are mostly found in Western Australia and
central Australia. Since most of these reserves are far away from metropolitan centres, gas
pipelines have been built to transport natural gas to cities such as Sydney and Melbourne. Some
of this natural gas is exported from where it is collected. Natural gas collected in Western
Australia is exported directly to Japan in liquid form.
Australia is also rich in uranium and supply at global level. Uranium is used to produce nuclear
power. Nuclear power and uranium mining are both highly contentious, as people are concerned
for their environmental impact, because uranium can produce toxic energy.
Lastly, Australia has many land resources. Australian soil is used to grow food in the form of
crops and to produce food for raising livestock, such as cattle. Australian forests are used as a
source of wood for building and making paper.
When discussing about natural resources in Africa, It is revealed in reports that Africa is rich in
natural resources including diamonds, salt, gold, iron, cobalt, uranium, copper, bauxite, silver,
petroleum and cocoa beans, but also woods and tropical fruits. Russia is excessively capable of
natural resources, but industrial development was hindered until the twentieth century by their
Siberian inaccessibility. Russia now produces 20 per cent of the world's natural gas, and oil is
also a valuable commodity. Russia is self-sufficient in all major industrial raw materials, and
contains reserves of less essential, but significant natural resources, including diamonds and
gold.
Industrialized nations have benefit over poor countries because if they do not have the quantity
or type of natural resources which they require, they can afford to import them. Developed
countries need to import natural resources because they depend on them for the development of
their economy. Their use of natural resources is considered as a well-planned and constructive
industry. It has been recommended that developed nations use more of the natural resources of
world as compared to other developing nations. Reports have signified that while developed
countries account for 25 percent of the world's population, they use 75 percent of the world's
natural resources.
Geographical Distribution of Oil and Natural Gas Deposits: It was documented in reports that
about 70 % of global conventional oil and natural gas reserves are concentrated inside a so called
Strategic Ellipseî stretching from Middle East to the North of West Siberia. Main consuming
regions in 2004 were North America, Austral-Asia, and Europe, for natural gas North America,
CIS and Europe.
Development of primary energy consumption worldwide and projections of IEA until 2030
(Sources: BP and IEA, 2015)
When appraising the distribution of natural gas, it is found in reports that about 41 % of global
reserves are in the Middle East, about 32 % in the CIS countries and about 8 % in Africa.
Regarding iron core resource in the world, USA is rich in this resource. Ore is mined in the red
mountains and Birmingham Valley. Northern New Jersey, the states of Utah, Nevada and
California also are rich in iron core. In Canada, there are three main areas where iron core is
mined that include Ontario, Quebec and new found land. In Europe, Germany, France, Sweden
and UK are large producer of Iron ore. Ukraine has the sixth position in the world in producing
iron ore and it produced 4.32 per cent of the world production in 2006. Krivoi Rog of Ukraine
possesses best iron ore having 68.5 per cent metallic percentage. It contributes 75 per cent
production of Ukraine. The estimated reserves of the region are more than 200 million tons.
Other regions of Ukraine are Zaporozhe, Zdanow, Lipetsk and Kerch Peninsula.
South Africa is also major iron ore producing country of the African continent and ranks 8th in
the world iron ore production. In South Africa Transvaal is the main iron ore-producing centre.
Transvaal is having high-grade ore with 60 to 65 per cent iron content. The total reserves have
been estimated at 10 billion tons in South Africa. The average annual production of South Africa
is 4 million metric tons.
Distribution of key natural resources in South Asia: When appraising the regions of South
Asia, it has been found that these provinces have enormous natural resource and ecological and
biological diversity. Many researchers have recognized that The Southeast Asian states today are
rich in natural resources and are major world producers of rubber, tin, copra, palm oil, petroleum
and timber (Chia 1999). However population growth and economic development are intimidating
the region's rich heritage through the expansion and intensification of agriculture, the
unrestrained growth of industrialization, the destruction of natural homes and urban extension.
Southeast Asia has lavish source of hydrocarbon resources natural gas and petroleum.
Natural resources (Source: http://www.newsecuritybeat.org)
Traditional government accounting systems do not consider the significance of these natural
resources. The South Asia's nation governments have recognized several areas for growth that
include nature-based tourism, mining, ecosystem, biodiversity and agriculture which will
concurrently help diversity the economic and decrease poverty. In order to fulfil all development
goals, the governments need to optimize use of natural resources. The main concentration of
South Asia is to understand the value of natural resources that leads to better decisions for
development. Valuing the environment and incorporating natural resources into national
accounts, it can support better to nation's economy.
Distribution of Natural Resources in China
China has a cosmic territory, with plentiful natural resources and diverse types of land resources.
China's land resources are large in absolute terms but small on a per-capita basis. There are more
mountains than plains, with sophisticated land and forests constituting small proportions.
Numerous land resources are haphazardly distributed among different regions. The cultivated
land is mostly in plains and basins in the monsoon regions of east China, while forests are mostly
found in the remote mountainous areas in the northeast and the southwest. Grasslands are chiefly
distributed on inland plateaus and in mountains. The Agricultural Census in 1996 have shown
that China has 130.04 million hectares of cultivated land and 35.35 million hectares of land
suitable for agricultural uses. The cultivated land is mainly distributed in the Northeast China,
North China and Middle-Lower Yangtze plains, the Pearl River Delta and the Sichuan Basin. It
is established in research studies that China's total forest area was 175 million hectares, and its
forest coverage rate was 18.21 percent. The total standing stock volume of China was 13.62
billion cubic meters (The sixth national enumeration of forest resources, 1999-2003). The stock
volume of its forests stood at 12.46 billion cubic meters.
Natural forests are concentrated focused in the northeast and the southwest, but uncommon in the
densely populated and economically developed eastern plains and the vast north-western district.
When considering regional distribution, China's forests are found mainly in the Northeast China
Forest Zone, the Southwest China Forest Zone and the Southeast China Forest Zone. Grassland
in China is extensive. China has 400 million hectares of grassland. It is found in statistical report
that China is one of the countries with the largest area of grassland in the world. Natural
grassland is mainly distributed in areas west and north of the Greater Hinggan Mountains, the
Yinshan Mountain and the eastern foot of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, while artificial grassland is
concentrated in southeast China where it lies amid cultivated land and forests.
Mineral Resource in China are plenteous. A total of 171 kinds of minerals have so far been
discovered, of which 158 have proven reserves. These include 10 kinds of energy mineral
resources such as petroleum, natural gas, coal and uranium; 54 kinds of metallic mineral
resources such as iron, manganese, copper, aluminium, lead and zinc; 91 kinds of non-metallic
mineral resources such as graphite, phosphorus, sulphur and sylvine; and three kinds of water
and gas mineral resources such as underground water and mineral water. Presently, the supply of
over 92 percent of China's primary energy, 80 percent of its industrial raw materials and more
than 70 percent of its agricultural means of production come from mineral resources.
Energy Mineral Resources in China are also in huge quantity but the structure of these types of
resources is not perfect, with coal making up a large proportion while petroleum and natural gas
constituting comparatively small proportions. Coal resources has huge reserves and complete
varieties but uneven distribution among different grades, with small reserves of high-quality
coking coal and anthracite coal; wide distribution but a great difference in wealth for different
deposit locations, with large reserves in western and northern regions and small reserves in
eastern and southern regions; a small number of surface coalmines, most of which are lignite
mines; and great varieties of associated minerals existing in coal seams.
There are large oil reserves in China and it ranks as one of the 10 countries in the world with
more than 15 billion tons of exploitable oil reserves; low proven rate, with verified onshore
reserves accounting for only one fifth of the total and the proven rate for offshore reserves being
even lower; and concentrated distribution, with 73 percent of the total oil resources distributed in
14 basins each covering an area of 100,000 square km and more than 50 percent of the nation's
total natural gas resources distributed in central and western regions.
China is lavish in metallic mineral resources. It has proven reserves, more or less, of all kinds of
metallic mineral resources that have so far been discovered at international level. Among these
resources, the proven reserves of tungsten, tin, antimony, rare earth, tantalum and titanium rank
first in the world; those of vanadium, molybdenum, niobium, beryllium and lithium rank second;
those of zinc rank fourth; and those of iron, lead, gold and silver rank fifth.
China's metallic minerals such as tungsten, tin, molybdenum, antimony and rare earth have large
reserves, and are of superior quality and competitive in world markets. However, many
important metallic minerals such as iron, manganese, aluminium and copper are of poor quality,
with ores lean and difficult to smelt. Most of the metallic mineral deposits are small or medium-
sized, whereas large and super-large deposits account for a small proportion.
China has full range of non-metallic mineral resources and it is one of the few countries in the
world that have a relatively non-metallic mineral resources. Currently, there are more than 5,000
non-metallic mineral ore production bases with proven reserves in China.
Regarding water and Gas Mineral Resources, there are proven natural underground water
resources in China amount to 870 billion cubic meters per year, of which 290 billion cubic
meters are exploitable. The natural underground salty water resources in China stand at 20
billion cubic meters per year. Though, China's underground water resources are not equally
distributed, with the southern region rich, and northern and western regions poor. Underground
water aquifer types vary from region to region. North China has a widespread distribution of
underground water resources through pore aquifers, while its south-western region has wide
distribution of Karst water resources. Marine resources in China are in huge quantity and
scattered in the offshore waters which are sedimentation basins, with a total area of nearly
700,000 square km, estimated to contain about 24 billion tons of oil reserves and 14 trillion cubic
meters of natural gas.
Distribution of Natural Resources in Bangladesh
India's neighboring country, Bangladesh has lavishly natural gas as natural resource and ranked
7th position in the Asia. Among the natural resources of Bangladesh are its arable land, timber,
coal and natural gas. The most lucrative of these resources is the fertile sedimentary soil in the
delta region largely moulded by the country's physical geography. Bangladesh also receives
heavy rainfall throughout the year.
Water resources
Asia‘s water resources constitute a vast potential, both for generating hydroelectricity and for
irrigating crops. Water is important for irrigation in many Asian regions that are either arid (as in
much of Central and Southwest Asia), subject to long dry seasons because of pronounced
monsoonal (seasonal) variation in rainfall (as in much of South and Southeast Asia), or subject to
seasonal high water and floods (for example, from the spring snowmelt in Siberia, the
Himalayas, and the mountains of Central Asia). Other regions, such as Indonesia, are particularly
susceptible to longer-term climate variation, such as that caused by the El Niño phenomenon.
The management of water has been a prime focus of Asian peoples since the earliest civilizations
were established on the continent; perhaps the most graphic expression of this is the Islamic
tradition of building a garden in the desert, complete with splashing fountains. As ever-larger
dams have been built, however, resistance has increased from opponents concerned with the
environmental and social harm that such dams can cause.
The hydroelectric and irrigation potential in South Asia also varies by region. In Pakistan nearly
all agriculture depends on the Indus River and its tributaries in the Punjab, and the waters of the
Indus basin are highly regulated, with numerous barrages and canals providing water for
irrigation. The Western Ghats, which slope down abruptly to the western maritime plains, would
theoretically allow dams to harness water flowing down the steep slope; however, the rivulets
that rise on the summit have an insignificant volume of flow in winter. Rivers on the eastern
slope of the Deccan plateau, such as the Mahanadi and the Godavari, lend themselves to the
construction of low dams with great volumes of flow, as also do the Himalayan rivers entering
the Gangetic Plain. Nearly all of the highly seasonal rivers of peninsular India have been
dammed. One exception was the Narmada River, where work began in the 1990s on the first in a
series of 30 large dams. Construction of these dams has been vigorously opposed by
environmentalists both within India and internationally.
The Himalayan ranges represent one of the world‘s greatest ―water towers,‖ with rich
possibilities for utilizing steep drops for generating hydroelectricity. During the summer
monsoon the heaviest precipitation on Earth falls there on the highest mountains. Nepal has a
vast theoretical hydroelectric potential. Environmentalists worry that earthquakes in this
seismically active region could cause the dams to fail. Some also argue that large dams might
themselves instigate earthquakes, because the weight of the water in reservoirs could press on
faults in the mountains and because water under pressure lubricates faults. Engineers, however,
believe that they can address these problems. An obstacle to such development is the fact that the
Ganges (Ganga)–Brahmaputra basin spans five countries—China, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and
Bhutan. Power, irrigation water, and flood control would benefit India and Bangladesh most, but
the sites of the projects would be mostly in Nepal and Bhutan.
In Southeast Asia the Mekong passes through six countries; again development has been stalled
by regional political difficulties.
Botanical resources
The great deciduous forests of northeastern India, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia
contain teak and other valuable hardwoods, as well as bamboo. Mangrove forests line the waters
of the Ganges and Irrawaddy deltas and many small stretches of coast along the Malay
Peninsula, Indonesia, and the Philippines. But in the Indian subcontinent lowland, forest has
given way to cultivated land as population has expanded; agriculture has similarly reduced the
natural forest areas of China to insignificance, except in the Northeast. Japan, on the other hand,
is relatively heavily forested in relation to its area and population, although much of the present
cover is planted forest. At one time, more than half of the Philippines was heavily forested, but
tree cover in those areas—particularly in the good commercial forests—has been reduced
considerably. Interest in the genetic resources of the forests is increasing. India‘s neem tree, for
example, produces an insecticide, used by farmers for generations, that is now being exploited
commercially.
Grasslands in uncultivated steppe and semidesert areas form the other class of economically
significant vegetation. These regions are the homeland of numerous animal species important to
humans, such as the horse, and they continue to support huge livestock populations.
Fish and other sea creatures and various kinds of crustaceans and mollusks are heavily exploited
by the populations of East and Southeast Asia. The coastal areas of India, Bangladesh, and
Thailand are being developed for export shrimp farming on a large scale. The Indus has its own
species of blind dolphin, and the great rivers of South Asia are home to the giant mahseer fish,
threatened by pollution, overfishing, and habitat loss.
Distribution of Dominant Soils in Mainland Southeast Asia
There are 18 different Reference Soil Groups in MSEA, but not all RSGs are present in all
countries. The calculation of the area for each RSG includes the proportional area of this RSG,
both as dominant and as associated soil, in all soil units.
Acrisols can be found in most parts of MSEA, especially in Laos, which has over 70% Acrisols.
This type of soil is rare only in the river valleys, lowland plains, and along the large rivers.
Gleysols cover 190,261 km2, or 9.9% of the area in MSEA. They are dominant in the inundation
areas of the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) in Cambodia. They are also common in the wide valleys of
rivers, in their deltas, and along the coastline in Vietnam.
Cambisols (covering 185,086 km2, or 9.6%) are only dominant in western Myanmar. In other
parts of MSEA, they are widespread as an associated soil with a distribution of 10-20%.
Only a few small areas are dominated by Lithosols, which cover 138,208 km2, or 7.2% of
MSEA. However, they are part of many soil units as an associated soil, with a share of 10%.
Luvisols cover 101,772 km2, or 5.3% of MSEA. They occur mainly in the plain areas and in the
plateaus in NE Thailand and Cambodia.
Fluvisols, covering 90,447 km2, or 4.7% of MSEA, can be found along the big rivers and in the
deltas (Irrawaddy and Mekong), mostly alongside Gleysols.
Nitisols cover 87,321 km2, or 4.5% of MSEA. They mainly occur in the mountainous areas of
Myanmar, Lao PDR, and Thailand, often in the same locations as Acrisols.
Characteristics of the Main Reference Soil Groups in Mainland Southeast Asia
Specific soil characteristics, which contribute to soil health and crop plant production, are used to
describe and compare the main soil types.
Fertility is a measure of soil‘s contribution to the agricultural or ecological productivity of a

given site. It incorporates information about many aspects of soil, including physical (e.g.
texture, structure), biological (fauna), and chemical (e.g. nutrient availability, CEC, pH, organic
matter).
Soil Structure is determined by the shape and size of the soil aggregates and their arrangement.
A stable soil structure reduces erosion; improves infiltration and water storage; and eases root
penetration.
Water holding capacity is the ―ability of a soil to contain and to retain water‖. It depends on
many factors, including ―texture, organic matter, porosity, and interconnectedness of pores‖
(Chesworth 2008).
Drainage refers to how well water infiltrates and moves downward through the soil
(percolation). It is determined by the texture and structure of soil, by characteristics of lower soil
horizons, and by the ground water table.
Soil fauna include a large number of species, ranging from microorganisms to mammals. Soil
fauna has an important role in decomposition of organic matter. it also influences soil formation
and soil structure. Most soil fauna are beneficial, but some are harmful to plants.
The world has moved a long way from the early paper soil maps to the interactive maps and
resources provided by SoilGrids, the Harmonized World Soil Database, and the Digital Soil Map
of the World. Soil is essential for all terrestrial life, and it is essential to know the fertility and
capacities of your soil in order to manage it wisely. It is hoped that this reference guide can serve
a use in your agricultural and community development projects by providing a background of the
most common soil types in the Mainland Southeast Asia Region and beyond.
To summarize, Natural resources such as different materials, water, energy and fertile land, are
the basis for humans on Earth. Besides resources such as water, air, sunlight, forest area or
agricultural land, which exist as separate entities, other resources like metals, ores and primary
energy resources have to be extracted from the soil to make them usable. Their value is mainly
determined by the relative shortage of the resource in combination with its exploitability for
industrial use.
Factors responsible for the location of industries (with

special reference to India)
Types of Industries
Based on the value addition and tangibility broadly we can have three types of industries -
primary industries,secondary industries and tertiary industries.
 Primary industries are usually very simple industries involving processing of raw
materials to give input goods for secondary industries.
Here value addition is usually minimal and they are
usually material oriented.Scale of operation may be small or may be very large.Examples
are: coal mining and washing, oil-refining,flour milling, metal smelting, stone crushing,
etc.
 Secondary industries are very complex and diversified which took input from primary
industries and add significant value to it in different processing stages.
The value additions are so significant that they may have a locational preference in
favour of market.Secondary industries may again divided into heavy industries, light
industries, footloose industries, etc.
1. a) Heavy industries are identified by nature of their bulkyproduct or very high capital
inputs or units which mayhave high capacity to influence environment
adversely.Examples are: heavy chemical, heavy machinery,locomotive, shipbuilding,
heavy electrical, etc.
2. b) Light industries are less capital intensive and moreinclined to consumer products.
Products are usually lighter in weight, require lesspower, less polluting and can be
established in small areas.
3. c) Footloose industries are those industries which nearly remain indifferent with
locational aspects of plant.Their products are having very high value addition and smaller
in size and so transportation cost is only a small fraction of total cost.These industries
usually requires a very small production space, are usually less polluting and butrequires
highly skilled workers.Examples are: watch, camera, diamond cutting,precision
electronics, etc.
Tertiary industries are not related to production process.They are basically trade and services
providing industries.The scale of operation is so large that it is regarded as an industry.Examples
are: banking industry, insurance industry, consultancy industry, etc.
Factors of industrial location
The factors affecting the location of industries are :-
 the availability of raw material,

 the availability of land,
 the availability of water,
 the availability of labour,
 the availability and consistency of power supply,
 the availability of capital,
 the availability of transport network and market.
 Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidised power, lower transport
cost and other infrastructure so that industries may be located in backward areas.
Distribution and changing pattern of iron and steel industry
Although iron and steel manufacturing activity in India is very old, modern iron and steel
industry started with the establishment of ‗Bengal Iron and Steel Works‘ at Kulti in West Bengal
in 1817. Tata Iron and Steel company was established at Jamshedpur in 1907. This was followed
by ‗Indian Iron and Steel plant‘ at Burnpur in 1919. All the three plants were established in the
private sector. The first public sector iron and steel plant, which is now known as ‗Visvesvarayya
Iron and Steel works‘, was established at Bhadrawati in 1923.
After independence a great focus was given for self dependence and investments were made in
heavy industries. Three new integrated steel plants were established at Rourkela, Bhilai and
Durgapur. Bokaro steel plant was established under public sector in 1964. Bokaro and Bhilai
plants were set up with the collaboration of the former Soviet Union. Durgapur steel plant was
set up in Collaboration with United Kingdom while Rourkela plant was established with the help
of Germany.
The change in the spatial pattern of this industry is linked to the change in patterns of
consumption, production and exchange of goods and services. This is dependent on the spatial
organization and location of economic, transportation and communication systems that produce
and facilitate the trade of the concerned commodities.
Distribution and changing pattern of Cotton textile industry
The industrial development in India began with the establishment of first successful modern
cotton textile mill at Mumbai in 1854.Traditional cotton textile industry could not face the
competition from the new textile mills of the West, which produced cheap and good quality
fabrics through mechanized industrial units. Majority of cotton textile mills are still located in
the cotton growing areas of the great plains and peninsular India.
The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton
of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design. But the
production of hand woven cotton textile was expensive and time consuming. Hence, traditional
cotton textile industry could not face the competition from the new textile mills of the West,
which produced cheap and good quality fabrics through mechanized industrial units.
Distribution and changing pattern of Sugar industry
India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world after Brazil and is also the largest
consumer. Today Indian sugar industry‘s annual output is worth approximately Rs.80,000
crores.Most of the sugar mills are concentrated in six states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Over the period, sugarcane industry is gradually shifting from north Indian states to states in
Peninsular India. Some of the important reasons are as follows:
1) The production of sugarcane per hectare is higher is Peninsular India. In fact, sugarcane crop
grows well in the tropical climate of south India.
2) The sucrose contents is higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane grown in the south.
3) The crushing season in south India is longer than in north India.
4) In south India most of the mills have modern machinery.
5) Most of the mills in Peninsular India are in cooperative sector, where profit maximization is
not the sole objective
Distribution and changing pattern of Petro- chemicals industry
Petro-chemicals are derived from petroleum or natural gas.Products such as Toothbrushes,

toothpaste, combs, hairpins, soap cases, plastic mugs, garments, radiocaes, ball point pens,
detergents, electric switches, lipstick, insecticides, bags, bed covers, and foam are some of the
goods made from petro-chemicals. The share of offshore crude oil production was about 50.2%.
The remaining crude oil production was from 6 States viz., Andhra Pradesh (0.7%), Arunachal
Pradesh (0.2%), Assam (12.1%), Gujarat (12.5%), Rajasthan (23.7%) and Tamil Nadu (0.6%).
Besides Vadodara, Gandhar, and Hazira in Gujarat and Nagathone in Maharashtra are other
important centres of petro-chemical industry. India is self sufficient in the production of
petrochemicals.
Weber's theory of industrial location-its relevance in the modern world.
Weber's main point was that the cost of transport (another theory on this) determined the location
of industry. Therefore, he uses Von Thunen's idea (that the cost of transport determines crop
selection) and applies it to industry. Similar to Von Thunen, the weight of the raw materials and
the weight of the end product (this difference is known as the material index) will determine the
site of production depending upon how much the industry is willing to pay to get its product to
the market (connecting to Christaller's ideas of market area). Weber's theory rest primarily on
four such sites, what he calls industrial orientations
 Material orientation
 Labor orientation
 Transport orientation
 Market orientation
He analyzed the factors that determine the location of industry and classified these factors into
two divisions. These are:
(i) Primary causes of regional distribution of industry (regional factors)
(ii) Secondary causes (agglomerative and deglomerative factors) that are responsible for
redistribution of industry.
The three locational factors explained by weber in his theory of industrial location are:-
 Transport cost
 labour cost
 agglomeration economies
Weber uses the location triangle within which the optimal is located based on the three locational
factors.
Earthquakes And Volcanoes
Earthquake:-
The study of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the layered interior. An earthquake in
simple words is shaking of the earth. It is a natural event. It is caused due to release of energy,
which generates waves that travel in all directions.
Why does the earth shake?
The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks
along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press them, the
friction locks them together. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time
overcomes the friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one
another abruptly. This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.
The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is
called the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface. The
point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to experience the
waves. It is a point directly above the focus.
Earthquake Waves:-
All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere. It is sufficient to note here that the
lithosphere refers to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the surface of the earth. An
instrument called ‗seismograph‘ records the waves reaching the surface.
Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves. Body waves are
generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling through
the body of the earth. The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of
waves called surface waves. These waves move along the surface. The velocity of waves
changes as they travel through materials with different densities. The denser the material, the
higher is the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across
materials with different densities. There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-
waves. P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called
‗primary waves‘. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid
and solid materials. S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary
waves. An important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials. This
characteristic of the S-waves is quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the
structure of the interior of the earth. Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction
makes waves move in different directions. The variations in the direction of waves are inferred
with the help of their record on seismograph. The surface waves are the last to report on
seismograph. These waves are more destructive. They cause displacement of rocks, and hence,
the collapse of structures occurs.
Propagation of Earthquake Waves:-
Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners. As they move or propagate,
they cause vibration in the body of the rocks through which they pass. P-waves vibrate parallel to
the direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the material in the direction of the propagation.
As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of
the material. Other three waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The
direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane.
Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass. Surface waves are
considered to be the most damaging waves.
Emergence of Shadow Zone:-
Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations. However, there exist
some specific areas where the waves are not reported. Such a zone is called the ‗shadow zone‘.
The study of different events reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether different
shadow zone.
Types of Earthquakes
(i) The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes. These are generated due to sliding of
rocks along a fault plane.
(ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake.

However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse
causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such
tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
(ii) Differential ground settlement
(iii) Land and mud slides
(iv) Soil liquefaction
(v) Ground lurching
(vi) Avalanches
(vii) Ground displacement
(viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
(ix) Fires
(x) Structural collapse
(xi) Falling objects
(xii) Tsunami
Volcanoes:-
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature of eruption and the form developed at the surface.
Major types of volcanoes are as follows:
Shield Volcanoes:-
Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth.
The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples. These volcanoes are mostly made up of
basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes are not
steep. They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are
characterised by low-explosivity. The upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain and throws
out the cone at the top of the vent and develops into cinder cone.
Composite Volcanoes
These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.
These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large quantities of
pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground. This material accumulates in the
vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of layers, and this makes the mounts appear as
composite volcanoes.
Caldera
These are the most explosive of the earth‘s volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that when
they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure. The
collapsed depressions are called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates that the magma chamber
supplying the lava is not only huge but is also in close vicinity. Flood Basalt Provinces. These
volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances. Some parts of the world are
covered by thousands of sq. km of thick basalt lava flows. There can be a series of flows with
some flows attaining thickness of for hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from India, presently
covering most of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood basalt province. It is believed
that initially the trap formations covered a much larger area than the present.
Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more than
70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central portion of this ridge
experiences frequent eruptions.
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Intrusive Forms
The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous rocks. The
cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also while the lava is still in the crustal
portion. Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as
volcanic rocks cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust). The lava that
cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms.
Batholiths
A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the
form of large domes. They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes remove
the overlying materials. They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several
km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.
Lacoliths
These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like
conduit from below. It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only these
are located at deeper depths. It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way
to the surface. The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these,
now exfoliated, are examples of lacoliths or batholiths. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills As and
when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal direction
wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a
saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith. A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at
times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in folded igneous country. Such
wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers
(subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the phacoliths. The near horizontal
bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the thickness of the
material. The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
Dykes
When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies
almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like
structure. Such structures are called dykes. These are the most commonly found intrusive forms
in the western Maharashtra area. These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the
development of the Deccan traps.
Tsunamis
A tsunami is a very long-wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden displacement of
the seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water. Tsunami are sometimes called "seismic
sea waves", although they can be generated by mechanisms other than earthquakes.
Tsunami have also been called "tidal waves", but this term should not be used because they are
not in any way related to the tides of the Earth. Because tsunami occur suddenly, often without
warning, they are extremely dangerous to coastal communities.
Tsunamis can be associated with earthquakes. Sometimes a large earthquake beneath the ocean
floor will produce a tsunami, which is a series of large waves.
The rate at which a wave loses its energy is inversely related to its wavelength. Since a tsunami
has a very large wavelength, it will lose little energy as it propagates. Thus, in very deep water, a
tsunami will travel at high speeds with little loss of energy.
As a tsunami leaves the deep water of the open sea and arrives at the shallow waters near the
coast, it undergoes a transformation. Since the velocity of the tsunami is also related to the water
depth, as the depth of the water decreases, the velocity of the tsunami decreases. The change of
total energy of the tsunami, however, remains constant.
Furthermore, the period of the wave remains the same, and thus more water is forced between
the wave crests causing the height of the wave to increase. Because of this "shoaling" effect, a
tsunami that was imperceptible in deep water may grow to have wave heights of several meters
or more.
The main damage from tsunami comes from the destructive nature of the waves themselves.
Secondary effects include the debris acting as projectiles which then run into other objects,
erosion that can undermine the foundations of structures built along coastlines, and fires that
result from disruption of gas and electrical lines. Tertiary effects include loss of crops and water
and electrical systems which can lead to famine and disease.
Cyclones: Types and Mechanism
Cyclone is a system of low atmospheric pressure in which the barometric gradient is steep.
Cyclones represent circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This means
that the inward spiralling winds in a cyclone rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale cyclonic circulations
are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure. The cyclones can be tropical cyclones or
temperate cyclones (extra-tropical cyclones).
Basic difference between Tropical Cyclone and Extra-tropical Cyclone
The term ―tropical cyclone‖ is used to refer to warm-core, low-pressure systems that develop
over tropical or subtropical oceans. This definition differentiates tropical cyclones from extra
tropical (midlatitude) cyclones that exhibit a cold-core in the upper troposphere and often form
along fronts in higher latitudes. Subtropical cyclones are hybrid systems that exhibit some
characteristics of tropical cyclones and some characteristics of extra-tropical cyclones. Tropical
cyclones extract much of their energy from the upper layer of the ocean, while extratropical
cyclones derive much of their energy from the baroclinic temperature gradients in which they
form.
Tropical Cyclones
The tropical cyclone is a system of low pressure occurring in tropical latitudes characterized by
very strong winds. Here are the important notes which you must note about the Tropical
Cyclones:
Distribution
The tropical cyclones are found over the North Atlantic Ocean, Southern Atlantic Ocean, the
eastern, central and western North Pacific Ocean, the central and western South Pacific Ocean
and the northern and southern Indian Ocean.
Formation in Low Pressure areas
All tropical cyclones are formed in areas of low atmospheric pressure in the Earth‘s atmosphere.
Minimum Pressure is at centre
The pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest that occur on
Earth‘s surface at sea level.
Driver is the Large Heat of Condensation
Tropical cyclones are driven by the release of large amounts of latent heat of condensation,
which occurs when moist air is carried upwards and its water vapour condenses. This heat is
distributed vertically around the center of the storm. Thus, at any given altitude, environment
inside the cyclone is warmer than its outer surroundings.
Eye is the sinking air
There is an area of sinking air at the center of circulation, which is known as Eye. Weather in the
eye is normally calm and free of clouds, although the sea below it may be extremely violent. Eye
is normally circular in shape, and is typically 30–65 km in diameter.
Stadium Effect
The mature tropical cyclones sometimes exhibit an outward curving of the eye wall‘s top,
making it resemble an arena football stadium. It is called Stadium Effect.
Greatest Wind speeds are at eye walls
Greatest wind speeds in a tropical cyclone is found at the eye wall, which is a circle of strong
thunderstorms that surrounds the eye. Here, the clouds reach the highest, and precipitation is the
heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclones eye wall passes over land.
Source of the huge Energy
Primary energy source is the release of the heat of condensation from water vapour condensing,
with solar heating being the initial source for evaporation. So a tropical cyclone can be visualized
as a giant vertical heat engine supported by mechanics driven by physical forces such as the
rotation (Coriolis force) and gravity of the Earth. Inflow of warmth and moisture from the
underlying ocean surface is critical for tropical cyclone strengthening.
Impact of Earth‘s Rotation
The rotation of the Earth causes the system to spin (Coriolis Effect) giving it a cyclonic
characteristic and affecting the trajectory of the storm. In Northern Hemisphere, where the
cyclone‘s wind flow is counterclockwise, the fastest winds relative to the surface of the Earth
occur on the eastern side of a northward-moving storm and on the northern side of a westward-
moving one; the opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, where the wind flow is clockwise.
Movement of Clouds
In Lower troposphere, motion of clouds is toward the center. At upper-level, there is outward
flow of clouds.
Formation in Northern Atlantic Ocean
Northern Atlantic cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late
August through September. The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is 10 September.
Formation in North East Pacific
The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the
Atlantic.
Formation in North West Pacific
The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and
March and a peak in early September.
Formation in North Indian basin
Storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November.
Formation in Southern Hemisphere
Tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round and encompasses the tropical
cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February
to early March.
Requirements for formation
 Water temperatures of at least 26.5 °C down to a depth of at least 50 m, so that it may

cause the overlying atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and
thunderstorms.
 Rapid cooling with height, so that it may cause release of the heat of condensation that
powers a tropical cyclone.
 High humidity
 Low amounts of wind shear as high shear is disruptive to the storm‘s circulation.
 A distance from the Equator is necessary, which should be at least 555 km or 5° of
latitude, so that it allows the Coriolis Effect to deflect winds blowing towards the low
pressure center and creating a circulation. Because the Coriolis effect initiates and
maintains tropical cyclone rotation, tropical cyclones rarely form or move within about 5°
of the equator, where the Coriolis effect is weakest.
 A pre-existing system of disturbed weather.
Movement
Coriolis Effect causes cyclonic systems to turn towards the poles in the absence of strong
steering currents. The pole ward portion of a tropical cyclone contains easterly winds, and the
Coriolis effect pulls them slightly more pole ward. The westerly winds on the Equatorward
portion of the cyclone pull slightly towards the equator, but, because the Coriolis effect weakens
toward the equator, the net drag on the cyclone is pole ward. Thus, tropical cyclones in the
Northern Hemisphere usually turn north (before being blown east), and tropical cyclones in the
Southern Hemisphere usually turn south (before being blown east) when no other effects
counteract the Coriolis Effect.
High speed of rotation
It is caused by Coriolis effect as well as energy released by heat of condensation.
Fujiwhara effect
When two cyclones approach one another, their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a
point between the two systems. The two vortices will be attracted to each other, and eventually
spiral into the center point and merge. When the two vortices are of unequal size, the larger
vortex will tend to dominate the interaction, and the smaller vortex will orbit around it. This
phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect.
Impact on passing over land
We should note that the deep convection is a driving force for tropical cyclones. The convection
is strongest in a tropical climate; it defines the initial domain of the tropical cyclone. This is a
major difference between the Tropical cyclones with other mid-latitude cyclones as the later
derive their energy mostly from pre-existing horizontal temperature gradients in the atmosphere.
To continue to drive its heat engine, a tropical cyclone must remain over warm water, which
provides the needed atmospheric moisture to keep the positive feedback loop running. When a
tropical cyclone passes over land, it is cut off from its heat source and its strength diminishes
rapidly. The moving over land deprives it of the warm water it needs to power itself, quickly
losing strength. Thus, most strong storms lose their strength when the pass on to land, but if it
manages to move back to ocean, it will regenerate.
Impact of passing over cold water
When a tropical storm moves over waters significantly below 26.5 °C, it will lose its strength.
This is because of losing its tropical characteristic of the warm core.
Project Stormfury
The United States Government attempted in 1960s and 1970s to artificially weaken the
Cyclones. During this project, Cyclones were seeded with silver iodide. It was thought that the
seeding would cause supercooled water in the outer rainbands to freeze, causing the inner eye
wall to collapse and thus reducing the winds. The Hurricane Debbie lost as much as 31% of its
strength, when seeded with Silver Iodide in this project but Debbie regained its strength after
each of two seeding forays. So, it was not a good idea. There were some more ideas applied
which were as follows:
 Cooling the water under a tropical cyclone by towing icebergs into the tropical oceans
and covering the ocean in a substance that inhibits evaporation
 Dropping large quantities of ice into the eye at very early stages of development (so that
the latent heat is absorbed by the ice, instead of being converted to kinetic energy that
would feed the positive feedback loop)
 Blasting the cyclone apart with nuclear weapons.
 A Project called Project Cirrus involved throwing dry ice on a cyclone.
 None of the idea was very much practical because the tropical storms are too large and
too momentary.
Naming of Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are classified into three main groups, based on intensity: tropical depressions,
tropical storms, and a third group of more intense storms, whose name depends on the region. If
a tropical storm in the North-western Pacific reaches hurricane-strength winds on the Beaufort
scale, it referred to as a typhoon. If a tropical storm passes the same benchmark in the Northeast
Pacific Basin, or in the Atlantic, it is called a hurricane. Neither ―hurricane‖ nor ―typhoon‖ is
used in either the Southern Hemisphere or the Indian Ocean. In these basins, storms of tropical
nature are referred to simply as ―cyclones‖.
Types of the Tropical Cyclones
There are three kinds of Tropical cyclones:
 Tropical Depression: A tropical depression is a system with low pressure enclosed within
few isobars and with the wind speed of 60 kmph. It lacks marked circulation
 Tropical Storm: It is a system with several closed isobars and a wind circulation of 115
kmph.
 Tropical Cyclone: It is a warm core vortex circulation of tropical origin with small
diameter, circular shape and occurs in oceanic areas.
Anticyclones
An ‗anticyclone‘ is opposite to a cyclone, in which winds move into a low-pressure area. In an

anticyclone, winds move out from a high-pressure area with wind direction clockwise in the
northern hemisphere, anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Such a high pressure area is
usually spread over a large area, created by descending warm air devoid of moisture. The
absence of moisture makes the dry air denser than an equal quantity of air with moisture. When it
displaces the heavier nitrogen and oxygen, it causes an anti-cyclone.
Temperate Cyclones
Temperate cyclones are generally called depressions. They have low pressure at the centre and
increasing pressure outwardly. They are of varying shapes such as circular, elliptical. The
formation of tropical storms as we read above are confined to oceans, the temperate cyclones are
formed over land and sea alike. Temperate Cyclones are formed in 35-65° North as well as
South Latitudes. While the tropical cyclones are largely formed in summer and autumn, the
temperate cyclones are formed in generally winter. Rainfall in these cyclones is low and
continuous not as furious as in case of tropical cyclones.
Oceans Currents
Oceans: Currents
Ocean current, stream made up of horizontal and vertical components of the circulation system
of ocean waters that is produced by gravity, wind friction, and water density variation in
different parts of the ocean. Ocean currents are similar to winds in the atmosphere in that they
transfer significant amounts of heat from Earth‘s equatorial areas to the poles and thus play
important roles in determining the climates of coastal regions. In addition, ocean currents and
atmospheric circulation influence one another.
The general circulation of the oceans defines the average movement of seawater, which, like the
atmosphere, follows a specific pattern. Superimposed on this pattern are oscillations of tides and
waves, which are not considered part of the general circulation. There also are meanders and
eddies that represent temporal variations of the general circulation. The ocean circulation pattern
exchanges water of varying characteristics, such as temperature and salinity, within the
interconnected network of oceans and is an important part of the heat and freshwater fluxes of
the global climate. Horizontal movements are called currents, which range in magnitude from a
few centimetres per second to as much as 4 metres (about 13 feet) per second. A characteristic
surface speed is about 5 to 50 cm (about 2 to 20 inches) per second. Currents generally diminish
in intensity with increasing depth. Vertical movements, often referred to as upwelling and
downwelling, exhibit much lower speeds, amounting to only a few metres per month. As
seawater is nearly incompressible, vertical movements are associated with regions of
convergence and divergence in the horizontal flow patterns.
Distribution Of Ocean Currents
Maps of the general circulation at the sea surface were originally constructed from a vast amount
of data obtained from inspecting the residual drift of ships after course direction and speed are
accounted for in a process called dead reckoning. This information is collected by satellite-
tracked surface drifters at sea at present. The pattern is nearly entirely that of wind-driven
circulation.
At the surface, aspects of wind-driven circulation cause the gyres (large anticyclonic current cells
that spiral about a central point) to displace their centres westward, forming strong western
boundary currents against the eastern coasts of the continents, such as the Gulf Stream–North
Atlantic–Norway Current in the Atlantic Ocean and the Kuroshio–North Pacific Current in the
Pacific Ocean. In the Southern Hemisphere the counterclockwise circulation of the gyres creates
strong eastern boundary currents against the western coasts of continents, such as the Peru
(Humboldt) Current off South America, the Benguela Current off western Africa, and the
Western Australia Current. The Southern Hemisphere currents are also influenced by the
powerful, eastward-flowing, circumpolar Antarctic Current. It is a very deep, cold, and relatively
slow current, but it carries a vast mass of water, about twice the volume of the Gulf Stream. The
Peru and Benguela currents draw water from this Antarctic current and, hence, are cold. The
Northern Hemisphere lacks continuous open water bordering the Arctic and so has no
corresponding powerful circumpolar current, but there are small cold currents flowing south
through the Bering Strait to form the Oya and Anadyr currents off eastern Russia and the
California Current off western North America; others flow south around Greenland to form the
cold Labrador and East Greenland currents. The Kuroshio–North Pacific and Gulf Stream–North
Atlantic–Norway currents move warmer water into the Arctic Ocean via the Bering, Cape, and
West Spitsbergen currents.
In the tropics the great clockwise and counterclockwise gyres flow westward as the Pacific North
and South Equatorial currents, Atlantic North and South Equatorial currents, and the Indian
South Equatorial Current. Because of the alternating monsoon climate of the northern Indian
Ocean, the current in the northern Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea alternates. Between these
massive currents are narrow eastward-flowing countercurrents.
Other smaller current systems found in certain enclosed seas or ocean areas are less affected by
wind-driven circulation and more influenced by the direction of water inflow. Such currents are
found in the Tasmanian Sea, where the southward-flowing East Australian Current generates
counterclockwise circulation, in the northwestern Pacific, where the eastward-flowing Kuroshio–
North Pacific current causes counterclockwise circulation in the Alaska Current and Aleutian
Current (or Subarctic Current), in the Bay of Bengal, and in the Arabian Sea.
Deep-ocean circulation consists mainly of thermohaline circulation. The currents are inferred
from the distribution of seawater properties, which trace the spreading of specific water masses.
The distribution of density is also used to estimate the deep currents. Direct observations of
subsurface currents are made by deploying current meters from bottom-anchored moorings and
by setting out neutral buoyant instruments whose drift at depth is tracked acoustically.
Causes Of Ocean Currents
Following are some of the important causes of ocean currents:
Pressure gradients
The hydrostatic pressure, p, at any depth below the sea surface is given by the equation p = gρz,
where g is the acceleration of gravity, ρ is the density of seawater, which increases with depth,
and z is the depth below the sea surface. This is called the hydrostatic equation, which is a good
approximation for the equation of motion for forces acting along the vertical. Horizontal
differences in density (due to variations of temperature and salinity) measured along a specific
depth cause the hydrostatic pressure to vary along a horizontal plane or geopotential surface, a
surface perpendicular to the direction of the gravity acceleration. Horizontal gradients of
pressure, though much smaller than vertical changes in pressure, give rise to ocean currents.
Coriolis effect
Earth‘s rotation about its axis causes moving particles to behave in a way that can only be
understood by adding a rotational dependent force. To an observer in space, a moving body
would continue to move in a straight line unless the motion were acted upon by some other force.
To an Earth-bound observer, however, this motion cannot be along a straight line because the
reference frame is the rotating Earth. This is similar to the effect that would be experienced by an
observer standing on a large turntable if an object moved over the turntable in a straight line
relative to the ―outside‖ world. An apparent deflection of the path of the moving object would be
seen. If the turntable rotated counterclockwise, the apparent deflection would be to the right of
the direction of the moving object, relative to the observer fixed on the turntable.
Frictional forces
Movement of water through the oceans is slowed by friction, with surrounding fluid moving at a
different velocity. A faster-moving fluid layer tends to drag along a slower-moving layer, and a
slower-moving layer will tend to reduce the speed of a faster-moving layer. This momentum
transfer between the layers is referred to as frictional forces. The momentum transfer is a product
of turbulence that moves kinetic energy to smaller scales until at the tens-of-microns scale (1
micron = 1/1,000 mm) it is dissipated as heat. The wind blowing over the sea surface transfers
momentum to the water. This frictional force at the sea surface (i.e., the wind stress) produces
the wind-driven circulation. Currents moving along the ocean floor and the sides of the ocean
also are subject to the influence of boundary-layer friction. The motionless ocean floor removes
momentum from the circulation of the ocean waters.
Pressure And Wind Belt

Pressure and wind belts
Atmospheric pressure, also called barometric pressure, force per unit area exerted by an
atmospheric column (that is, the entire body of air above the specified area). Atmospheric
pressure can be measured with a mercury barometer (hence the commonly used synonym
barometric pressure), which indicates the height of a column of mercury that exactly balances the
weight of the column of atmosphere over the barometer. Atmospheric pressure is also measured
using an aneroid barometer, in which the sensing element is one or more hollow, partially
evacuated, corrugated metal disks supported against collapse by an inside or outside spring; the
change in the shape of the disk with changing pressure can be recorded using a pen arm and a
clock-driven revolving drum.
The atmosphere is held on the earth by the gravitational pull of the earth. A column of air exerts
weight in terms of pressure on the surface of the earth. The weight of the column of air at a given
place and time is called air pressure or atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is measured
by an instrument called barometer. Now a days Fortin‘s barometer and Aneroid barometer I are
commonly used for measuring air pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured as force per unit area. The unit used for measuring pressure is
called millibar. Its abbreviation is ‗mb‘. One millibar is equal to the force of one gram per square
centimetre approximately. A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to the weight of 1.053 kilograms
per square centimetre at sea level. It is equal to the weight of a column of mercury which is 76
centimetre high. The international standard pressure unit is the ―pascal‖, a force of one Newton
per square meter. In practice atmospheric pressure is expressed in kilopascals, (one kpa equals
1000 Pa).
Wind belts on earth
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (Doldrums)
Since air is heated and rises at the equator, a zone of low pressure is formed. This zone is
referred to as the equatorial trough. Air moves towards the equatorial trough, where it converges
and moves aloft as a part of Hadley cell. Convergence occurs in a narrow zone, called the inter-
tropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
It is the belt of equatorial calms and winds lie over the equatorial trough of low pressure.
Average location of doldrums is 5°N and 5°S from the equator and this belt lies between two
trade winds. As the horizontal pressure gradient is weak, therefore winds are light and variable.
Because of the convergence of winds, convective activity is dominant. Convection becomes vary
strong in the late afternoons carrying warm moist air, often forming huge cumulus clouds, which
results in heavy thunderstorms.
Because of the enormous amount of latent heat released by these clouds, the atmosphere
becomes hot, oppressive and sultry. Since it is the meeting zone of north easterly and south
easterly trade winds, it is also called Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or doldrums.
Trade Wind Pattern
This belt extends roughly from 5° to 30° N & S of equator. Here, at the surface wind flows from
poles towards the equator and in the upper atmosphere, flow is towards the poles. These trade
winds originate because of the pressure gradient force from sub-tropical high to equatorial low.
In the northern hemisphere, the trades are north-easterly and in the southern hemisphere, these
are south easterly. These winds are regular (steady) and flow in constant direction.
The trade wind belt is also called Hadley cell after the name of the scientist as it resembles the
convective model used by Hadley for the whole earth. The energy to derive this cell is believed
to come from the release of latent heat during the formation of cumulonimbus clouds in the
equatorial region.
The poleward moving winds in the upper atmosphere in this cell begin to subside between 20°-
35°N & S latitudes. The subsidence over here may be due to the radiational cooling, because at
upper levels it makes the air heavy and at the same time it begins to converge at higher levels
over the middle latitudes around 30°. This convergence (piling up) of air aloft increases the mass
of air above the surface.
Because of accumulation of air mass at higher levels, it starts descending around 30° latitude in
both the hemispheres. This zone of descending air produces sub-tropical high pressure belts and
is also known as ‗horse latitudes‘ where like the doldrums the winds are light and variable.
The descending air over the sub-tropical high, is dry and warm. As a result, subsiding air
produces clear sky and high temperature. Major deserts of the world like Sahara are located in
this region.
Subtropical High Pressure (Westerlies Belts)
These lie between 30° and 60°N & S latitudes in both the hemispheres. The winds move from
poleward margins of sub-tropical high pressure belts. While moving to higher latitudes, these
winds are deflected and become south-westerlies in northern hemisphere and north- westerlies in
southern hemisphere. The westerlies of middle latitudes are more variable than trades both in
direction and intensity.
These westerly winds are frequently over-powered by polar air masses and cells of cyclones and
anti-cyclones are formed in these areas. The surface flow of the westerlies may be interrupted by
storms and irregular winds blowing from different directions, but in the upper atmosphere these
are steady and blow in westerly direction.
The westerlies prevail throughout the year, but are stronger in winter season, especially over
North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. This is because of the steep pressure gradient from the
Aleution islands and icelandic low pressure areas towards the extremely cold continental
interiors where the pressure is very high.
These two semi-permanent lows are the cause of a number of cyclonic storms moving along the
westerlies across the globe. In the southern hemisphere, between 40° & 60° latitudes, westerlies
are persistent and powerful over water, sailors call them roaring forties, furious fifties and
screening sixties.
Polar Easterlies
Polar easterlies are the winds which move from polar highs towards sub-polar lows. Winds
blowing from north pole are not regular. Because the polar high is not considered as quasi
(semi)-permanent feature of arctic circulation. However, there are prevailing outflowing winds
from the green land.
In winter, the easterly winds are observed from anticyclones of Siberia and Canada. The winds in
these areas generally blow from various directions and these are largely controlled by local
weather disturbances. But on the poleward side of the depressions (cyclones) that form in the
northern Atlantic and northern Pacific, the easterly winds do occur.
The easterly winds in southern hemisphere are well defined and are coherent (semi-permanent)
and regular. Easterly winds blow from the anti-cyclonic systems formed over the plateau of
eastern Antarctica. The Indian ocean near the Antarctica experiences such easterly winds.
Little is known about the atmospheric motion at upper levels in high latitudes beyond 70° or 75°
(i.e. 70, 80 or 90°) in both the hemispheres due to lack of the meteorological information.
Glaciers
Glaciers are made up of fallen snow that, over many years, compresses into large, thickened ice
masses. Glaciers form when snow remains in one location long enough to transform into ice.
What makes glaciers unique is their ability to move. Due to sheer mass, glaciers flow like very
slow rivers. Some glaciers are as small as football fields, while others grow to be dozens or even
hundreds of kilometers long.
Presently, glaciers occupy about 10 percent of the world's total land area, with most located in
polar regions like Antarctica, Greenland, and the Canadian Arctic. Glaciers can be thought of as
remnants from the last Ice Age, when ice covered nearly 32 percent of the land, and 30 percent
of the oceans. Most glaciers lie within mountain ranges that show evidence of a much greater
extent during the ice ages of the past two million years, and more recent indications of retreat in
the past few centuries.
Importance of glaciers
All of the phases of water—solid, liquid and vapor—relate to glacier dynamics. Water has
unique qualities that come into play in understanding the roles glaciers play in the Earth system.
For example, water expands rapidly when it freezes—an increase of about 9% by volume. Also,
water enters the atmosphere through the familiar cycle of melting and evaporation, but water can
also enter the atmosphere directly from a solid state through a process known as sublimation.
Also, water—the only substance that is lighter in its solid (ice) than its liquid state—has more
density as salt water than as fresh water.
The melting fresh water from glaciers alters the ocean, not only by directly contributing to the
global sea level rise, but also because it pushes down the heavier salt water, thereby changing
what scientists call the THC, or Thermo (heat) Haline (salt) Circulation, meaning currents in the
ocean. This has an immediate effect on the near region, such as the north Atlantic off the coast of
Greenland, but ultimately the impacts can ripple far beyond the immediate area and climate.
Ice that took centuries to develop can vanish in just a few years. A glacier doesn‘t melt slowly
and steadily like an ice cube on a table. Once glacial ice begins to break down, the interaction of
meltwater and sea water with the glacier‘s structure can cause increasingly fast melting and
retreat. Today, Earth‘s surface is made up of 71% water, 10% ice and 19% land. Most of the
world‘s ice is in the Arctic and Antarctic, but some of it is scattered around Earth in the form of
mountain glaciers.
Water not only expands when frozen, but also when heated, and it is estimated that in the 21st
century the melting of ice caps and glaciers combined with the thermal expansion of ocean water
will cause an average increase of sea level of roughly a meter (a bit more than one yard). That‘s
an average; in some places it will rise more and in others less, in part because (as we now know
through satellite measurements) sea level itself varies, bulging in some places and slumping in
others. In Greenland, for example, it is expected that as the ice melts into the ocean the land mass
will rebound, in effect ―bouncing back‖ after it was pushed down by the weight of the ice. Sea
levels may actually go down in some regions, but rising sea levels will be a critical issue in many
other parts of the planet, adversely affecting billions of people in India, Bangladesh and China as
well as along the U.S. Gulf and Northwest coasts.
As the planet‘s air conditioner, the polar ice caps impact weather and climate dynamics, such as
the jet stream. Glaciers are also early indicators of climate changes that will have a somewhat
more delayed impact on other parts of the Earth system. Glaciers are sentinels of climate change.
They are the most visible evidence of global warming today. In addition to raising sea water
levels, widespread loss of glaciers will likely alter climate patterns in other, complex ways. For
example, glaciers‘ white surfaces reflect the sun‘s rays, helping to keep our current climate mild.
When glaciers melt, darker exposed surfaces absorb and release heat, raising temperatures. Our
way of life is based on climate as we know it.
Important glaciers of india
Gangotri
Gangotri Glacier is the Himalayan glacier situated in the Uttarkashi district in the Indian state of
Uttaranchal. It is the largest glacier in the Garhwal Himalayas.
Pindari
Pindari glacier falls in the Kumaon Himalayan Mountain range at an altitude of 3353 meters.
The Glacier is is 3 km in length and 0.25 km in breadth. The Pindari river originates from this
glacier.
Milam
Milam is one of the largest and major Glacier in the Kumaon region. It is locatedet in the
Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand, India, at the height of 4250 meters above the sea level.
Nanda Devi
Nanda Devi, which means 'blessed Goddess' is the highest mountain in India. Nanda Devi holds
the the spectacular wildlife, carefully preserved in the Nanda Devi National Park.
Siachen
The Siachen Glacier is located in the extreme north central part of Jammu and Kashmir near the
Indo - Tibet border. It is the largest glacier in the world outside the Polar regions. It originates
from the Sia Kangri in the Karakoram range and is approximately 72 km in length. It lies in the
Karakoram range of mountains at the altitude of 5, 400 meters above the sea level. Just like the
other glaciers, Siachen glacier has a vast snow field in the center. It can easily be approached via
Skardu in Ladakh. The glaciers melting water is the main source of water for the Nubra river,
which further falls into the Shyok River.
Satopanth Glacier
Satopanth Glacier is situated in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. Deriving its name from two
words, Sat-o- meaning truth and Panth meaning way or path, this glacier is a divine destination
for avid trekkers and adventure enthusiasts. Located amidst the nature‘s lap, the glacier is fed by
the ice found on the eastern slopes of Chaukhamba group of peaks.
Zemu Glacier
Zemu Glacier is a 26 km long glacier draining the east side of Kanchenjunga the world‘s third
highest mountain. The importance of the glacier is that it is a key water source for the Teetsa
River. The glacier acts as a natural reservoir releasing water due to melting. The Teetsa River is
the focus of a hydropower development project being undertaken by the Government of Sikkim.
Oceanic resources of India and their potential
Oceans are the world‘s single largest ecosystem, covering nearly three-fourths of the earth‘s
surface, thereby providing a massive arena for emerging complex and interconnected
development issues such as climate change, livelihoods, commerce, and security. According to
estimates by the Global Ocean Commission, ocean resources contribute five percent of the
world‘s GDP, secure the jobs of three billion people, and sustain the livelihoods of 350 million.
The Indian Ocean basin is of particular importance for India, as the region‘s most populous
country and geopolitical keystone. Although India has long been preoccupied by continental
considerations, it has recently begun to re-evaluate its priorities. India‘s Indian Ocean Region
strategy—which in only just taking shape—conforms closely to global priorities for preserving
the Ocean as a shared resource: an important channel for trade, a sustainable resource base, and a
region secure from heightened military competition, non-state actors, and catastrophic natural
disasters. Achieving these objectives will require further investments in capacity, greater
transparency and confidence-building measures, and enhanced institutional cooperation.
Indian Ocean is rich in natural resources. Forty per cent of the world‘s offshore oil production
takes place in the Indian Ocean basin. Fishing in the Indian Ocean now accounts for almost 15
per cent of the world‘s total and has increased some 13-fold between 1950 and 2010 to 11.5
million tonnes. Aquaculture in the region has also grown 12-fold since 1980. Although global
fishing is reaching its natural limitations, the Indian Ocean may be able to sustain increases in
production. Mineral resources are equally important, with nodules containing nickel, cobalt, and
iron, and massive sulphide deposits of manganese, copper, iron, zinc, silver, and gold present in
sizeable quantities on the sea bed. Indian Ocean coastal sediments are also important sources of
titanium, zirconium, tin, zinc, and copper. Additionally, various rare earth elements are present,
even if their extraction is not always commercially feasible.
The Fishing sector is traditionally construed as one of the most important sectors of the Blue
Economy. Its contribution is significantly felt in economic activities such as national income,
trade, employment generation, food and nutritional security and various kinds of non-traditional
economic security. The growing importance of the sector in India is due to domestic
consumption, trade and cultural preferences.
India is emerging as a global player in the fisheries sector. Consistent with the international
trend, the share of India‘s capture fishing is declining and aquaculture share is rising, thus
opening large opportunities for promoting domestic production. In this regard, globalisation has
made a major contribution for the expansion of demand for fisheries in the domestic as well as
international markets. India has developed expertise in satellite launching, fabrication and
application of such systems. This facility can be effectively used in the IORA region for
identifying and locating fish clusters in the sea for facilitating capture fishing. Such satellite
facilities may be used alternatively in other areas of economic activities such as search and
rescue operations, meteorology and other applications in the region.
As a fast-growing emerging country, development of port infrastructure plays an important role

in promoting various developmental activities, including trade. The Ministry of Shipping reports
that much of India‘s international trade (about 90 per cent by volume and 70 per cent by value) is
carried through maritime transport. The sector covers a wide range of services which are broadly
divided into two categories: shipping industry and maritime logistics.
Marine manufacturing is a globally dynamic sector and an important segment of the Blue
Economy. Korea, Japan and China are emerging as key market players replacing the US and the
EU. India has the potentiality to emerge as a new global leader in ship manufacturing. Its
meteoric rise in the global market has been perceptible during the last decade.
India has a strong ship breaking industry. The global market for this industry is mostly shared by
countries such as India, China, Pakistan and Bangladesh.These four countries accounted for
nearly 67 per cent of the global ship breaking industry in 2011. India is emerging as the largest
market for the global industry along with Bangladesh.Though the industry is a highly polluting
one, it has large spillover effects on the Indian economy. India has a large ship building base, but
it needs to be modernised. At present, India has 23 shipyards, of which 7 are under
administrative control of the Central Government, 2 with state governments, and the rest are in
the private sector. The Indian shipping industry, with a marginal share of 0.1 per cent of global
shipbuilding market in 2002, has expanded manifold during the last decade, accounting for 1 per
cent of world shipbuilding industry.
This global industry has strong entry barriers and also high-risk factors which are alarmingly
large. However, India has a large reservoir of a cost-effective skilled labour force and the
availability of ancillaries, which can take India forward in this sector. Recently emerging global
players also have similar endowments due to which they are able to compete with the US and the
EU to capture a share of the global market.
In addition to the significant economic contribution of fisheries, coastal tourism, ports and
hydrocarbon extraction, nearly 90 per cent of India‘s trade, including energy products, travels
through the Indian Ocean. The shifting of global economic engines to the region has enhanced
the region‘s salience for Indian and global economic growth by way of large and growing
markets, investments, regional hubs for energy, transport, tourism, education and healthcare.
Regional growth and stability is also essential for the well-being of the large and widespread
Indian Diaspora which makes immense contributions to the nation‘s economy.
Unfortunately, the region also suffers from disruptive forces of piracy, armed conflicts,
organised crime and terrorism, posing a major challenge not only to the security of maritime
trade routes but also to the mainland as brought to fore by the 26/11 Mumbai attack.
Deteriorating ocean ecosystems and global warming can disrupt weather systems with adverse
impacts on the monsoon and freshwater availability with increasing frequency of droughts and
floods. Therefore, safety, security and conservation of marine ecosystems of the Indian Ocean
are not a matter of choice, but an essential national security priority for India.
India has always sought greater cooperation in the Indian Ocean region and played a key role in
setting up and strengthening the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-
ARC), since re-named as the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA). It now brings together 21
member states, 7 dialogue partners and 2 observers. IORA has identified six priority areas for
cooperation, namely maritime safety and security; trade and investment facilitation; fisheries
management; disaster risk reduction; academic and scientific cooperation; and tourism and
cultural exchanges, which are in line with India‘s priorities. The Indian Ocean region has also
exhibited considerable dynamism with its global trade tripling since 2003, reaching US$ 4.2
trillion in 2012. A significant achievement was the intra-regional trade growing from US$ 302
billion to US$ 1.2 trillion in the same period, a clear evidence of growing regional economic
linkages.
Human migration
Human migration, the permanent change of residence by an individual or group; it excludes such
movements as nomadism, migrant labour, commuting, and tourism, all of which are transitory in
nature.
Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of
settling in the new location. When large numbers of people relocate, historians ask questions
about why these people moved and what impacts their movements had.
There are two categories of factors that influence people‘s decisions to migrate. Push factors
occur where someone is currently living and make continuing to live there less attractive. A push
factor could be political unrest, a lack of job opportunities, or overcrowding. Pull factors occur in
a potential destination and make it an attractive place to migrate to. A pull factor could be better
job opportunities or having relatives or friends who have already moved to this location.
Refugee problem of the World
A refugee is someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war,
or violence. A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they cannot
return home or are afraid to do so. War and ethnic, tribal and religious violence are leading
causes of refugees fleeing their countries.
According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), there are 65.6
million refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs), and asylum seekers across the world. One
in every 113 people on Earth has now been driven from their home by persecution, conflict and
violence or human rights violations. Roughly 50% of all refugees are children under the age of
18 – despite the fact that children only make up about 30% of the world‘s population.
The number of refugees has nearly doubled in the past 20 years. We live in a rapidly changing
world in which refugees and forced migration have a significant impact on the economic,
political and social agendas of sovereign states, intergovernmental agencies and civil society
groups. Refugees have been the focus of considerable public concern in recent years and of a
range of government and community responses.
Some of the world‘s main refugee crisis are as follows:
Syria
The Syria crisis has accelerated more dramatically than any crisis on earth, and Syrians continue
to be the largest forcibly displaced population in the world. After war erupted in March 2011, it
took two years for 1 million people to be displaced. Another million were displaced within six
months. Now seven years on, more than half of the pre-war population has been internally
displaced or forced to seek safety in neighboring countries. That‘s more than 11 million people
on the run, including some 6.3 million people who have escaped across the borders.
Afghanistan
Years of unemployment, insecurity and political instability have led to a massive migration from
Afghanistan. Over one million people are estimated to be living in new and prolonged
displacement, while nearly 2.6 million people have been forced to leave the country to Iran,
Pakistan or Europe. The United Nations estimates that an average 1,100 people a day — mostly
women and children — were forcibly displaced by violence in 2017. Today, over half of people
displaced by conflict in Afghanistan have been displaced at least twice, compared to just 7
percent five years ago.
South Sudan
The situation in South Sudan is dire, and the largest refugee crisis in Africa. More than 4 million
people have been uprooted from their homes since the start of a brutal civil war in 2013,
including about 2.4 million people who have been forced to cross into neighboring countries, the
majority of them women and children.
Ongoing warfare, flooding and drought continue to worsen what is already a dangerous
humanitarian crisis. There are massive needs for clean water, health care, sanitation, food,
shelter, and protection across the country, and millions of people now require urgent support to
survive.
Myanmar
Since violence broke out in Myanmar‘s northern Rakhine State in August 2017, more than
700,000 Rohingya have fled to Cox‘s Bazar in southeast Bangladesh. Before the crisis began,
Bangladesh was already grappling with its own humanitarian challenges, and hosting some
212,000 Rohingya who had escaped Myanmar during earlier periods of violence and persecution.
The speed and scale of the influx over the course of a three-month period last fall has placed
tremendous strain on host communities and Bangladesh as a whole, making it one of the world‘s
largest and worst refugee crises.
Today, there are some 932,000 Rohingya seeking refuge in Bangladesh and at least 1.3 million
people — Rohingya refugees and Bangladeshi host communities — who rely on humanitarian
assistance to meet their basic needs. More than half of them are children. These populations live
in desperately overcrowded camps and communities, highly vulnerable to oncoming monsoon
and cyclone seasons.
Somalia
More than two decades of ongoing conflict and natural hazards such as prolonged drought and
flooding have driven nearly 1 million Somalis to live in destitute refugee camps in the Horn of
Africa and Yemen, while some 2.1 million people remain displaced within the country.
Almost half of the country is in need of assistance, and some 2.5 million people are unable to
meet daily food needs, including over 300,000 children suffering from acute malnutrition.
Causes of refugee crisis
Religious/Racial/Political Persecution
The most common reason people become refugees is persecution — which can take on many
forms: religious, national, social, racial, or political. When it comes to religious refugees in the
United States, the split between Christians and Muslims is quite even. According to Pew, 46% of
refugees in 2016 who came to the US were Muslim and 44% Christian; 10% were other,
including Hindus, Buddhists, and Jews. Around the world, religious refugees are everywhere:
from Muslims persecuted in Myanmar to Christians in the Central African Republic to Hindus in
Pakistan.
War
Most of history‘s refugees have been the direct or indirect product of war. Currently, the largest
group of refugees in the world are fleeing civil conflict in Syria, which has been raging since
2011 and has killed 400,000 Syrians and displaced 6.3 million internally. Another 5 million have
left the country entirely.
But before Syria, refugees fled wars in Iraq and Afghanistan in droves in the early 1980s, 90s
and 2000s. Afghanistan, notably, had the largest number of refugees of any country in the world
for more than two decades between 1981 and 2013, before being overtaken by Syria that year.
Gender/Sexual Orientation
This past June, France became the first country to accept a gay Chechen refugee — a
monumental decision that had global reverberations. The UNHCR updated its guidelines to
include refugees for reasons of gender or sexual orientation in 2012.
It is widely documented that LGBTI individuals are the targets of killings, sexual and gender-
based violence, physical attacks, torture, arbitrary detention, accusations of immoral or deviant
behavior, denial of the rights to assembly, expression and information, and discrimination in
employment, health and education in all regions around the world.
Hunger
It‘s estimated that 20 million people in four North African and Middle Eastern countries —
Somalia, South Sudan, Nigeria, and Yemen — are facing extreme drought, and many of these
individuals are becoming refugees, forced from their homelands in search of stable food
sources. There are about 17 million displaced persons across the African continent, the
Guardian reports, and only a small proportion of them are reaching the shores of the European

continent. Many end up in sprawling, informal refugee camps like the town of Monguno in
northeastern Nigeria.
Climate Change
It‘s estimated that in the next 83 years, a stunning 13 million coastal dwellers could be displaced
by climate change, joining the teeming throngs of refugees and displaced people. Officially,
climate change is not yet a valid reason for an asylum claim. In 2013, the first climate change
refugee asylum case was shot down by the New Zealand High Court when a Kiribati man
attempted to claim that status by law.
Rohingya refugee crisis and india's challenge
The Rohingya crisis could be seen as merely symptomatic of modern Myanmar being long mired
in internal conflict. At the root of these conflicts is the inability of the Buddhist-majority
community to accept that the nation is a multiracial, multilingual and multireligious society. The
Rohingya Muslims question is part of this larger problem. Historically, the entry of the military
into politics and the continuing struggle for power between the military and the civilian—with
the military seeing itself as the protector of the nation—is an outcome of the narrowly defined
nationalistic outlook. In such a construct of what makes the Myanmar ‗nation‘, the Rohingya-
Muslim community are doubly disadvantaged. First, unlike the rest of the other ethnic minorities,
the Rohingyas are regarded as ―illegal immigrants‖. Second, the acrimonious relationship
between the Rakhine ethnic group (also Buddhists) and the politically dominant Bamar-Buddhist
majority meant that the Rohingyas are unlikely to be favoured by the central government at the
cost of the Rakhines. Third, the Rohingyas suffer from the general negative sentiment against
Muslims and are easy targets of vitriolic attacks and pronouncements from ultra-nationalist
Buddhist forces. Further, the opening up of the nation with the democratisation process allowed
these sentiments to express themselves more freely, with consequences on the fragile social
fabric of the nation and on the future of the country‘s democracy itself.
India‘s response to the Rohingya crisis has evolved swiftly. Three phases are identifiable. In the
first phase that began with the eruption of violent conflicts between Rakhine Buddhists and
Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State in 2012, Delhi considered it an ‗internal affair‘ but was
sympathetic to Myanmar. The then External Affairs Minister Salman Khurshid visited Rakhine
State and announced a US$ 1-million package of relief assistance to Myanmar. Wittingly or not,
India also allowed Rohingya refugees to enter the country and did not make it an issue in its
domestic politics or in its bilateral relations with Myanmar. A few days after Minister Khurshid‘s
Rakhine visit, then UN High Commissioner for Refugees (and currently UN Secretary General)
Antonio Guterres visited India and expressed ―high appreciation for India‘s age-old tradition of
tolerance and understanding which manifested itself in its current policy of protecting and
assisting refugees‖ and its ―strict adherence to the principle of non-refoulement and voluntary
repatriation.‖When the BJP-led NDA government came to power in May 2014, it tacitly
endorsed the position of the UPA government. In 2015, the Rohingya crisis assumed a regional
dimension when Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia all turned away overcrowded boats carrying

Rohingyas attempting to land on their shores, leaving hundreds in the high seas.There were calls
for Delhi to help rescue the Rohingyas, but India decided to look the other way. This happened
soon after the devastating earthquake in Nepal where India was quick to extend assistance.
The second phase of India‘s Rohingya approach began sometime in mid-2017 with the
announcement of the government‘s plans to deport the Rohingyas who have settled in different
parts of India. While answering a question in Parliament on 9 August 2017, India‘s Minister of
State for Home Affairs, Kiren Rijiju said the government was planning to deport Rohingyas from
India because they are ―illegal immigrants.‖ The minister later clarified that the deportation plan
was ―not yet firmed up.‖ According to media reports citing government estimates, the number of
Rohingyas in India was 10,500 in 2015 and increased four times to 40,000 in the following two
years. A month after the announcement of the deportation plan and soon after the Arakan
Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), a Rohingya insurgent group formed in 2013—staged attacks
on police and army outposts in northern Rakhine State, Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited
Myanmar. The joint statement issued during the visit ―condemned the recent terrorist attacks‖ in
Rakhine but was silent about the Rohingya refugee crisis. The one-sided position of the Indian
government had to be nuanced when Bangladesh, the country that bore the brunt of the refugee
outflow, sought India‘s help. On 14 September 2017, India launched ―Operation Insaniyat‖ to
provide relief assistance for the refugee camps in Bangladesh.Delhi‘s decision to extend help fits
into its desire to de-incentivise Rohingya refugees entering into India. As Delhi recalibrated its
approach, the West Bengal government adopted a contrary position to the central government by
expressing its support for the Rohingya refugees.Though the West Bengal government‘s position
did not change the central government‘s Rohingya approach, it sent a message to Delhi that it
needed to take into account voices of state governments on the issue. External Affairs Minister
Sushma Swaraj visited Dhaka on 9 October 2017 and reassured the Bangladeshi government of
Delhi‘s support.
Frontiers and boundaries with reference to Indian sub-continent
A Frontier, can be defined as a politico-geographical area, lying beyond defined borders of a

political unit into which expansion could take place. It is a physical and moral concept which
implied looking outwards and moving outwards. It is not an abstract concept but a ‗fact of life‘—
a manifestation of the tendency for spontaneous growth of ecumene.
A Boundary is a line established by law, treaty, accord or practice that marks the limit of a
political unit‘s territory. It is synonymous with Border.

The frontier is outer-oriented. Its main attention is directed toward the outlying areas which are
both a source of danger and a coveted prize. The hinterland-the motherland-is seldom the
directing force behind the pulsations of frontier life. The boundary, on the contrary, is inner-
oriented. It is created and maintained by the will of the central government. It has no life of its
own, not even a material existence. Boundary stones are not the boundary itself. They are not
coeval with it, only its visible symbols. Also, the boundary is not tied inextricably to people-
people teeming, spontaneous, and unmediated in their daily activities on, along, or athwart the
border. It is the mediated will of the people: abstracted and generalized in the national law,
subjected to the tests of international law, it is far removed from the changing desires and
aspirations of the inhabitants of the borderlands.
Land frontiers of india
India shares her 15,200 long land frontier with Pakistan, in the west and north-west.
Afghanistan in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and
Myanmar in the east. India‘s longest border is with Bangladesh while the shortest border is with
Afghanistan.
Some of the important international border point of india are as follows:
Wagah Border, Punjab (India – Pakistan)
This border lies on the Grand Trunk Road between Amritsar and Lahore.
Moreh, Manipur (India – Myanmar)
Also, known as the Indo-Myanmar friendship gate.
Nathu La Pass, Sikkim (India – China)
Nathula Pass is a mountain pass in Eastern Sikkim, on the Indo-Chinese border that serves as the
trade link between India and China. Nathula Pass nestles at an elevation of 14,140 feet and ranks
amongst the highest passes accessible by tourists via motorable road. The Old Silk Route
through Lhasa, Sikkim and Eastern India used to cross through Nathula Pass. The other side of
Nathula Pass is Chumbi Valley of Tibet.
Longewala, Rajasthan (India – Pakistan)
Standing as a border with Pakistan and is most known as the location of the Battle of Longewala
during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Dawki-Tamabil, Meghalaya (India – Bangladesh)
Dawki or Dauki is a town in West Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, India.
Rann of Kutch, Gujarat (India – Pakistan)
Located in Kutch district this is another must visit border this republic, this seasonally marshy
region is known for its beauty and connecting India and Pakistan.
Jaigaon, West Bengal (India – Bhutan)
This amazing border is situated at the country‘s border with Bhutan and the Bhutan gate marks
as the border between India and Bhutan.
Pangong Lake, Ladakh (India-China)
Known for it majestic beauty with the surroundings this lake extends from India to China
connecting both these countries.
Sunauli Border, Uttar Pradesh (India – Nepal)
The Indo-Nepal Border is a well-known transit point between India and Nepal.
Dhanushkodi, Tamil Nadu (India – Sri Lanka)
This border is at the tip of Pamban island separated by mainland by Palk strait and shares the
only land border between India and Sri Lanka.
Water frontiers of india
India covers 3,214 km from North land to South land and 2,933 km from eastwards to
westwards. India has the land frontier of 15,106.7 km and a coastline of 7,516.6 km. Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Maldives, and Indonesia are the nations with which
India accords marine borders. India is also surrounded in the south land by the Indian Ocean, in
the eastwards and southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and in the westward and southwest by the
Arabian Sea
Population and Settlements- Types and Patterns,

Urbanization, Smart Cities and Smart Villages.

Settlement can be defined as any form of human habitation which ranges from a single dwelling
to large city. The word settlement has another connotation as well as this is a process of opening
up and settling of a previously uninhabited area by the people. In geography this process is also
known as occupancy.
Settlements can broadly be divided into two types – rural and urban. Before discussing about
meaning and types of rural and urban settlement in India, we should know some basic
differences between rural and urban areas in general. (i) The major difference between rural and
urban areas is the function. Rural areas have predominantly primary activities, whereas urban
areas have domination of secondary and tertiary activities. (ii) Generally the rural areas have low
density of population than urban.
Types of Rural Settlements:
Geographers have suggested various schemes of classification. If we group settlements found all
over the country, these can broadly be grouped under four categories:
1. Compact/clustered/nucleated settlement
2. Semi-compact/Semi-clustered/fragmented settlement
3. Hemleted settlement
4. Dispersed settlement
Compact Settlements:
 As the name suggests, these settlements have closely built up area. Therefore in such
settlements all the dwellings are concentrated in one central sites and these inhabited area
is distinct and separated from the farms and pastures.
 Maximum settlements of our country comes under this category. They are spread over
almost every part of the country.
 These settlements are distributed over the entire northern Indo-Ganga plain (from Punjab
in the north-west to West Bengal in the east), Orissa coast, basins of Mahanadi in
Chhattisgarh, coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, cauvery delta of Tamil Nadu, Maidaus of
Karnataka, lower Assam and Tripura, in the valleys of Siwaliks etc.
 Sometimes people live in compact settlement for security or defence purpose. The
greatest example of this type is in Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.
 In Rajasthan also people live in compact settlement because of the scarce availability of
cultivable land and water body. Therefore, they want to make maximum use of available
natural resources.
Semi compact Settlement:
As the name suggests, the dwellings or houses are not well-knitted. Such settlements are
characterized by a small but compact nuclears around which hamlets are dispersed.

 It covers more area than the compact settlements.
 These settlements are found both in plains and plateaus depending upon the
environmental conditions prevailing in that area.
 Such settlements are situated along streams in Manipur Mandla and Balaghat districts of
Madhya Pradesh, and Rajgarh district of Chhattisgarh. Different tribal groups inhabit
such settlements in the Chhota Nagpur region. In Nagaland, such settlements may be in
the form of blushing villages.
Hamleted Settlements:
These type of settlements, are fragmented into several small units. The main settlement does not
have much influence on the other units. Very often the original site is not easily distinguishable
and these hamlets are often spread over the area with intervening fields. This segregation is often
influenced by social and ethnic factors. The hamlets are locally named as faliya, para, dhana,
dhani, nanglay etc. These settlements are generally found in West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and coastal plains. Geographically it covers lower Ganga plain, lower valleys of
the Himalayas and central plateau or upland region of the country.
Dispersed Settlements:
This is also known as isolated settlements. Here the settlement is characterized by units of small
size which may consist of a single house to a small group of houses. It varies from two to seven
huts. Therefore, in this type, hamlets are scattered over a vast area and does not have any specific
pattern. Such type of settlements are found in tribal areas of central part of India covering Chhota
Nagpur plateau, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. Such patterns are also common in the hills of
north Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
There are three factors that influence the type of settlements in India. These factors are (i)
Physical (ii) Ethnic or cultural and (iii) Historical or defence. Let us discuss these factors one by
one.
Physical Factors:
These include relief, altitude, soil capability, climate, drainage, ground water level, etc. These
factors influence the type and spacing of dwelling or instance, in dry regions of Rajasthan, water
is a crucial factor and, therefore, houses are situated along a pond or well which guides the
compactness of the settlement.
Ethnic and Cultural Factors:
These include aspects like caste, community, ethnicity and religion. In India it is commonly
found that the main land owning caste resides at the centre of the village and the other service
providing castes on the periphery. This leads to social segregation and fragmentation of a
settlement into several units

Historical or Defence Factors:
In the past, mostly border areas of northwestern plains were conquered or attacked frequently by
outsiders. For a long time, apart from attack from outsiders, there had been continuous fight
between princely states and kingdom within the country therefore, security concerns favoured
the evolution of nucleated settlements.
Type of urban settlement:
Like rural settlements, urban settlements are classified on various bases. However, classification
based on size and function are most common. Let us discuss them one by one
Classification based on Population Size
According to population size, census of India classifies urban centres into six classes. Classwise
urban settlements and their population
Class Population
Class I 1,00,000 and above
Class II 50,000 – 99,999
Class III 20,000 – 49,999
Class IV 10,000 – 19,999
Class V 5,000 – 9,999
Class VI less than 5,000
There is another classification of urban settlements. The classification is as follows:
Town Places which have less than one lakh population
City Urban centres having population between one lakh to one million.
Metropolitan Cities Cities having population in between one million to five million
Mega cities Cities having more than 5 million population

Urban morphology is the study of the form of human settlements and the process of their
formation and transformation.Morphological studies often deal with development of forms and
pattern of the present city or other urban areas through time.
Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a city, which consists of street patterns,
building sizes and shapes, architecture, population density and patterns of residential,
commercial, industrial and other uses, among other things. Special attention is given to how the
physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare with each other.
India exhibits a very stable settlement structure such that much of the urban growth that has
occurred has been because of the accretion to existing towns and settlements and only marginally
because of the emergence of new towns. As a result, the proportion of urban population residing
in towns above a certain population cut-off point continues to increase, but there is little evidence
of correlation between city size and rates of population growth.
In other words we can state that the development of new urban centers in India has been minimal
and the urban growth has been accredited to the development of existing centers.
Prof. E. Ahmad has identified some of the components of urban morphology as site
characteristics, historical background, sky-line, green open spaces, and water bodies, physical
and cultural dominants.
For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;
1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area
committee, etc.
2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria: i) A minimum population of 5,000;
ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural
pursuits; and iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
Urban centres of India are of 4 types:

1. Those that have grown from ancient town and villages e.g. Varansi, Madurai, Patna
2. Those that have grown from medieval towns such as Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur. These
towns have lot of features of medieval Islamic architecture with palaces, minarates,
walled city with Meena bazaars.
3. Cities that have grown from the British administrative centres. Most of them were
medieval towns or cantonment areas which retain lot of features of European Victorial
architecture.
4. During the post independence period a number of planned cities have been developed.
Chandigarh, Bhuvneshwar, Gandhinagar, Dispur and Bokaro are some of the typical
examples of planned cities.
City is a complex agglomeration of multiple activities – economic, social, cultural, etc. Its
‗central area‘ also known as Central Business District is its distinct section which is identified as

the centre of marketing, business and financial activities as well as dense built-up sector where
lines of transportation converge from various parts and nearly from all direction.
Smart City means aligning information technologies to citizens‘ needs in order to enhance their
day-to-day lives by increasing efficiency, lowering costs, and engaging more directly with city
dwellers. Developing a smart city is the next generation urbanization process for improving the
efficiency, reliability, and security of a traditional city. This paper discusses about the economic
benefits, cost of implementation and challenges towards a Smart city. It also focuses on its
building blocks, history, advantages and disadvantages of Smart cities.
The core infrastructure elements in a smart city would include:
i. adequate water supply,
ii. assured electricity supply,
iii. sanitation, including solid waste management,
iv. efficient urban mobility and public transport,
v. affordable housing, especially for the poor,
vi. robust IT connectivity and digitalization,
vii. good governance, especially e-Governance and citizen participation,
viii. sustainable environment,
ix. safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly, and
x. health and education.
The Smart Cities Mission requires smart people who actively participate in governance and
reforms. Citizen involvement is much more than a ceremonial participation in governance. Smart
people involve themselves in the definition of the Smart City, decisions on deploying Smart
Solutions, implementing reforms, doing more with less and oversight during implementing and
designing post-project structures in order to make the Smart City developments sustainable. The

participation of smart people will be enabled by the SPV through increasing use of ICT,
especially mobile-based tools.
Most of the Indian cities are lacking infrastructure, social awareness, and skills to upgrade into
the Smart Cities. Further to this, while some of the cities have ICT infrastructure, they are not
utilized up to its optimum. There need to be an effective plan or layout by the city governance
and government implementing agencies to build awareness, skills, and infrastructure to develop
existing cities into future Smart Cities.
The purpose of the Smart Cities Mission is to drive economic growth and improve the quality of
life of people by enabling local area development and harnessing technology, especially
technology that leads to Smart outcomes. Area based development will transform existing areas
(retrofit and redevelop), including slums, into better planned ones, thereby improving liveability
of the whole City. New areas (greenfield) will be developed around cities in order to
accommodate the expanding population in urban areas. Application of Smart Solutions will
enable cities to use technology, information and data to improve infrastructure and services.
Comprehensive development in this way will improve quality of life, create employment and
enhance incomes for all, especially the poor and the disadvantaged, leading to inclusive Cities.
Advance Infrastructure in Rural Areas
 Good quality infrastructure is critical to sustainable growth, especially for rural areas.
 As over 60 per cent of the population lives in rural areas, with low levels of per capital
income, there is need to impart greater attention in improving rural infrastructure.
 Currently the rural infrastructure is inadequate to support over 600,000 villages.
Investment in rural transport infrastructure stimulates the rural economy and hence acts
as a tool for poverty reduction.
 The services in the rural sector, like market access, education, health, and communication
depend on the availability of infrastructure.
 A common observation has been that the rural areas with better connectivity also lead on
the development scale. Inadequate transport infrastructures in rural areas cause lack of
mobility and constraint to rural development.
 However, providing infrastructure entails huge dose of capital investment. Rural
infrastructure growth is thus dependent on financial resources.
 Improved transportation infrastructure and services undoubtedly contribute to reduced
costs of transport, market expansion, improved productivity and competitiveness. Still,
within the economic function of transport, the sector contributes to pro-poor growth
patterns by targeting transport interventions to support the development of markets and
businesses that serve and employ the poor.
 To address the issue of rural infrastructure the government launched the Bharat Nirman
programme and there are independent schemes to boost Road building, Irrigation,
Housing, Water Supply, Electrification, and Telecommunication Connectivity. In this
issue we focus on the relevance of rural infrastructure in raising economic development
in rural areas.

 There has been a virtual telecom revolution in the last ten years connecting all villages. In
fact the growth of rural teledensity is remarkable and is growing at a much faster rate
than urban teledensity.
 Information Communication Technology, (ICTs) is known to be a facilitator of socio-
economic development. Rural areas which lag behind facilities by way of health,
education, financial services and employment avenues are using the benefits of ICT.
 Certainly, the growth of rural telephony, especially mobile telephony has brought
improved connectivity and this has contributed significantly to socio-political and
economic mainstreaming of rural India in the past decade.
The importance of infrastructure to economic development: an example from China
 The fact that infrastructure provides critical support to the growth of an economy can be
clearly seen when bottlenecks arise. One of the most striking examples is that of China's
intercity transport system, with its links to the supply of raw materials, coal, and
electricity.
 The coverage of China's intercity transport networks is one of the thinnest in the world:
the total route length per capita or per unit of arable landfor highways or railwaysis
similar to, or lower than, that in Brazil, India, and Russia. This has resulted mainly from
chronic underinvestment in China's transport infrastructure. China's transport investments
amounted to only 1.3 percent of GNP annually during 1981-90, a period of rapid growth
in transport demand.
 Since the onset of China's open door policy in 1979, economic growth averaging 9
percent a year has resulted in an unprecedented expansion in intercity trafficwith growth
averaging 8 percent a year for freight and 12 percent a year for passengers.
 This traffic growth has imposed tremendous strains on the transport infrastructure, as
manifested by the growth of bottlenecks in the railway network, the severe rationing of
transport capacity on railway lines, and the poor quality of service experienced by
shippers and passengers.
 Transport shortages have adversely affected the supply of coal in particular. Coal is the
source of some 73 percent of China's commercial energy and represents about 43 percent
of the total tonnage of freight handled by the railways.
 The shortage of coal has in turn adversely affected supplies of electricity, about 76
percent of which is generated by thermal plants. In 1989, China was experiencing a
shortfall in available power of about 20 percent of industrial electricity requirements.

Central and local authorities established quotas for allocating electricity and rationed new
connections, but power cuts have nevertheless been frequent.
 A conservative estimate is that the annual economic costs of not having adequate
transport infrastructure in China during the past several years amount to about 1 percent
of China's GNP.
RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT-A TOOL FOR RURAL POVERTY
 Rural infrastructure is not only a key component of rural development but also an
important ingredient in ensuring any sustainable poverty reduction programme.
 The proper development of infrastructure in rural areas improves rural economy and
quality of life. It promotes better productivity, increased agricultural incomes, adequate
employment; etc. Development of rural areas is slow due to improper and inadequate
provision of infrastructure with compare to urban areas. That‘s why rural share in GDP is
always less.
 Infrastructure is important for the services it provides. It is an important input to the
production process and raises the productivity of other sectors.
 Infrastructure connects goods to the markets, workers to industry, people to services and
the poor in rural areas to urban growth centers. Infrastructure lowers costs, enlarges
markets and facilitates trade.
 Thus, infrastructure provides services that support economic growth by increasing the
productivity of labor and capital thereby reducing the costs of production and raising
profitability, production, income and employment.
Areas of Rural Infrastructure
 A set of basic facts define the constraints within which the economic growth and
development of India‘s rural population must be addressed. Fundamentally, they relate to
resource constraints, the nature of infrastructure, and the future trajectory of the
geographical distribution of the population.
 These services include, at a minimum market access, educational, health, financial,
entertainment, transportation, and communications. Further, services depend on the
availability of infrastructure.
 Infrastructure investment is irregular and inadequate to support 600,000 villages and the
average cost of providing infrastructure is inversely related to the scale of the operation.
 Limitations on the financial and other resources available for providing infrastructure
made it impossible to provide infrastructure at every village in India. Even if they were
provided at every village, it will not be commercially sustainable.
 The basic geographical structure of population distribution will change once India shifts
from being agriculture based country to industry based nation. The Government has
launched ―Bharat Nirman‖ for the development of rural infrastructure. Plans proposed for
the development of India Rural Infrastructure are –
1. Irrigation,
2. Roads,
3. Housing,

4. Water Supply,
5. Electrification,
6. Telecommunication Connectivity.
Growth of financial infrastructure in rural India
 Financial Infrastructure: It comprises the underlying foundation for a country‘s financial

system, including all institutions, information, technologies, rules and standards that
enable financial intermediation.
 Poor financial infrastructure in many developing countries poses a considerable
constraint upon financial institutions in expanding their financial services to the
underserved segments of the society. It also creates risks to financial institutions and
resultant lack of adequate credit facilities leads to financial crises.
Interventions for Achievement of Financial Inclusion
Goal of Financial Inclusion (F.I.) is difficult, but not unattainable:
1. State Driven Interventions by Central, State and Local Governments.

2. Voluntary Interventions by Banks, Micro-finance Institutions (MFI), Cooperatives, Self
Help Groups (SHGs) and other social organizations.
Measures
1. Harnessing advances in the Information & Computer Technology (I.C.T.), like Smart
Cards, Internet Kiosks and Cell Phone Messaging.
2. Developing, testing and implementing appropriate products and suitable delivery
channels for financial services to be extended.
3. Attention to the 5 Ps of marketing-Product, Price, Place, Process and Promotion.
Boosting Rural Development through Agri-infrastructure
 Most of the perishable items are produced in the villages which remain confined to these
due to the absence of road networks. The existing road and rail facilities are inadequate.
Most of the areas which produce good quality fruits are still inaccessible. This coupled
with the rough terrain of the area and lack of regulatory markets make the farming
community to suffer a lot at the hands of the local traders.
 Farmers have no information about the market price. There is an urgent need to establish
suitable infrastructure like the use of information communication technology (ICT) for
benefit of farming community.
 The technology like e-kiosks and e-choupals of Indian Tobacco Company in Madhya
Pradesh and other states of the country are doing a great job. Each electronic kiosk is
connected to a number of villages.
 The villagers can obtain any information easily from these kiosks regarding various
aspects of crop production. Communication with different markets and among different
stakeholders is also possible through the use of ICT.

 Irrigation is another area which requires infrastructure upgradation. With suitable
infrastructure the irrigation potential can be increased. The utilization of available water
for agriculture too is far from efficient. Wastage of water is huge in surface irrigation
systems.
 The inability to conserve adequate water and curb its indiscriminate utilization, including
rampant wasteful exploitation of water is also a cause of concern. The problem is more
severe in dry land area of the country which accounts for more than 60 percent of the
total cultivable area. Suitable water conserving infrastructure like the drip irrigation and
sprinkler irrigation should be installed in these areas.
 Water conservation techniques like water sheds, rainwater harvesting and other measures
can bring additional area under irrigation in these water scarce regions. Similarly we can
also invest in creating community grain storage Banks where the farmers can store their
excessive food grains. This will also prevent them from distress selling as they can wait
for the right time to sell their produce.
 To meet the energy needs of farming sector solar energy can be used and for that solar
panels should be set up jointly in the villages to cater to the energy requirements of the
farmers.
 There is a need to invest in developing infrastructure of agricultural supply chain.
Moreover, the government has emphasized on increasing investments of private sector in
marketing, transportation and storage facility of fast degradable agricultural products.
 The private sector should also come forward and invest in creating agriculture assets.
They can use it on a built operate transfer basis.
 At the same time greater emphasis has to be laid on research infrastructure by
establishing a number of new institutes, national research centers for several crops and
livestock to address the local problems and come out with site specific solutions.
 To conclude, infrastructure potentially can influence rural economic performance through
three ways. These are
1. Individual development by the increased use of existing resources-land, labor, capital,

etc.
2. Bringing additional resources to rural areas and
3. Socio-economic development by creating assets and making rural economies more
productive.
 I Suvrathan, Secretary in the ministry of Food Processing has rightly said, ―

Opportunities given to farmers to run post harvest facilities all by themselves in a
professional way will empower them, as farmers can hold on to their harvest more than
24 hours and have a say in fixing price for their produce.
BharatNet Programme of India for Rural Connectivity
 BharatNet focuses on bringing high-speed broadband connectivity to rural India. In

collaboration with Bharat Broadband Network Limited (BBNL), the Government has
taken a step forward to connect nearly 2,50,000 Gram Panchayats.

 BharatNet for various e-Government services like tele-medicine, tele-education, e-
Health, and e-Entertainment, etc. the project is meant to create local employment
opportunities and drive socio-economic growth in the area.
SERVICES THROUGHT BHARATNET
1. Connectivity of Gram Panchayat level offices like schools, panchayat offices, post offices
etc
2. Services like certificates, telehealth, e-Education, agriculture information etc. to rural
population
3. Help in reducing the digital divide across socio-economic strata
4. Learning & employment opportunities for rural youth
Benefits: Majority of Indians live in rural areas and therefor the initiative will serve as a
backbone for transforming India into a digitally empowered knowledge economy, by ensuring
internet service to one and all
Government Programmes towards Rural Infrastructure
 Government of India continued to implement specific infrastructure strengthening

programmes in sectors like irrigation, rural electrification, rural connectivity and rural
drinking water supply.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):
 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, aiming at ensuring 100
days‘ guaranteed employment for every rural household in a financial year – has put a
major emphasis on creation of durable community assets as well as social and economic
infrastructure in rural areas.
 Since its inception, in September 2005, the program has been instrumental in
enhancement of rural livelihood opportunities on a sustained basis, by developing need-
based rural infrastructures
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana and Rural Roads
 Rural Road Connectivity is not only a key component of Rural Development by

promoting access to economic and social services and thereby generating increased
agricultural incomes and productive employment opportunities in India, it is also as a
result, a key ingredient in ensuring sustainable poverty reduction. Notwithstanding the
efforts made, over the years, at the State and Central levels, through different
Programmes, about 40% of the Habitations in the country are still not connected by All-
weather roads.
 It is well known that even where connectivity has been provided, the roads constructed
are of such quality (due to poor construction or maintenance) that they cannot always be
categorised as All-weather roads.

 With a view to redressing the situation, Government have launched the Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana on 25th December, 2000 to provide all-weather access to
unconnected habitations.
 The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) is a 100% Centrally Sponsored
Scheme. 50% of the Cess on High Speed Diesel (HSD) is earmarked for this Programme.
PMGSY Programme Objectives
 The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide Connectivity, by way of an All-

weather Road (with necessary culverts and cross-drainage structures, which is operable
throughout the year), to the eligible unconnected Habitations in the rural areas, in such a
way that all Unconnected Habitations with a population of 1000 persons and above are
covered in three years (2000-2003) and all Unconnected Habitations with a population of
500 persons and above by the end of the Tenth Plan Period (2007).
 In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Uttaranchal) and the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development Programme)
as well as the Tribal (Schedule V) areas, the objective would be to connect Habitations
with a population of 250 persons and above.
 The PMGSY will permit the Upgradation (to prescribed standards) of the existing roads
in those Districts where all the eligible Habitations of the designated population size have
been provided all-weather road connectivity.
Rural infrastructure key to inclusive growth
 The recurrent theme of public discourse during the last one decade has been ‗inclusive
growth.‘ Inclusive growth is essential for social and economic equity. Since India‘s
majority of people live in villages, it is easily seen that rural infrastructure is a major
component for ensuring inclusive growth.
 Development of Infrastructure envisages creation of values through engineering
consultancy.
 Rural development entails structural changes in the socio-economic situation to achieve
improved living standard of low-income population and making the process of their
development self sustained. It includes economic development with close integration
among various sections and sectors; and economic growth, specifically of the rural poor.
 In fact, it requires area based development as well as beneficiary oriented programmes.
No wonder, rural development is one of the main and important tasks of development
planning in India.
 Development of rural areas is slow due to improper and inadequate provision of
infrastructure with compare to urban areas. That‘s why rural share in GDP is always less.
The planning and development of human settlements and provision of required
infrastructure are much better in urban areas.
 Rural population migrates to urban cities for employment opportunities and better
facilities. Besides, the limited capacity of rural economy to accommodate the increasing
population sends the labour force as surplus to migrate large cities.
 There is then a need to encourage reverse migration to rural areas through proper
development of rural infrastructure and basic amenities by creation of income generation

avenues and improving the quality of life Rural infrastructure is not only a key
component of rural development but also an important ingredient in ensuring any
sustainable poverty reduction programme.
 The proper development of infrastructure in rural areas improves rural economy and
quality of life. It promotes better productivity, increased agricultural income.
 History of Uttar Pradesh
 Uttar Pradesh is considered as the cultural cradle of India. Uttar Pradesh has a rich
historical heritage and it would not be wrong to state that the history of Uttar Pradesh
plays a key role in defining the lifestyle of the present day Uttar Pradesh. The history of
Uttar Pradesh is very old and fascinating and had a great impact on the Indian culture and
civilization.
 Ancient History of Uttar Pradesh
 Archeological finds have indicated the presence of Stone Age Homo sapiens hunter-
gatherers in Uttar Pradesh between around 85 and 73 thousand years old. Other pre-
historical finds have included Middle and Upper Paleolithic artifacts dated to 21–31
thousand years old and Mesolithic/Microlithic hunter-gatherer's settlement, near
Pratapgarh, from around 10550–9550 BC. Villages with domesticated cattle, sheep, and
goats and evidence of agriculture began as early as 6000 BC, and gradually developed
between c. 4000 and 1500 BC beginning with the Indus Valley Civilization and Harappa
Culture to the Vedic period; extending into the Iron Age.
 The Belan valley (UP), which lies at the foothills of the Vindhyas, is rich in stone tools
and animal fossils including cattle and deer. These remains relate to both the Lower and
Middle Stone ages. The relevant excavated sites of the Belan Valley which indicate
transition from the food-gathering stage to the food producing stage are Chopani-Mando,
Koldihawa and Mahagara.
 The excavations at Koldihwa revealed a three-fold cultural sequence (Neolithic,
Chalcolithic and Iron Age). Mahagara is a single culture (Neolithic) site. The combined
evidence from the two sites indicates sedentary life, domestication of rice (oriza sativa)
and of cattle and sheep/goat.
 Six copper axes and some pieces of pottery discovered in Sakatpur of Saharanpur district
in Uttar Pradesh could point to a separate culture that straddled the Ganga and Yamuna,
coinciding with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
 Hulas is one of the 70 odd sites belonging to Chalcolithic Culture Phase in Doab which
are located mostly along the higher banks of tributaries of Yamuna, namely, Hindon
River, Krishni, Kathanala and Maskara. Most of these settlements are small, the largest
one measuring 200x200 m, and three of these sites are excavated (Hulas, Alamgirpur and
Bargaon). Occupation of this late Harappan site goes back to 2000 BC and it seems it
continued up to 1000 BC.
 Alamgirpur is prominent archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization in Uttar
Pradesh‘s Meerut district. Also known as Parasaram-ka-khera, this settlement along the
Yamuna River existed from 3300 BC to 1300 BC from the Harappan-Bara period.
Among major discoveries made here during the excavation were several ceramic items
like roof tiles, cups, vases, beads and carts, among others. Also a humped bull and broken
copper blade were unearthed at this site.
 Uttar pradesh was the geographical centre of later vedic period. This period was marked
by further expansion of the Aryans to parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, northern Bihar and

parts of eastern Rajasthan. The Sathapatha Brahmana throws light on this expansion to
the eastern Gangetic plains.
 It reports the founding of a realm called ‗Videha‘ by a Prince, Videgha Madhava. The
Purus and the Bharatas were amalgamated to form the Kurus, the kingdom of which
corresponds to modern Thaneswar, Delhi and the upper Gangetic Doab.
 The Panchalas were also a composite class whose territory roughly corresponds to the
modernn day Bareilly, Badaun, Farukhabad and adjoining districts. The major socio-
political centre of this period was the Kuru- Panchala janapada of the Ganga-Yamuna
doab.
 Further, regions to the east, such as Kosala (eastern Uttar Pradesh, its early capital was
Ayodhya, later replaced by Srawasti. Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (north Bihar), Magadha
(South Bihar), Anga (set up their settlements on the rivers Son and the Ganges) and
Vangas (eastern Bengal).
 Mahajanapadas were a set of sixteen kingdoms that existed in ancient India. It all began
when the tribes (janas) of the late Vedic period decided to form their own territorial
communities, which eventually gave rise to new and permanent areas of settlements
called ‗states‘ or ‗janapadas‘. many of these mahajanpadas were located in uttar pradesh.
 Kuru
 At the time of the Budhha, Kuru was ruled by Korayvya, a titular chieftain. Its capital
was Indraprastha (present-day Delhi), which was known for people with sound health and
deep wisdom. The Kurus were related to people of other communities like the
‗Panchalas‘ and the ‗Yadavas‘ as they had matrimonial relations with them. Though Kuru
kingdom was a well-known monarchical state in the ancient world, the 6th and 5th
centuries BCE saw the formation of republican form of government in the land of Kuru.
Kautiliya‘s ‗Arthashastra,‘ which was written in Sanskrit in the 4th century BCE, also
states that the Kurus followed the king consul constitution.
 Kosala
 The kingdom of Kosala was located close to the kingdom of Magadha. With Ayodhya as
its capital, Kosala was bound by river Ganges in the south, river Gandak in the east, and
the Himalaya mountains in the north. According to Vedic texts, Kosala was the biggest
and most powerful kingdom ever in history. At the time of the Buddha and Mahavira,
Kosala kingdom was ruled by King Prasenajit. After a series of tactical moves for
supremacy by Kosala and Magadha, the kingdom of Kosala was eventually merged with
Magadha, when Kosala was being ruled by Vidudabha.
 Malla
 The Mallas of the Malla kingdom are often described as powerful people who dwelled in
Northern South Asia. Many Buddhist texts refer to the kingdom as a republican dominion
made up of nine territories. Like Kuru, Malla kingdom too had monarchical forms of
government, but later moved towards the republican form of government. Ancient cities
like Kusinara and Pava, which belonged to the Malla kingdom, are considered extremely
important by Jains and Buddhists. While Lord Mahavira had his last meal at Kusinara,
Gauthama Buddha had his last meal at Pava. Both Kusinara and Pava are believed to
have hosted Buddha for a long period of time.
 Panchala
 The Panchala kingdom was located east of the Kuru kingdom, between river Ganges and
the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. Panchala was divided into two parts, namely

Dakshina-Panchala and Uttara-Panchala. While Adhichhatra (present-day Bareilly)
served as the capital city of Uttara-Panchala, Kampilya (present-day Farrukhabad) was
made the capital of Dakshina-Panchala. Originally a monarchical kingdom, Panchala is
believed to have turned into a republican dominion during the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.
Kautiliya‘s ‗Arthashastra‘ also states that Panchala followed the king consul constitution.
The kingdom was later annexed by Mauryan Empire and then by the Gupta Empire.
 Chedi
 The kingdom of Chedi finds great prominence in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. According
to the ancient text, Chedi was ruled by a king named Shishupala, who was an ally of the
kings from Magadha and Kuru. A city named Suktimati has been described as the
kingdom‘s capital.
 Vatsa
 Vatsa or Vamsa, which was located near the present-day Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh,
thrived under a monarchical form of government. King Udayana of the 7th century BCE
ruled Vatsa with Kausambi as its capital. Though Udayana initially opposed the teachings
of the Buddha, he became a follower of Buddha later in his life and even made Buddhism
as the state religion of Kausambi. Vatsa‘s capital city attracted a number of wealthy
merchants, who made Kausambi their home. Kausambi was also a prominent entreport of
passengers and goods, coming in from the south and north-west.
 Surasena
 The kingdom of Surasena was located to the west of river Yamuna and to the east of
Matsya kingdom. Surasena played an important role in propagating Buddhism as the king
of Surasena, Avantiputra, was among the earliest known chief disciples of Buddha.
 Kashi
 Ancient Kashi was bound by river Varuna in the north and river Assi in the south. The
Kingdom of Kashi, which had its capital at Varanasi, was the most powerful among
‗mahajanapadas‘ before the time of the Buddha.
 Mauryan empire had strong presence in uttar pradesh. Some of the important Ashoka
edicts found in uttar pradesh are as follows:
 Sohgaura copper plate inscription
 The Sohgaura copper plate inscription is an Indian copper plate inscription written in
Prakrit in the Brahmi script. It was discovered in Sohgaura, Gorakhpur.
 The plate, consisting of a line of symbolic drawings and four lines of text, is the result of
a molding.The inscription is sometimes presented as pre-Ashokan, even pre-Mauryan,
but the writing of the plate, especially the configuration of akshara would rather suggest a
date after Ashoka. Nowadays, this plate is generally considered to be from the Maurya
period, and seems to be part of the larger set of inscriptions (the Edicts of Ashoka),
written by Ashoka through India.
 Kosambi pillar edict (Allahabad pillar)
 This pillar is located in Kaushambi where it was erected by the great emperor of the
Mauryan kingdom, Ashoka. It is in ruins but still holds much importance as it an artefact
of the golden period of the Mauryan Empire and the great beliefs of peace harbored by
Ashoka.

 Sarnath’s ashoka pillar edict

 The most celebrated of the Ashokan pillars is the one erected at Sarnath, the site of
Buddha‘s First Sermon where he shared the Four Noble Truths (the dharma or the law).
Currently, the pillar remains where it was originally sunk into the ground, but the capital
is now on display at the Sarnath Museum. It is this pillar that was adopted as the national
emblem of India. It is depicted on the one rupee note and the two rupee coin.
 The pillar reads from bottom to top. The lotus represents the murky water of the mundane
world and the four animals remind the practitioner of the unending cycle of samsara as
we remain, through our ignorance and fear, stuck in the material world. But the cakras
(wheels) between them offer the promise of the Eightfold Path, that guide one to the
unmoving center at the hub of the wheel. Note that in these particular cakras, the number
of spokes in the wheel (eight for the Eightfold Path), had not yet been standardized.
 Meerut-delhi pillar edict
 The Delhi-Meerut pillar, was shifted from Meerut, in Uttar Pradesh to Delhi by Feruz
Shah and erected at a location in the northern ridge of Delhi, close to his hunting palace,
between the Chauburji-Masjid and Hindu Rao Hospital. It was an elaborately planned
transportation, from its original location, using a 42-wheeled cart to bring it up to the
Yamuna river bank and then further transporting it by the Yamuna river route using
barges.
 The last Mauryan king Brithadratha was killed by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra
Sunga in 185 BC. He did so on being disgusted with his ruler's policy of the so-called
non-violence that stood in the way of his leading a campaign against the alien invaders
who had occupied a big chunk of North-Western India. He after that fought against the
invaders and pushed them beyond the natural north-western boundary of the country and
performed Asvamedha Yajna on the bank of River Indus ( Sindhu ). He also performed a
grand Ashvamedha Yajna in Pataliputra ( Patna ), the capital city. We find a mention of
these Yajnas in a rock-edict of Ayodhya. Thus he re-established the Vaidika-Dharma in
India. We find an account of his son, Agnimitra's life in Kalidas's drama
Malavikagnimitram.
 Ultimately, Shunga rule seems to have extended to the area of Ayodhya. Shunga
inscriptions are known as far as Ayodhya in northern central India; in particular, the
Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription refers to a local king Dhanadeva, who claimed to be the
sixth descendant of Pushyamitra Shunga. The inscription also records that Pushyamitra
performed two Ashvamedhas (victory sacrifices) in Ayodhya.
 The Yavanarajya inscription, also called the Maghera inscription, was discovered in a
village near Mathura, India in 1988. The Sanskrit inscription, carved on a block of red
sandstone, is dated to the 1st century BCE, and is currently located at the Mathura
Museum in Mathura.The inscription notes the donation of a water well and tank to the
community in 1st century BCE.
 The Yavanarajya inscription is in Brahmi script and describes a dedication for a well and
a tank in Mathura on "The last day of year 116 of Yavana dominion (Yavanarajya)".
Although the term "Yavanas" can sometimes mean "westerners" in general, the Yavanas
mentioned in the inscription probably refer to the Indo-Greeks, as the Indo-Scythians or
the Indo-Parthians are never associated with the word Yavana in the inscriptions of
Mathura. The date mentioned on the stone was the Hindu festival day of Holi, according
to the Hindu calendar.

 Under the rule of the Kushans, northwest India and adjoining regions participated both in
seagoing trade and in commerce along the Silk Road to China. Mathura school of art
became famous during this phase of history. The Kushan art of Mathura is important in
the history of Indian art as it embodies the symbolism and iconographic forms that were
adopted later. The forms of the Brahmanical deities, for example, became crystallised at
Mathura for the first time.
 The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally
given rise to various speculations. But very likely they were initially a family of
landowners who acquired political control in the region of Magadha and parts of eastern
Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh seems to have been a more important province for the
Guptas than Bihar, because early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in
that region.
 Uttar Pradesh seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned
out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag they spread in
the neighbouring regions. The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in
Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have succeeded them without any wide time-lag.
 Gupta dynasty, rulers of the Magadha (now Bihar) state in northeastern India. They
maintained an empire over northern and parts of central and western India from the early
4th to the late 6th century CE. The first ruler of the empire was Chandra Gupta I, who
was succeeded by his son, the celebrated Samudra Gupta. Present day uttar pradesh was
the heartland of gupta empire.
 Harshvardhana
 Harshavardhana ruled over the entire North India from 606 to 647 CE. It is said that
Harshavardhana‘s empire reminded many of the great Gupta Empire as his administration
was similar to that of the administration of the Gupta Empire. There was no slavery in his
empire and people were free to lead their life according to their wish. His empire also
took good care of the poor by building rest houses that provided all the amenities
required. In many texts, Harshavardhana has been described as a noble emperor who
made sure all his subjects stayed happy. He did not impose heavy taxes on his people and
the economy was somewhat self-sufficient. His capital Kannauj (in present day Uttar
Pradesh) attracted many artists, poets, religious leaders and scholars who traveled from
far and wide. He also maintained cordial relations with the Chinese. He even sent an
Indian mission to China, establishing a diplomatic relationship between India and China.
The famous Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang spent eight years in his empire. He
later recorded his experiences and even praised Harshavardhana for the way he went
about ruling his empire.
 During the 8th century AD, a struggle for control over the Kannauj took place among
three major empires of India namely the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rastrakutas. During
the 8th century AD, a struggle for control over the Kannauj took place among three major
empires of India namely the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rastrakutas. The Palas ruled the
eastern parts of India while the Pratiharas controlled the western India (Avanti-Jalaor
region). The Rastrakutas ruled over the deccan region of India. The struggle for control
over Kannuj among these three dynasties is known as the Tripartite struggle in Indian
history.
 Jaunpur sultanat

 Jaunpur, the seat of the Sharqi kingdom, is a great recluse of medieval history. It is hardly
75 kms from Varanasi, yet too far from the tourist map. Dotted with early 15th century
monuments, these lofty buildings display an architectural class of its own that has
acquired a nomenclature for itself – the Jaunpur style. Mughal emperor Shah Jehan
admired this place as the ―Shiraz of India‖ and rightly enough Sher Shah was one of its
proud alumnus. Akbar on his visit to Jaunpur enjoyed water sports on the river Gumpti
while others like Babur, Humayun and Aurangzeb were quite impressed by its splendour
and did their best to restore its glory.
 Malik Sarwar had been promoted to the governorship of Jaunpur under the title of Malik-
us-Shark (King of the east).Malik Sarwar ruled Jaupur as a governor for five years. His
adopted son Qaranfal ruled as an independent king and his brief rule was followed by that
of his younger brother Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, who is considered to be one of the greatest
rulers of the 15th century Hindustan whose prosperous reign of forty years produced
some of the finest buildings in Jaunpur. Ibrahim was succeeded by his equally illustrious
son, Mahmud Shah, who further crowned the city with monuments. During his 17 year
rule, is subjects experienced the joys of life with grandeur. Traces of decline were visible
with the advent of Bhikhan Khan, son and successor to Mahmud. Bhikhan was a man of
tyrannical nature and thus despised by his subjects. The last of the Sharqis was Hussain
Shah, whose ambition to expand beyond means brought about his downfall and that of
his kingdom
 Sultan Sikandar Lodī, the Muslim, founded Agra in the year 1504. After the Sultan‘s
death, the city passed on to his son, Sultan Ibrāhīm Lodī. He ruled his Sultanate from
Agra until he fell fighting to Mughal Badshah (emperor) Bābar in the First battle of
Panipat fought in 1526.
 The golden age of the city began with the Mughals. It was known then as Akbarabād and
remained the capital of the Mughal Empire under the Badshahs (emperors) Akbar,
Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān. Akbar made it the eponymous seat of one of his original twelve
subahs (imperial top-level provinces), bordering (Old) Delhi, Awadh (Oudh), Allahabad,
Malwa and Ajmer subahs. Shāh Jahān later shifted his capital to Shāhjahānabād in the
year 1649.
 Since Akbarabād was one of the most important cities in India under the Mughals, it
witnessed a lot of building activity. Babar, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, laid out
the first formal Persian garden on the banks of river Yamuna. The garden is called the
Arām Bāgh or the Garden of Relaxation. His grandson Akbar the Great raised the
towering ramparts of the Great Red Fort, besides making Agra a centre for learning, arts,
commerce and religion. Akbar also built a new city on the outskirts of Akbarabād called
Fatehpūr Sikrī. This city was built in the form of a Mughal military camp in stone.
 His son Jahāngīr had a love of flora and fauna and laid many gardens inside the Red Fort
or Lāl Qil‘a. Shāh Jahān, known for his keen interest in architecture, gave Akbarabād its
most prized monument, the Tāj Mahal. Built in loving memory of his wife Mumtāz
Mahal, the mausoleum was completed in 1653. Shāh Jahān later shifted the capital to
Delhi during his reign, but his son Aurangzeb moved the capital back to Akbarabād,
usurping his father and imprisoning him in the Fort there. Akbarabād remained the capital
of India during the rule of Aurangzeb until he shifted it to Aurangabad in the Deccan in
1653. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the city came under the influence of
Marathas and was called Agra, before falling into the hands of the British Raj in 1803.

 The Nawab of Awadh is a title that was given to the rulers of the Indian princely state of
Awadh or Oudh, as it was referred to by the British. The Nawabs of Awadh were a clan
of rulers that came from Persia in the early 18th century. Nawab Sa‘adat, the first in the
dynasty came from Persia in 1724 and established the state of Awadh at a time when the
Mughal empire was shrinking. Taking advantage of the situation, he gained supremacy
over Awadh and made Faizabad the capital.
 At a time when the Mughal empire was disintegrating, a soldier in the Mughal army
reaped rich rewards when he was made the governor of Awadh. Later this Nazim or
Governor became the Nawab. The Nawabs of Awadh received a fair degree of autonomy
from the Mughal rulers in Delhi, however, their alliance with the British East India
Company ensured that they would not remain independent for long. The British had eyed
the wealthy state of Awadh for long and after the defeat of the Shuja-ud-Daula, Nawab of
Awadh in the Battle of Plassey, fortunes took a turn for the royal family of Awadh.
Nevertheless, despite having to forfeit a lot of its territory to the British, the Nawab still
managed to maintain a harmonious relationship with the British and became their chief
ally.
 The Awadhi royalty have undoubtedly left a lot of priceless heritage in the form of their
style of cooking known as the Awadhi cuisine amongst the countless heritage sites. The
cuisine of the Awadhis is derived from a mix of Middle East, North Indian and Central
Asian flavors and was also heavily influence by the flavors of Kashmir, Hyderabad,
Punjab and Mughal food. Apart from the mouth-watering cuisines, the Nawabs of Awadh
were great patrons of music, poetry, dance and drama. From the popular ‗thumri‘ to the
revival of kathak, Lucknow had become a flourishing cultural center under the patronage
of the Awadh rulers.
 1857 revolt
 The first Summary Settlement was made on the guidelines of Lord Dalhousie (the then
Governor General) in 1856, soon after the annexation of Awadh. The main purpose of
this Settlement was to consolidate the British power in Awadh. It was not in favor of the
taluqdars. In this Settlement Lord Dalhousie gave priority to village zamindars over the
taluqdars of Awadh. This was done to undermine the power and position of taluqdars.
 It is the tone and the spirit behind the letter which is more important than the actual result
of the Settlement. Dalhousie‟s letter clearly humiliates the taluqdars by calling them
―farmers of the revenue‖ and by giving priority to zamindars over them. The Settlement
was to be made with the zamindars, and if there was any left – over it could be settled
with the taluqdars at ―a future period‖ after studying their claims.
 Though the British were against the taluqdars, direct confrontation with them at initial
stage would not have been wise. So they decided to attack their financial resources. They
snatched parts of their estates and settled them directly with the zamindars. In the first
Settlement the taluqdars lost some 9,900 villages out of 23,500 villages which they held
at the time of annexation. This was a very peculiar kind of arrangement. If all 23,500
villages had been directly settled with the zamindars, then this would have led the British
to have direct confrontation with the taluqdars, for which they were not prepared at this
stage. Without confronting the taluqdars their power was to be weakened. Though a large
number of villages were left with the taluqdars, what they got was only a left – over, left
over after the settlement with the zamindars. A class of landholders was created which
will not bow down before the taluqdars. Perhaps the British thought that this newly

created class of landholders would side with them against the taluqdars. They created this
class to use it at a proper time in the future.
 Dalhousie‟s scheme misfired. The first Summary Settlement lasted for only fifteen
months, from the time of annexation to June 1857 when the Revolt started. Taluqdars,
who had all the reasons to participate in the Revolt against the British, took active part,
carrying the zamindars (new gentry, new landholders, village proprietors ) with them.
The British had direct settlement with the zamindars, thinking that they would side with
them against the taluqdars. But at the time of Revolt they sided with the taluqdars, which
meant the same as rising for the Independence of the country against the foreign rule.
 Peasants movements in uttar pradesh
 After the 1857 revolt the Awadh Talukdars had got back their lands. This strengthened
the hold of the taluqdars or big land lords over the agrarian society of the province. The
majority of the cultivators were subjected to high rents, summary evictions (bedakhali),
illegal levies, renewal fees or nazrana. The First World War had hiked the prices of food
and other necessities. This worsened the condition of U.P. peasants
 Mainly due to the efforts of the home rule activities Kisan Sabhas were organized in U.P.
as well. Abhiudya, the paper from Prayag in an article on the history of Kisan Sabha in
U.P.; 1945 asserted that first Kisan Sabha was formed in the year 1918 and Purshotam
Das Tondon was the president. Its second annual meeting was held at Gangaghat on 30-
31 January 1919; under the leadership of Ramnath Trippathi.
 Madan Mohan Malviya supported their efforts; by June 1919 the U.P. Kisan Sabha had
450 branches. Other prominent leaders include Jhinguri Singh, Durga Pal Singh and Baba
Ram Chandra. This movement splitswithin two year on the council boycott issue, when
Dwivedi tried to rally kisan votes for liberal candidates and his colleague Gauri Shankar
Mishra joining non-cooperative and establishing links with the grass roots peasants‘
movement; which had emerged by them in the Rae-Bareli-Pratapgarh region.
 In June 1920, Baba Ram Chandra urged Nehru to visit these villages. During these visits;
Nehru developed close contacts with the villagers. In October 1920, the Awadh Kisan
Sabha came into existence because of differences in nationalist ranks. The Awadh Kisan
Sabha asked the kisans to refuse to till Bedakhali land, not to offer hari and beggar (forms
of unpaid labour) to boycott those who did not accept these conditions and to solves their
disputes through panchayats.
 The peasants upsurge in South and South-East Awadh associated with Baba Ram
Chandra culminated in widesperead agrarian riots in Rae-Bareli, Pratapgarh, Fyzabad and
Sultanpur between January and March 1921. Houses and crops of talukdars were
destroyed. Bazars and merchant property was destroyed and distructed. Shopkeepers
were forced to sell their products very cheap. These riotings plunder and attacks on land
lords were advocated by the extremist and local leaders. The most important among them
was Baba Ram Chandra; who claimed some religions inspiration he often gave
discources on Tulsi Ramayan, the Hindi epic which was very popular in U.P. and
particularly in Oudh. In this way he build up his followings. So these local leaders
preached a form of class war which led tenants in Raibarelli and Pratpgarh districts into
agitation.
 Towards the end of 1921, peasants discontent resurfaced in some northern districts of
Uttar Pradesh.

 The meetings of the Eka or the unity movement involved in symbolic religious rituals in
which the assembled peasants vowed that they would pay only the recorded rent but in
time. These peasants denied leaving when evicted from land. And refused to do forced
labour when asked by land lords; at the same time they refused to give any help to
criminals. The grass root leader of the Eka movement was Madari Pasi who was assisted
by some low caste leaders and many small zamindars also.
 Again at the time of great depression, 1930-32, when prices slumped, peasants could not
pay rents to land lords, nor land lords revenue to the state. The Indian Naitional Congress
launched a non-rent, no revenue campaign of middle and rich peasants, supported by the
rural poor. It may be noticed that to make the national movement i.e. (at that was civil
disobedience movement) a mass movement rural masses were organized and no rent
campaign was launched. Even the zamindars were motivated for no-revenue campaign.
At the same time it was the only step which could hamper the generating class struggle of
the rural society.
 Revolutionary movement in uttar pradesh
 In February 1920, when all the prisoners of Mainpuri Conspiracy Case were released
under government proclamation, Bismil returned to his native place Shahjahanpur and
met the District Authorities. They allowed Bismil to live peacefully after taking an
affidavit of undertaking from him declaring therein not to participate in any such
revolutionary activity.
 Soon, he joined Bharat Silk Manufacturing Co. as a manager for sometimes and after that
started a business of silk sarees in the partnership of Banarsi Lal. Banarsi Lal and Bismil
had been associated with the District Congress Committee of Shahjahanpur. Although
Bismil earned good money in the business yet he was not satisfied because his earlier
commitment to get out British rulers from India was not fulfilled.
 In 1921 Bismil attended Ahmedabad Congress along with many volunteers from
Shahjahanpur and occupied a place on the dias. A senior congressman Prem Krishna
Khanna and revolutionary Ashfaqulla Khan were also with him. Bismil played an active
role in the Congress with Maulana Hasrat Mohani and got the most debated proposal of
Poorna Swaraj passed in the General Body meeting of Congress. Mr. M K Gandhi, who
was not in the favour of this proposal, became quite helpless before the overwhelming
demand of youths. It was another victory of Bismil against the Liberal Group of
Congress. He returned to Shahjahanpur and mobilized the youths of United Province for
non-cooperation with the Government. The people of U.P. were so much influenced by
the furious speeches and verses of Bismil that they became hostile against British Raj.
 In February 1922 some agitating farmers were killed in Chauri Chaura by the police. The
police station of Chauri Chaura was attacked by the people and 22 policemen were burnt
alive. Gandhi declared an immediate stop the non-cooperation movement without
consulting any executive committee member of the Congress. Bismil and his group of
youths strongly opposed Gandhi in the Gaya session of Indian National Congress (1922).
When Gandhi refused to rescind his decision, its existing president Chittranjan Das
resigned and the Indian National Congress was divided into two groups - one liberal and
the other for rebellion. In January 1923, the rebellious group formed a new Swaraj Party
under the joint leadership of Pt. Moti Lal Nehru and Chittranjan Das, and the youth group
formed a revolutionary party under the leadership of Bismil.

 With the consent of Lala Har Dayal, Bismil went to Allahabad where he drafted the
constitution of the party in 1923 with the help of Sachindra Nath Sanyal and another
revolutionary of Bengal, Dr. Jadugopal Mukherjee. The basic name and aims of the
organisation were typed on a Yellow Paper and later on a subsequent Constitutional
Committee Meeting was conducted on 3 October 1924 at Kanpur in U.P. under the
Chairmanship of Sachindra Nath Sanyal.
 This meeting decided the name of the party would be the Hindustan Republican
Association (HRA). After a long discussion from others, Bismil was declared the District
Organiser of Shahjahanpur and Chief of Arms Division. An additional responsibility of
Provincial Organiser of United Province (Agra and Oudh) was also entrusted to him.
Sachindra Nath Sanyal, was anonymously nominated as National Organiser and another
senior member Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, was given the responsibility of Coordinator,
Anushilan Samiti. After attending the meeting in Kanpur, both Sanyal and Chatterjee left
the U.P. and proceeded to Bengal for further extension of the organisation.
 Noncooperation movement in uttar pradesh
 The Non-cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in 1920. Many diverse regional groups
joined this movement to meet their specific objectives. Many students, teachers and
headmasters joined the movement. Lawyers also gave up their legal practice and joined
in. People picketed the liquor shops and boycotted foreign goods and cloth. Some
Indian traders also rejected foreign goods and foreign trade. The demand for the Indian
cloth increased and the vanishing textile industry of India got a new lease of life.
 In Awadh, Baba Ramchandra, led the peasant movement. This movement demanded
revenue reduction, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In
October 1920, Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba
Ramchandra. The Peasant movement developed a violent streak, as the peasants
attacked houses of the landlords and looted markets. Leaders misused Mahatma Gandhi‘s
name and ideals. In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, tribal peasants misinterpreted
the meaning of Swaraj and had suffered a lot of oppression at the hands of the British. As
a result they staged a rebellion under the leadership of a man called Alluri Sitaram Raju.
 Art and culture of uttar pradesh
 The culture of Uttar Pradesh is painted in the form of folk dances, conventional cuisines,
long imparted values and traditions. It draws a large number of tourists worldwide
because of the historic cities, rustic ancient forts, bustling markets and vibrant culture.
Other than the folk music, dance, art and craft, people of Uttar Pradesh are known to
adhere to their rich cultural heritage and traditional norms. They also take pride to be the
first to introduce the two great epics- Ramayan and Mahabharat to the world. The state
also has a plethora of fairs and festivals that adds to the charm and charisma of the state.
 Fairs and Festivals of uttar pradesh
 Deva Mela
 Deva mela, Barabanki is annually held at Deva, 10 km. from Barabanki at the revered
shrine of the Haji Waris Ali Shah. Held in months of October and November, Deva mela
at Barabanki show-cases the spirit of communal harmony in Uttar Pradesh and India.
 Deva mela, Barabanki features games, music, poetry conferences and great shopping
opportunities. But it is fundamentally a religious fair, and attracts devotees from all over
India, Pakistana and from parts of the Middle East as well. Deva mela, Barabanki is
primarily a Muslim religious occasion. The Urs or commemoration of the sacred shrine

of the Sufi saint Haji Waris Ali Shah is attended by devoted Muslims from every corner
of India. The fact that it attracts devotees in great numbers from the neighboring
countries, provides great opportunities for each visitor interaction with the neighboring
brethren.
 The feeling of peace and harmony is predominant. Because of its pomp and color, Deva
mela of Barabanki attracts many non-Muslims as well. As such, the fair ground becomes
a site of communal harmony and national unity which represents the very spirit of India.
 A cattle fare is the highlight of Deva mela, Barabanki. There are games like volleyball,
hockey and athletics held daily. They add much to the excitement of the people who
gather at the fair grounds. musical conferences, poetic conferences and many other
cultural events that add to the attraction of Barabanki's Deva mela. Many shops are set up
to commemorate the occasion. These shops, which are beautifully illuminated at night,
provide great vibrancy to the fair ground along with shopping opportunities to the
visitors. Many sell authentic handicrafts made by the master craftspersons of Uttar
Pradesh at Deva mela, Barabanki. The fair ends on a high note with a great exhibition of
fireworks on the final night.

 Holi
 Holi marks the onset of spring. It is celebrated with colors and great spirit.Holi in Uttar
Pradesh is celebrated with great pomp and gaiety.As the legend goes, Hiranya Kashyap,
the demon ruler of the 'Sapta Deep' used to think that he was more powerful than God.
He attempted to murder his youngest son Prahlad, who had deep faith on Lord Vishnu.
This was because the child refused to acknowledge him to be mightier than the God.
Holika, the sister of the demon, who had a divine garment which would save her from
fire, entered the burning pyre along with Prahlad on her lap. But she got burnt.
 Holi thereby marks the triumph of good over evil and is celebrated with grand
extravaganza throughout Uttar Pradesh. The Indian mythological tale tells us that Lord
Krishna, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, in human form celebrated holi with the Gopi's
(cowherd maids). To commemorate this tradition with honor, in Braj, holi celebrations
continues for more than a week.
 Rambarat
 The marriage procession of Sri Ram is held every year during Ramlila celebrations at
Agra. Every year a new locale of the town is chosen as Janakpuri, which is elaborately
decorated to perform the royal wedding. The Rambarat (marriage procession) starts from
Lala Channomaiji Id Baradari for Janakpuri passing through different parts of the town.
The barat is a large procession of Jhankis followed by the swaroops of Ram-Lakshman
mounted on elephants.
 Janamashtami
 Janmashtami is a festival that marks the birth of Lord Krishna. It is celebrated in its
highest form in Mathura and Brindavan in Uttar Pradesh. On Janmashtami, the Mathura
and the Brindavan in Uttar Pradesh rejoices with the commemoration of the lord of the
universe, Lord Krishna. He took his birth in Mathura on the very day on which we
celebrate the Janmashtami. Brindavan was the place where he spent his younger days
with the gopis. This is the place where he used to be with Radhika. Till now the people of
these two places are unbelievable admirers of the age-old hero. They celebrate
Janmashtami or his birthday with unending enthusiasm and happiness.

 Kailash Fair
 Kailash fair, Agra in Uttar Pradesh is a colorful carnival. India is a land of fairs and
festivals which are always celebrated with a huge enthusiasm. A visit to Kailash fair,
Agra will give you the scope of witnessing one of the biggest and most popular festivals
in India. The Kailash fair is held at Kailash which lies at a distance of hardly 12
kilometers from Agra. The Kailash fair, Agra is known to be celebrated in honor of
Lord Shiva. As the legend goes, Lord Shiva himself came to this sacred place in the
disguise of a stone lingam. This has an immense value to the devotees who firmly believe
in such legends. They think that the Lord is always there in the lingam and are listening
to all of their prayers. You will be astonished to know that there are thousands of them
who gather here with the belief that all their wishes will be fulfilled in the Kailash fair of
Agra.
 The whole thing together makes the Kailash fair, Agra a spectacular event. Not only the
temples but all the streets are decorated often with colorful papers. Numerous temporary
shops are set which sell toys, foods, sweets, ornaments and many more things. The
Kailash fair in Agra is celebrated every year in the months of August and September. So
next year make it a point to witness the great fair.
 Bateshwar Fair
 Situated at a distance of 70 km. from Agra on the banks of river Yamuna, Bateshwar is
an important spiritual and cultural centre. The place is named after the presiding deity of
the region, Bateshwar Mahadeo and has 108 temples dedicated to the gods and goddesses
of the Hindu pantheon. During the months of Oct. & Nov. a large fair is organized from
Shashthi of Kartik month to Panchami of Agrahayan month. Devotees congregate here in
large numbers to worship Lord Shiva and take holy dips in river Yamuna. A livestock fair
is also organized and owners and buyers conduct serious business combined with the
gaiety of a market place.
 Ramnavami Mela
 Ramnavami Mela, Ayodhya marks the birth anniversary of Lord Rama. It is usually
celebrated in the month of Chaitra according to the Indian calender which generally
corresponds to the March or April of the English calendar.
 Ramnavami Mela, Ayodhya is the testimonial of love, faith and devotion of the people in
the state for their great hero Ramchandra, the central character of the Indian epic
Ramayana. The Ramnavami Mela, Ayodhya is dedicated to Lord Rama.
 Kartik Poornima
 Varanasi is the land of festivals. Kartik Poornima celebrated in the month of November,
is the sacred day, when the ghats of Varanasi come alive with thousands of brightly lit
earthen lamps. Visitors throng in large numbers to watch this spectacular event, famous
as Dev Deepawali. Lolark Shasthi, Dala Chhath, Rang Bhari Ekadasi, Burhwa Mangal
and Annakut are among the other important festive occasions for Varanasi.
 Kumbh Mela
 The month long Kumbh Mela of Allahabad is one of the largest fairs of the world and is
attended by millions of pilgrims from all over India as well as the devout from the world
over. Maha Kumbh is held after a gap of twelve years where as Ardha Kumbh is held in
the Sixth year after Maha Kumbh, in the months of January-February, on the banks of the
holy confluence (Sangam) of rivers Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati. The

Kumbh Mela is generally held every three years in rotation at Allahabad, Hardwar, Ujjain
and Nasik. The period of Kumbh Mela is Magh (Jan-Feb) month of Hindu calendar.
 Traditional Dresses of Uttar Pradesh
 Uttar Pradesh is mostly a state of two sects- Hindus and Muslims. The traditional
costume of the women of Uttar Pradesh is a sari and a blouse or salwar kameez. The men
opt for dhoti kurta or kurta pyjama. They also wear pagri or topi on their heads. On more
festive occasions, men go for sherwani- which is an embroidered kurta with churidars.
Women wear lehenga choli on formal occasions which is an embroidered long skirt with
a blouse and a long scarf known as odhani. This is the unique costume of the women of
Uttar Pradesh. They also adorn themselves in accessories including gold chains,
necklaces, rings, bangles, trinkets, tiaras and anklets etc.
 Food of Uttar Pradesh
 Uttar Pradesh is a home to a variety of cuisines, most famous of which are Awadhi
cuisines and Mughal cuisines, very popular in Lucknow. The delicious food is supposed
to be a hereditary of the ruling Mughals. The most sought-after dishes include - dum
biryani, dum Gosht and Nahari, which is slow cooked overnight and sealed in large pots.
In the northern Uttar Pradesh, which includes Meerut, Moradabad, Mathura etc. ? the
staple food includes kachori, Aloo curry and the very regular dal, roti and rice. Petha is a
very famous sweet dish available in the state and owes its authenticity to the city of Agra.
Among the drinks, people prefer lassi, chaas and roohafza.
Architecture of uttar pradesh
Uttar Pradesh is blessed with the flow of the waters of the holiest of India‘s rivers-The Ganges.
The region also witnessed the flourishing of the ancient Indo-Aryan civilization, from which rose
a stream of powerful kingdoms and empires - Koshala, Kashi, Malla, Vatsa, Panchala and Chedi
Mahajanpadas. In Medieval Periods it saw emergence of Sharqi Dynasty and Mughal influence
in modern periods Europeans - whose influences coursed deeply through the outpourings of their
cultural developments. Uttar Pradesh‘s architectural heritage showcases this fabulous wealth of
structures inspired by the confluence of Buddhist, Hindu, Indo-Islamic and Indo-European
cultures, which offer the visitor an invaluable education in the evolution of its architecture.
Architecture of Uttar Pradesh could be categorised according to periods.
The ancient architectural wonders in Uttar Pradesh include Buddhist stupas and viharas, ancient
monasteries, townships, forts, palaces , and temples. Some prominent are Dhamekh Stupa of
Sarnath , Pillar Inscription of Kaushambi by Samudragupta, many ancient temples in Kanpur and
Varanasi. These are almost simple but strong and fine buildings or pillars that do not have
elaborate decoration but finely jewels of their time.
Medieval Architecture Medieval period saw Muslim rulers from Sultanate to Mughal. Mosques,
mausoleums, memorials and other community structures are marvels of this period. It saw
influence of Persian and Indo-Islamic Architectural Styles. Christian Pope have written ―India
has proposed and Persia disposed, but what India gave she received back in a new form that
enabled her to pass to fresh architectural triumphs.‖

Main features of style of this time are inherent decoration, geometrical sculptural styles and
exquisite inlay work, mehrab or arch, dome, minar, and design of Kalash in Hindu temples with
elaborate ornamental styles and scriptures written on walls of buildings. Some fine examples are
Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Jami Masjid and Attala Masjid of Jaunpur. These
magnificent structures have been built in and around seats of learning, pilgrimage and power like
Agra, Varanasi, Allahabad, Lucknow, Jhansi, Mathura, Kanpur, Meerut and Mirzapur besides
other places.
Some important examples of historical architecture in uttar pradesh are as follows:
Dhamekh Stupa of Sarnath
While there are several kinds of stupas, round and tall, big and small, these have certain common
features. Generally, there is a small box placed at the center or heart of stupa,which may contain
relics (teeth, bones or ashes) of Buddha or some enlightened Buddhist Monks, or the things they
used as well as precious stones or coins.
The stupa is said to date 500 CE and was later renovated by Emperor Ashoka in the year 249
BCE. Along with this stupa many other Buddhist monuments and relics were commissioned by
the emperor at Sarnath. It is believed to be the most religious place for Buddhists and sees many
devotees flocking here all the year around.
According to an inscription dated 1026 A.D, the original name of the stupa was Dharma Chakra
Stupa. An excavation expedition led by Alexander Cunningham found a slab here that read 'Ye
Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu' in the Brahmi script that is believed to be the reason for the
original name of the temple. There are many more relics that were found here and is now
displayed for the people to observe. Not much is known when the stupa got its present name, but
it is perceived that it was given its new name by a Buddhist monk who was held in high regard
by Emperor Ashoka.
Bhitargaon Temple Kanpur
Bhitargaon temple has a structure that portrays ancient Indian art on its walls and forms. It is a
magnificent example of the brilliance of artists India nurtured during the ancient times. This
temple is visited by tourists for religious and historical purposes.
Dashavatara Temple,Deogarh
Vishnu Temple (often termed Dashavatara Temple) is located at Deogarh in uttar pradesh built in
c. 500 AD. The temple is one of the earliest Hindu stone temples to still survive today. Built in
the Gupta Period (320 to c. 600 AD), Vishnu Temple shows the ornate and beauty seen in Gupta
style architecture- . This temple is also a good resource for examining Gupta style sculpturesand
art.

The temple at Deogarh is dedicated to the Vishnu.These temples made in the early part of the 6th
century of the Gupta Period housed images and symbols of Hindu gods.These temples allowed
people to make contact with the gods they were worshiping.The Temple was built out of stone
and brick consisting of a single cubical sanctum that sheltered the images within.
Fatehpur sikri architecture
Fatehpur Sikri is surrounded by wall on three sides and a lake on the fourth side. The architecture
of the buildings was based on Mughal and Indian architecture. The Indian architecture included
the Hindu and Jain architecture.
There are many structures like mosques, palaces, tombs, etc. which the tourists can view. The
name of some of them are −
 Buland Darwaza
 Jama Masjid
 Ibadat Khana
 Jamat Khana
 Tomb of Salim Chishti
 Diwan-i-Aam
 Diwan-i-Khas
 Jodha Bai Palace
 Panch Mahal
 Birbal‘s House
 Anup Talao
 Hujra-i-Anup Talao
 Naubat Khana
 Pachisi Court
 Hiran Minar
Agra Fort
The Red Fort is situated on the banks of Yamuna River in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. It is known as
Red Fort because it is built of a kind of red sandstone. Within this Fort there lies some of the
most superb architecture of the Mughal period; like the Moti Masjid, Pearl Mosque, Diwan-e-
Am, Diwan-e-Khas (public and private audience halls) and Jahangir's Palace. In 1565 Agra fort
was specially designed and built by the great Mughal Emperor Akbar. Initially it was built as a
military establishment but later on his successors made many additions to the main structure.
Several Mahals, which were built afterwards, converted half of the structure into a magnificent
palace. The fort is semi-circular shaped, flattened on the east with a long, nearly straight wall
facing the river. During the rule of Shah Jahan's, the red sandstone fort was transformed into a
palace and widely repaired with marble and pietradura inlay.
Taj mahal

Under the reign of Shah Jahan the symbolic content of Mughal architecture reached its peak.
Inspired by a verse by Bibadal Khan, the imperial goldsmith and poet, and in common with most
Mughal funerial architecture, the Taj Mahal complex was conceived as a replica on earth of the
house of Mumtaz in paradise. This theme permeates the entire complex and informs the design
and appearance of all its elements. A number of secondary principles were also used, of which
hiearachy is the mostdominant. A deliberate interplay was established between the building's
elements, its surface decoration, materials, geometric planning and its acoustics. This interplay
extends from what can be seen with the senses, into religious, intellectual, mathematical and
poetic ideas.
In the Taj Mahal, the hierarchical use of red sandstone and white marble contributes manifold
symbollic significance. The Mughals were elaborating on a concept which traced its roots to
earlier Hindu practices, set out in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, which recommended white
stone for buildings for the Brahmins (priestly caste) and red stone for members of the Kshatriyas
(warrior caste). By building structures that employed such colour coding, the Mughals identified
themselves with the two leading classes of Indian social structure and thus defined themselves as
rulers in Indian terms. Red sandstone also had significance in the Persian origins of the Mughal
Empire, where red was the exclusive colour of imperial tents.
Its symbolism is multifaceted, on the one hand evoking a more perfect, stylised and permanent
garden of paradise than could be found growing in the earthly garden; on the other, an instrument
of propaganda for Jahan's chroniclers who portrayed him as an 'erect cypress of the garden of the
caliphate' and frequently used plant metaphors to praise his good governance, person, family and
court. Plant metaphors also find a commonality with Hindu traditions where such symbols as the
'vase of plenty' (purna-ghata) can be found and were borrowed by the Mughal architects.
Allahabad Public Library
Allahabad Public Library also known as Thornhill Mayne Memorial is a public library situated at
Alfred Park in Prayagraj, Established in 1864, it is the biggest library in the state of Uttar
Pradesh. The building designed by Richard Roskell Bayne is a remarkable example of Scottish
Baronial architecture.The monument has served as the house of legislative assembly in British
era when Allahabad was the capital of United Provinces. In 1879, the Public library was shifted
to the present premises at Alfred Park.
The building known as Thornhill Mayne Memorial is situated at Alfred Park and was designed
by Richard Roskell Bayne in Scottish Baronial architecture with sharp pillars and turrets of
granite and sandstone. It represents structural polychromy with lofty towers and arcaded
cloisters. When completed in 1870, the building cost approx. INR 94,222. It was funded by
Commissioner of Allahabad, Mr. Mayne and was opened as a memorial to Cuthbert Bensley
Thornhill.
All Saints Cathedral, Allahabad

All Saints Cathedral in Allahabad was built in the late 19th century and today stands remarkably
as colonial structure. All Saints Cathedral Church was designed by Sir William Emerson in the
year 1870. The intricate work and designs on the marble altar and the stained glass panel makes
the building more attractive. The Gothic style of architecture of the All Saints Cathedral Church,
Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh in India has been a major Tourist Attraction in Allahabad. All Saints
Cathedral Church is also referred to as ―Patthar Girja‖. This church is often All Saints Cathedral
Church is situated in Canning Town which lies opposite to the Junction Railway Station.
Kanpur Memorial Church
Also known as All Souls‘ Cathedral, the Kanpur Memorial Church was built way back in 1875.
The church was built to honour those British lives that were lost during the Siege of Kanpur way
back in 1857. Located on Albert Lane, this is right at the centre of the Cantonment, and is an
architectural marvel. Built in Lombardic Gothic style, its red bricks speaks volumes of an era
that is now lost forever. Here you will also find a Memorial Garden located towards the east,
where there is a gothic screen that was carved by one Henry Yule. There is also a figure of an
angel that was crafted by Carlo Marochetti, and is something to behold. A place where you can
really get lost and go into a sort of contemplation, this is the historical saga of Kanpur that is yet
to vanish, and perhaps will forever remind Indians of the struggle for independence.
Folk dances of uttar pradesh
Charkula Dance
One of the most spectacular folk dances of Uttar Pradesh which is widely popular in the Braj
region of western Uttar Pradesh. It‘s a tough act of balance where a veiled woman dancer
performs with a 108 oil lamps on her head placed on a wooden pyramid platform. The songs are
primarily written to praise and revere Lord Krishna who was born in this region.
The dance is usually performed on the third day of the famous Hindu festival of Holi. It is said
that, Radha was born on this day and since then Charkula dance is performed in Braj. Due to the
placement of lighted earthen oil lamps, the movement in this dance form are swift and graceful.
Khyal
Khyal folk dance has evolved since its origin and matured into different styles which are named
either on the city where they originated or on the community or author who developed them.
These styles are famous across several regions with some subtle changes which help us in
differentiating them from the other.
Raslila
Many of us will be familiar with Raslila which has been introduced to us through mythological
stories in Bhagwad Gita. The Raslila was the act where Lord Krishna danced and sang with the
gopis on the banks of river Krishna in the Vrindavan region. This art form is particularly famous

in western Uttar Pradesh and portrays the life tales of Krishna ranging from his childhood till his
adolescence.
The art form is colorful and glossy with graceful dance movements and facial expressions. It also
captures the divine love that Gopikas from Braj (Mathura) had for Krishna. Raslila also explores
the relation of Krishna and Radha whose incorruptible love for each other is revered to this very
day. The folk dance is performed by mandalas (group of people) who roam from one place to
another playing instruments like dholak, flute and singing the legends of Lord Krishna.
Nautanki
Nautanki is a form of street play or skit that is popular in northern side of India especially in the
states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.It is said that before the entry of cinema in life of common man
in India, it was the only mean prevalent for entertainment. A Nautanki is consisted of folklore
and mythological dramas blended with folk songs and dances. But, now it has taken other forms
too.
Kathak
The main genre of north Indian classical dance, developed under the Nawabs, the main theme
being that of Krishna cavourting with the gopis. The performances rely on strong and energetic
footwork around laikari, the intricate rhymthic compositions, accompanied by table.
Literature of uttar pradesh
Uttar Pradesh has had a long history of language and literature. The sheer variety and richness of
the astonishing contribution of literary figures from Uttar Pradesh dates back to the ancient days.
It was the setting of Hinduism‘s twin Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and the Mahabharata
This is the land of Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and Keshavdas. There were other luminaries who
were fabled for their rich endeavours—scholars such
asAshwaghosh, Banbhatta, Mayur, Diwakar, Vakpati, Bhavbhuti,Rajshekhar, Laxmidhar,
Sri Harsh and Krishna Misra, who were prominent at the courts of the kings of the time.
Major centres of literature have been Varanasi (Banaras or Kashi of old times), Braj region,
Awadh,Bundelkhand and in later years, it was Allahabad.
A prominent hub of the ancient world for the gathering of luminaries from the fields of education
and religious thought, Varanasi has always, in successive centuries, drawn thinkers to participate
in debates on a range of subjects and promote philosophical dialectics. Its propensity for such
rich learning has placed it in high regard in the ancient texts of the Hindu epics
in Sanskrit (which were written in the state) and the Puranas (some of which were also written
in the region), along with many venerable texts ofHindu and Buddhist literature.
Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Hindustani, Braj Bhasha, English, Awadhi, Bagheli,Bhojpuri,

Bundeli and Kannauji... Uttar Pradesh is rich in linguistic traditions. Nagri Pracharni

Sabha and the Hindi Sahitya Sammelan have played vital role in encouraging literary
traditions.
Uttar Pradesh has been the cradle of Hindi and Urdu. Writers likeBhartendu
Harishchandra, Munshi Premchand, Mahadevi Verma, Srikant Verma, poets
like Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Harivanshrai Bacchan,Sumitra Nandan Pant, Mahavir
Prasad Dwiwedi, and Upendranath ‘Ashk’.
The leading luminaries in the field of Urdu poetry reads like a slice of the Who‘s-Who list of
Uttar Pradesh‘s cultural heritage— Firaq Gorakhpuri,Josh Malihabadi, Akbar
Allahabadi, Mazaz Lakhnavi, Kaifi Azmi, Ali Sardar Jafri, Shaqeel Badayuni and Nida
Fazili.
Regional languages of uttar pradesh
Khari boli dialect
Khariboli, also known as Kauravi or Delhavi, was a language variety that developed as the
prestige dialect of Hindustani, of which Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu are standard registers
and literary styles, which are the principal official languages of India and Pakistan respectively.
The term "Khariboli" has, however, been used for any literary dialect, including Braj Bhasa, and
Awadhi. As a base for the medieval Hindustani language, Khariboli is a part of the Western
group of the Central Zone (Hindi Zone) of Indo-Aryan languages. It is spoken mainly in India in
the rural area surrounding Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh, and southern Uttarakhand.
Kannauji language
Kannauji language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Indian state of Uttar
Pradesh. Kannauji is closely related to Hindustani. Some consider it to be a dialect of Hindustani,
whereas others consider it a separate Western Hindi language. Kannauji has about 6 million
speakers.
Kannauji shares many structural and functional differences from other dialects of Hindi, but in
the Linguistic Survey of India it has been added as a variant of Vraj and Avadhi. Kannauji has
two dialects or variants of its own: Tirhari and Transitional Kannauji, which is between standard
Kannauji and Awadhi.
Bagheli language
Bagheli is an Central Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Baghelkhand region of central India.
Awadhi language

Awadhi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 38 million people mainly in the Awadh,
region of Uttar Pradesh in India, and also in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Nepal and Mauritius.
It is closely related to Hindi and is considered by many as an Eastern dialect of Hindi.
Awadhi is usually written with the Devanagari alphabet, or with the Kaithi alphabet, or with a
mixture of the two. It was first appeared in writing during the 12th century in the work of
Damodara Pandita.
Bhojpuri language
Bhojpuri is an Indo-Aryan Language spoken by 150 million people in and around North-Central
and Eastern India. It is also spoken in Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad, Suriname and Guyana. The
language of Bhojpuri is not a separate language but a dialect of Hindi and part of the other Bihari
languages like Maithili and Magadhi. They are part of the Eastern Zone group of Indo-Aryan
languages which includes Bengali and Oriya.
Bundeli language
Bundeli, is a Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Bundelkhand region of central India. It belongs
to the Central Indo-Ayran languages and is part of the Western Hindi subgroup.
A descendant of the Sauraseni Apabhramsha language, Bundeli was classified under Western
Hindi by George Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India. Bundeli is also closely
related to Braj Bhasha, which was the foremost literary language in central India until the
nineteenth century. Like many other Indo-Aryan languages, Bundeli has often been subject to a
designation as a dialect, instead of a language. Furthermore, as is the case with other Hindi
languages, Bundeli speakers have been conflated with those of Standard Hindi in censuses.
Braj Bhasha
Braj Bhasha language, also spelled Braj Bhasa, Braj Bhakha, or Brij Bhasa, language descended
from Shauraseni Prakrit and commonly viewed as a western dialect of Hindi. It is spoken by
some 575,000 people, primarily in India. Its purest forms are spoken in the cities of Mathura,
Agra, Etah, and Aligarh. Most speakers of Braj Bhasha worship the Hindu deity Krishna. Their
bhakti (―devotion‖) finds expression in the language, which has a very firm base in folk literature
and songs. Almost all of the enactments of episodes from Krishna‘s life that are performed
during the Janmashtami festival (celebrating Krishna‘s birth) are presented in Braj Bhasha.
Cultural heritage
Uttar Pradesh in one of the most ancient cradles of Indian culture. While it is true that no
Harappa and Mohan-Jodaro have been discovered in the State, the antiquities found in Banda
(Bundelkhand), Mirzapur and Meerut link its History to early Stone Age and Harappan era.
Chalk drawings or dark red drawings by primitive men are extensively found in the Vindhyan
ranges of Mirzapur districts. Utensils of that age have also been discovered in Atranji-Khera,
Kaushambi, Rajghat and Sonkh. Copper articles have been found in Kanpur, Unnao, Mirzapur,

Mathura and advent of the Aryans in this State. It is most probable that snapped links between
the Indus Valley and Vedic civilizations lie buried under the ruins of ancient sites found in this
State. The population mostly comprises of an Indo-Dravidian ethnic group. Only a small
population, in the Himalayan region, displays Asiatic origins. Hindus constitute more than 80
percent of the population, Muslims more than 15 percent, and other religious communities
include Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists.
The handicrafts of Uttar Pradesh have earned a reputation for themselves over the centuries. The
traditional handicrafts are of a vast variety such as textiles, metal ware, woodwork, ceramics,
stonework, dolls, leather products, ivory articles, papier-mâché, articles made of horns, bone,
cane and bamboo, perfume, and musical instrument. These cottage crafts are spread all over the
state but the more important centers are located at Varanasi, Aamgarh, Maunath Bhanjan,
Ghazipur, Meerut, Muradabad, and Agra. Carpets from Bhadohi and Mirzapur are prized
worldwide. Silks and brocades of Varanasi, ornamental brassware from Muradabad, chickan (a
type of embroidery) work from Lucknow, ebony work from Nagina, glassware from Firozabad,
and carved woodwork from Saharanpur also are important. The traditional pottery centers are
located at Khurja, Chunar, Lucknow, Rampur, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, and Azamgarh. Khurja's
dishes, pitchers, and flower bowls in blazed ceramic in blue, green, brown and orange colors are
the most attractive. Muradabad produces exquisite brass utility articles. Besides, minakari on
silver, gold, and diamond-cut silver ornaments have made Varanasi and Lucknow world famous.
Social customs in Uttar Pradesh
Society is Patriarchal like most of Uttar Pradesh and male elders are considered heads. Though
many governmental schemes like LPG connection that is given only in the name of female elder
of the house has brought somewhere female on front but in decision making they are considered
subordinate to men. Caste System is abundant in this region but in much liberal form. Generally
people of Scheduled Castes are treated badly or humiliated but that in exceptional cases.
Villagers live on principle of mutual cooperation. Caste ostracities are rarely reported. Much to
the surprise all people gather and take part in functions and religious ceremonies that are
organized by local administration forgetting all differences.
Culture encompasses the way of life of a society. It includes the attitude of the people towards
others, their behavior, mannerisms and ways to celebrate different aspects of life. It also includes
the ways in which the people express themselves through fine and performing arts. Uttar
Pradesh's greatest gifts to humanity are the two epics, 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata'. From the
epic age, the territory of Uttar Pradesh being watered by several fresh streams of culture, the two
most significant being those generated by the teachings of the Buddha and Mahavira, the 24th
Jain Tirthankar. The fountainheads of Brahmanical culture were centered at holy places as Kashi,
Ayodhya, Prayag, Mathura and the Himalayan hermitages. Mathura has proved to be a veritable
store-house of buried ancient art, both of the Brahmanical and Buddhist varieties and Kashi,
which has withstood the ravages of times, of living Hindu art. Its people belong to many
religions and come from distant parts of the country but have had the latitude to recreate their
own native cultures. Afghans, Kashmiris, Bengalis, Parsis and Punjabi immigrants settled here.
Christians, Hindus, Muslims and Buddhists all found the freedom to practice their religions and

pass it on to successive generations. While it is secular, liberal and progressive, at the same time
it is deeply rooted in social and religious traditions and taboos.
Uttar Pradesh is a melting pot of cultures. Society is basically patriarchal. Families are nuclear,
joint and extended. Now joint families have become rare. Much due to the advent of British in
India family structure changed as new agrarian systems put a burden on famers and it became
hard for one to look after whole family. New commercial changes that have given rise to self-
dependent youngsters are also a reason for less popularity of joint family systems. People are
generally habituated to all type of clothing but it is still considered modest to wear traditional
dresses for women.
Tourism in Uttar Pradesh
Embedded in the heart of India is Uttar Pradesh, a land where cultures have evolved and
religions emerge. The greatness of Uttar Pradesh lies not only in this confluence, but also in the
emergence of cultural and religious traditions along some of the greatest rivers in the Indian sub-
continent – the Ganga and the Yamuna. Throughout history, great cities have emerged and
established along great rivers. Within India, the Ganga and the Yamuna have nurtured a culture
because of which religious faith, rituals, culture and intellectual enlightenment have evolved in
places along the two rivers.
Some of the best tourist attractions in uttar pradesh are as follows:
Agra
The land of Taj, Agra has earned itself international fame for being a heritage hotspot in the
country. Reflecting the architecture excellence of the Mughal Era, Agra stands on the bank of
River Yamuna. The Mughal Empire has endowed Agra with architectural grandeurs like tombs
and mausoleums; forts and palaces; gardens and mosques. A creative ground for the art lovers
like Akbar, Shah Jahan and even the Lodi rulers, Agra is one such destination that alone brings a
great boost in Uttar Pradesh tourism.
Mathura
‗Krishnabhoomi‘ or the land of Krishna, Mathura is amongst the most visited places in Uttar
Pradesh. The town near the famed Vrindavan is dotted with temples and a sacred Yamuna River
flows past it. The entire lined with 25 ghats, which are thronged by devotees at dawn and sunset.
Mathura was once a Buddhist centre and the home to thousands of monks and several
monasteries, today all that remains of the old sights are the beautiful sculptures recovered from
ruins.
Vrindavan
Holding immense religious importance amongst Hindu devotees, Vrindavan is a place where the
worshippers of Lord Krishna throng to seek the blessing. Dozens of temples, old and modern, dot
the town and they come in all shapes and sizes holding their own peculiarities and stories. Each

temple can be reached by narrow winding lanes that are plush with shops that sell worship items
and sweets. One thing, one has to be aware of are monkeys, who practically mug visitors.
Varanasi
This religious city in Uttar Pradesh is said to be one of the oldest continually inhabited places in
the world. Sitting on the bank of River Ganges, Varanasi is known for its ghats and the winding
lanes dotted with temples that come in all sizes and shape. Haunt of Shiva devotees and home to
some bizarrely-dressed sadhus, Varanasi is an absolutely a must visit place in Uttar Pradesh.
Dasaswamedh Ghat, Assi Ghat, New Vishwanath Temple, Kathwala TempleKashi
Vishwanath/Golden Temple, Monkey Temple, Bharat Mata Temple etc. are some of the
important tourist attractions in Varanasi.
Sarnath
An important Buddhist site in India, Sarnath is a scintillating gem of Uttar Pradesh tourism.
Reckoned to be the place where Buddha preached his first sermon, Sarnath is a neighbor of
Varanasi city. Later magnified by Ashoka by the establishment of stupas and monasteries, this
city became a popular destination amongst Buddhist devotees. It is believed that the site
disappeared completely in 12th century but was rediscovered during 19th century by British
archaeologists. Today, Sarnath is amongst the most important Buddhist destinations in India.
Ayodhya
The much controversial yet sacred Ayodhya has been an infamous destination in Uttar Pradesh
for more than two decades now but the controversy has earned it an ambiguous international
acclaim. The birthplace of Lord Rama, Ayodhya besides its controversial site is a great place to
take a plunge into the pool of spirituality. The city is dotted with temples and thus makes another
apt place to go for temple tour in Uttar Pradesh.
Kapilvastu
Recognized as the Shakya Capital, where Lord Buddha was born, Kapilvastu is an important
place for Buddhist devotees. Situated about 27kms from Siddhartha Nagar district, the place has
ruins that back to 8th century BC. The archeologists have excavated as many as 14 different
layers of human habitat in this region, there are several Stupas found here that were built by
Ashoka and the Gupta Kings. Today, Kapilvastu comprises of the several villages like Piprahwa,
Ganvaria and Salagarh.
Allahabad
Famed for its Sangam (confluence of rivers) and the Kumbh Mela, Allahabad is an important
tourism destination in Uttar Pradesh. The city has been an important part of Indian history and
has also been the home of eminent Indian celebrities like Jawaharlal Nehru and Harivansh Rai
Bachchan. Allahabad boasts its British era buildings, Mughal fort and tombs and its special
‗red‘guavas.

Chitrakoot
A tranquil retreat, Chitrakoot is an ideal holiday destination in Uttar Pradesh. Chitrakoot is also
amongst the holy places of India. Legend has it that it was the abode of Lord Rama, his consort
Sita and brother Lakshman for eleven years of their fourteen years of exile. Dotted with
numerous temples and nature‘s splendor, Chitrakoot is wrapped in peace and tranquility that is
only disturbed by the sound of chirping birds and gushing streams. Kamadgiri, Sphatik Shila
Hanuman Dhara Ram Dhara, Janku Kund are some of the most important tourist attractions in
this region.
Lucknow
Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, lies in the middle of the Heritage Arc. This bustling city,
famed for its Nawabi era finesse and amazing food, is a unique mix of the ancient and the
modern. It is home to extraordinary monuments depicting a fascinating blend of ancient, colonial
and oriental architecture.
The Bada Imambara lies in the old city. It was built by the Nawab of Awadh, Asif-ud-Daula in
1784. The complex consists of several buildings. It has a mosque, a labyrinth and a bowli- a step
well. The labyrinth, commonly called a maze is one of the main attractions here, it might get a
bit confusing to find your way out here with lots of steps, yet people have a great time solving
that puzzle. It might become a little difficult if you forget to carry a torch. The Bada Imambara is
a great place to see cultural integration in terms of architecture, a Nawab's care for the people of
his kingdom and the techniques adopted to ensure maximum security.
Kushinagar
Kushinagar is an important destination of Buddhist Circuit in India. It is recognized as a place

where Lord Buddha breathed his last. Therefore this place is revered high amongst the Buddhist
devotees. There are several temples where one can stay, chat with monks or simply contemplate
one‘s existence in the world. There are three main historical sites, including stupa, which is
erected at a place where Buddha is said to have been cremated.
The climate of Uttar Pradesh

The climate of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) is primarily defined as humid subtropical with dry winter
(CWa) type with parts of Western U.P. as semi-arid (BS) type.
However based on the Köppen climate classification, it can be classified mostly as Humid
Subtropical with dry winter type with parts of Eastern U.P. as Semi-Arid (BS) type.

U.P. has a climate of extremes. With temperatures fluctuating anywhere from 0 °C to 50 °C in
several parts of the state and cyclical droughts and floods due to unpredictable rains, the
summers are extremely hot, winters cold and rainy season can be either very wet or very dry.
The primary temperature, rainfall and wind features of the three Distinct Seasons of U.P. can be
summarized as below:
18 Summer (March–June): Hot & dry (temperatures rise to 45 °C, sometimes 47-48 °C); low
relative humidity (20%); dust laden winds.
Monsoon (June–September): 85% of average annual rainfall of 990 mm. Fall in temperature 40-
45° on rainy days.
Winter (October–February): Cold (temperatures drop to 3-4 °C, sometimes below -1 °C); clear
skies; foggy conditions in some tracts. Given significant climatic differences,
U.P. has been divided into two meteorological subdivisions - U.P. East and U.P. West. IMD
office situated at Airport, Lucknow is nodal for providing all the weather related forecasts &
details.
Average Rainfall
Precipitation in Uttar Pradesh is primarily a summer phenomenon, the Bay of Bengal branch of
the Indian Monsoon is the major bearer of rain in most parts of U.P. It is the South-West
Monsoon which brings most of the rain here, although rain due to the western disturbances and
North-East Monsoon also contribute small quantities towards the overall precipitation of the
state.
The mean south-west monsoon (June, July, August & September) rainfall (799 mm) contributes
84.4% of annual rainfall (946 mm). Mean monthly rainfall during July (268 mm) is highest and
contributes about 28.3% of annual rainfall. The mean rainfall during August is slightly lower and
contributes about 26.5% of annual rainfall. June and September rainfall contribute 11.2% and
18.4% of annual rainfall, respectively. Contribution of pre-monsoon (March, April & May)
rainfall and postmonsoon (October, November & December) rainfall in annual rainfall is 7.1%
and 4.9% respectively. Coefficient of variation is higher during the months of November,
December,January and February.
Uttar Pradesh 1,025 mm

Plain of West Uttar Pradesh 896 mm
Hills of West Uttar Pradesh 1,667 mm

Uttar Pradesh : Soils

Six well defined and distinct soil groups differing from one another in their geological formation
and pedogenic
characters have been recognized. These are Bhabar soils, Tarai soils, Vindhyan soils,
Bundelkhand soils, Aravali soils and Alluvial soils. Each of these soil groups have developed
under the combined influence of a wide range of soil forming factors including climate,
vegetation and parent materials. The major coverage of alluvial soil in further grouped as saline
alkaline- soils, Karail soils and Bhatt soils.
Soils in most of the districts of Uttar Pradesh are low in available Nitrogen, forty one districts
have low in available
Phosphorus status and fourteen districts are medium in available Phosphorus (Bareilly,
Moradabad, Bijnor, Farukabad, Faizabad, Bahraich, Gond, Hardoi, Lakhimpur and Sitapur).
Available Potassium is low in twenty nine districts. Seventeen percent soils are medium in

available Potassium status, and four percent soils high Potassium.
Soils of recent alluvium, Ganga plains and uplands, central lowlands, Yamuna uplands and
Kanpur districts are rated medium to high in available Sulphur.
The available Zinc status in Basti, Deoria, Azamgarh, Ballia, Ghazipur and Jaunpur are low.
However, the soils in Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Varanasi, Deoria and Gorakhpur districts rated high in
Zinc status. Soils of Bulandshar, Meerut, Muzaffarpur, Hamirpur and Banda districts are highly
deficient in available Zinc.
Availability of Iron in the soils varied in the following order Hill > Alluvial >Vindhyan >
Bundelkhand >Tarai. Soils of Unnao, Hardoi, and Farukhabad are low in available Iron status.
Uttar Pradesh :Vegetation

By legal status, Reserved Forest constitutes 65.9%, Protected Forest 14.4% and Unclassed Forest
19.7% . There are three forest types, namely Tropical Moist Deciduous, Tropical Dry Deciduous
and Tropical Thorn. Sal is an important forest formation of the State. Forests are distributed
largely in the northern and partly in the southern parts of the State. The central part is devoid of
forest vegetation as it is mainly under agriculture.
A forest cover increase was recorded by the Forest Survey of India report of 1999, in the districts
of Hardoi, Kheri, Saharanpur, because plantation was under taken 4-5 years earlier and also due
to effective protection measures. A decrease in forest cover was observed in the districts of
Banda, Jhansi, Mirzapur, and Sonbhadra which was largely on account of biotic pressures.
Uttar Pradesh has been categorized into three major eco-zones on the basis of forest and
vegetation types. These three zones are:- the Terai region; the Gangetic plains (West and East

Uttar Pradesh); the Bundelkhand of Uttar Pradesh including the Vindhya ranges.
The terai region of Uttar Pradesh is a very important ecosystem for many threatened species of
tall wet grasslands and swamps and is the topmost priority for conservation . It supports many
threatened bird species such as the Swamp Francolin Francolinus gularis and Bengal Florican
Houbaropsis bengalensis . Earlier, the terai was continuous, but now it occurs in pockets in
protected areas of India and Nepal such as the Royal Chitwan National Park (NP), Royal Bardia
NP, Royal Parsa Wildlife Reserve and Royal Sukhlaphanta Wildlife Reserve in Nepal, and
Karterniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS), Kishanpur WLS, and Dudwa NP in Uttar Pradesh and
Valmiki WLS in Bihar.
Reserved Forests (RF) A wasteland, forest area that is the property of government can be
constituted as RF under the provision of the Indian Forest Act. Activities leading to damage to
the forest are prohibited: clearing of forest; setting up of fire; kindling or carrying fire; causing
damage to the trees, felling, girdling, logging, tapping, stripping of barks; quarrying of stones;
poisoning of rivers; hunting of animals; trespassing of cattle and; cultivation
Protected Forest (PF) The Indian Forest Act empowers the State government to declare any
forest or wasteland, which is the property of the government or over which it has proprietary
rights including the whole or any part of its forest produce, as PF. No act is prohibited unless
notified.
Forest and Wildlife Department Uttar Pradesh, conducts departmental tree plantation work
during rainy season, to increase the forest and tree cover in the state various schemes are being
implemented by the Uttar Pradesh government large scale tree plantation programme is being
conducted in the state through social forestry, social forestry in urban areas, green belt
development scheme and total forest cover scheme. The task of tree plantation is implemented
by Forest and Wildlife Department in coordination with the other government departments. The
efforts are being made to ensure ample participation of localities, women, farmers, public
representatives and students in tree plantation programmes. The Forest and Wildlife Department
and the state government are actively engaged to ensure the success of plantation work and high
quality plantation.
The various varieties of Rosewood, Neem, Cassia, Gulmohar, Jakranda, Cirrus, Kanji, Mango,
Chitwan, Banyan, Pipal, Ficus, Mulsri, Bauhinia, Kadamb, Tamarind, Bel and Mahua are being
planted in the state as per soil and climatic conditions. The state government is emphasizing on
more and more plantation of large and conventional trees. The state government is making

sustained efforts towards the establishments on green belt, development of eco tourism and
success of plantations to increase the forests and tree cover in the state.
In order to uplift living standard of communities living in forest areas and to include them in
development and management of forests, the forestry works are being executed by constituting
joint village forest management committees and eco development committees. In this way,
efforts are being made to economically uplift the people living surrounding the forest areas by
engaging them in wildlife protection and in forestry activities.
Uttar Pradesh: National Parks / Tiger Reserves /Wildlife

Sanctuaries
1. National Chambal Sanctuary - The National Chambal Sanctuary is famous for the rare
Gangetic dolphin. The Sanctuary was founded in 1979 and is a part of a large area co-
administered by Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. Apart from the Gangetic
dolphin, the other inhabitants of the sanctury include magar (crocodile) and ghariyal
(alligator), chinkara, sambar, nilgai, wolf and wild bear.
2. Bakhira Bird Sanctuary – situated near Gorakhpur. This is an important and largest
natural flood plain wetland in the eastern U.P., which provides a wintering & staging
ground for a number of migratory waterfowls & a breeding ground for resident birds.
3. Sohagabarwa Wildlife Sanctuary - This area was declared a Sanctuary in the year 1987
and is spread over an area of 482 km2. It is the prominent attraction of Maharajganj
District and includes seven forest ranges of the adjoining areas. The Sanctuary acts as the
corridor between the Sanctuaries in Nepal & Bihar. It is one of the habitats of tiger in
U.P.
4. Chandra Prabha Wildlife Sanctuary - The Sanctuary is located in Chandauli District,

in the south eastern part of U.P beautiful picnic spots, dense forest, and scenic waterfalls
like Raj Dari & Dev Dari & a dam nearby called Chandra Prabha Dam. It was the habitat
of Asiatic Lion from 1957-1970 but after that lions disappeared from here. It serves as a
natural & ideal habitat with its grasslands, many caves in Vindhyan area & waterfalls for
a host of animals & plants (medicinal also) . Chandra Prabha & Karmnasha rivers,
flowing through the sanctuary have a variety of fish.

5. Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary - The Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, established in 1982, is

spread over an area of about 501 km2 of Mirzapur & Sonbhadra District. The Sanctuary
has a wide variety of wildlife in its lush green dense forest cover with numerous
waterfalls, treasure of pre-historic caves, rock paintings & heritage of rare fossils.
Lakhania Paintings (Rock Paintings)- Rock paintings found in the cave of this area are
about 4000 year old and were discovered in 1968. Most of the paintings are in terracotta
colour & depict hunting, cattle grazing, war scenes, worshipping, bee-keeping, decorative
floor designs, meeting, domestic chores etc.
6. Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary – This Wildlife Sanctuary is situated near Nepal

border in the Tarai region of Bahraich district and is a part of Dudhawa Tiger Reserve.
Girwa & Kodiala Rivers which join together and are later known as Ghaghra traverse the
sanctuary.
7. Suhelwa Wildlife Sanctuary - The Sanctuary is divided into two parts, viz, East &
West. The Sanctuary was established in 1988. Suhelwa is connected with the forest of
Mahadevpuri in Nepal. It is one of the habitats of tigers in U.P., which is the main
attraction of the Suhelwa Wildlife Sanctuary.
Mineral Resources of Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh is the principal holder of country's andalusite & diaspore resources and possesses
78% andalusite 37% diaspore and 10% pyrophyllite. Important minerals occurring in Uttar
Pradesh are: coal in Singrauli coalfields,Sonbhadra district. diaspore & pyrophyllite in Hamirpur,
Jhansi, Lalilpur and Mahoba districts. Naini area of Allahabad contains High quality of silica
sand, an important source of glass sand, containing 98% SiO2, and a very low Fe2O3 is found in
Shankargarh. Lohargath in Allahabad district and also Bargarh in Banda district It is also found
in Aligarh ind Chitrakoot districts.
Detailed analysis of various Minerals of Uttar Pradesh is as follows:-
Cement and other Limestone based Industry
The State was producing only 1.4 millions tonnes of Cement as against a demand of 6 million
tonnes. The investigations carried out show the possibility of tapping additional reserves of
Limestone for Cement as well as for Steel and other Chemical industries in the following areas.
Large Cement Plants

Kannach-Basuhari, Sonbhadra
 About 145 Million tonnes of Cement grade Limestone has been outlined for setting up a
million tonnes Cement plant expandable up to 2 million tonnes.
Mini Cement Plants

A vast potential for Cement grade Limestone has been outlined in block VI of Kajrahat
Limestone deposit in Sonbhadra which can be considered for Mini cement plant.
Dolomite
Deposits occur in the Kajrahat belt and are estimated about 15 million tonnes near Bari
Village of Sonbhadra.
Rock Phosphate
About 6 Million tonnes of low grade (+16% P2O5 ) Phosphate occur in Lalitpur. The high grade
ore is being sold as a direct fertilizer and to elemental Phosphorus plants. A mining and
beneficiation project in Lalitpur is under formulation in joint sector for producing 1,30,000
tonnes of concentrate annually with +35% P2O5 . Downstream industries are also under
consideration.
Silica Sand
Extensive deposits of high grade Silica Sand occur near Shankargarh and Bargarh in Allahabad
and Chitrakoot distt. Some of these deposits are mined by private lease holders on a small scale.
Based on Lalapur deposits additional large scale mining and beneficiation units has been
established by National Mineral Development Corporation.
Pyrophyllite and Diaspore
Small deposits of Pyrophyllite and Diaspore occur in Hamirpur, Mahoba Jhansi and Lalitpur
districts. These are mined by private individuals and sold as a filler&handicrafts. These mines
can be developed to produce large quantities of classified products for ceramics and refractory
industry.
Bauxite and Synthetic Emery
About 8.4 million tones of metal grade Bauxite occur south of Manikpur in Chitrakoot district.
Sand Lime Bricks
The Bricks offer competitive price and attractive colours and hence are in great demand. Few
more plants can be set up in the state. In addition, production of Fly Ash-Lime Bricks can also be
considered, since large stocks of fly ash are lying unused. Setting up of such eco friendly plants
will save the excavation of earth and also the fuel wood used for making Red bricks.

Granite
A large potentiality of dimensional Granite, suitable for blocks slabs and tiles exists in district
Lalitpur, Jhansi, Mahoba, Banda and Sonbhadra and few areas in Lalitpur, are producing
dimensional Granite, which has a potential export market. There is a potentiality for establishing
more plants in the Joint sector.
Sandstone
Vindhyan sandstone occur in Agra, Lalitpur, Chitrakoot, Allahabad, Mirzapur, Varanasi and
Sonbhadra districts. These are exploited by private parties and marketed as Slabstone, Millstone
and Building stone. These districts provide opportunity for indigenous market and export too.
Placer Gold
Large areas of river beds of Saharanpur district contain gold ranging from 0.1-0.2 gm/cubic
meter of sand. Beneficiation tests completed so far indicate 60-80% of gold recovery using
simple gravity methods.
China Clay
There are possibilities of proving large deposits of China clay at Naudiha, Ramgarh, Kon &
Nigahein and Jaljalia in distt. Sonbhadra. The clay occur in the weathering zone below sandstone
in 5-15 meter thick zone and width of individual pockets vary from 150-200 meters. The
recovery of the clay fraction is over 50%. The deposits are presently under exploratation.17
Million Tonnes of china clay deposit is available for entrepreneurs. It is available at Naudiha 40
Kms from Chopan. This area is well connected by metal road. The china clay of Naudiha-
Ramgarh is a low grade Plastic-clay and could be used in low temperature stone-ware body for
the production of crockery etc.
Andalusite
Low grade andalusite deposits occur in Harnakachar area near Wyndhamganj and Bagisoti area
of Sonbhadra. GSI had estimated about 14 million tones reserves in Wyndhamganj area.
Potential occurrences can be considered for exploitation.
Low Grade Iron Ore
Large reserves of low grade (25-30% iron) iron ore which can be easily upgraded to 45% iron
using gravity methods occur at Girar, Lalitpur. These reserves can be utilized for making sponge
iron.
Hydropower and Irrigation projects

1. Rihand Dam - This is the largest multi-purpose project of Uttar Pradesh, straight gravity
concrete dam across the river Rihand (a Tributary of the Son river) near village Pipri in
Sonbhadra district. The water so impounded is collected in Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar
reservoir. Dam is used for irrigation and electricity generation supplying continuous
electricity to nearby Aluminium smelters.
2. Rajghat Dam is an Inter-state Dam project of the Government of Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh being constructed on Betwa River about 14 km from Historical place
Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh and 22 km from Lalitpur in Uttar Pradesh, India. Thus, the
Rajghat Dam Project will serve as mother storage for Irrigation in Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh through a cascade of hydraulic structures in the downstream of River
Betwa. The installed capacity of the power house is 45 MW (3 x 15 MW).
3. Ramganga - also known as the Kalagarh Dam. The dam is part of the Ramganga
Multipurpose Project — an irrigation and hydroelectric project. It is located within the
Jim Corbett National Park.
4. Sharda Sagar dam - located in Udham Singh Nagar, used for irrigation and storage.

Modern History and Culture Booster 2018
Cathedral architecture always exceptions. Let's start at the entrance.
The history of cathedral architecture begins When you walk through the main front door of the
around the year 312 CE. When the Byzantine cathedral, generally called the West Door, you
emperor, Constantine I, publicly converted to enter into the narthex. The narthex is a
Christianity and legitimized Christianity as a formal congregating space, often separated from the
religion, the Christian church as we know it was main worship area by another set of doors. The
formally organized. Although there were narthex has changed quite a bit over the years. At
impressive buildings long before, calling these times it was almost non-existent and at others it
structures cathedrals would be misleading as was massive. Some medieval cathedrals had large
bishops did not come into play until the 4th seating areas in an elevated narthex reserved for
century. royal patrons, while others used the narthex to

hold royal tombs.
With the early Christian church based largely in
Rome, their architecture was mostly also based on Past the narthex is the main part of the church.
Roman precedents. In the Roman Empire, local Generally, this main part has three central aisles.
magistrates would hold court in a long, The middle aisle is called the nave. The side aisles
rectangular hall called a basilica. In one end of the were historically used for people passing through
hall, the magistrate would legislate and at the the church to get to one of the chapels, while the
other end was generally a small chapel-style nave was used for processionals. The front of the
temple to worship the Roman gods. Basilicas were nave is intercepted by a long perpendicular
important to Romans as they constituted an section called the transept. If you think of a
unrestricted public space, something Romans cathedral like a lowercase t, the transept is the
valued as a right of citizenship. This meant that horizontal line. Transepts often contain chapels,
practically anybody could congregate in a basilica small areas meant for private worship. Chapels are
to hold meetings, socialize, or discuss important often funded by a private donor or family, who
matters. When early Christians started coming also may have had the option to decorate it. In
together to practice their religion, they often did fact, some of the most important paintings in
so in Roman basilicas. Western history were commissioned for private

chapels.
Parts of a Cathedral
Bom Jesus-Old Goa
Over time, cathedrals came to share a common
adhere to a basic floor plan, although there are
Pscnotes.com Page 1
The Bom Jesus Basilica, perhaps Goa's most simplicity. It measures 183 ft in length,55 ft in
famous church and among the most revered by breath, and 61 ft in height. The main altar is 54 ft
Christians worldwide, is partially in ruins but still a high and 30 ft broad. The pillars and detail are
model of simplicity and elegance, and a fine carved from basalt which was brought from
example of Jesuit architecture.alt This is the only Bassein, some 300 kms away. The interior of the
church in Old Goa, which is not plastered on the church is built in Mosaico-Corinthian style and is
outside, the lime plaster having been stripped off remarkable for its charming simplicity.
by a zealous Portuguese conservationist in 1950.
The roof was originally tiled. The church is
Located at Old Goa, 10 kilometres east of Panaji, cruciform on plan. The flying buttresses on the
the Bom Jesus Basilica is a World Heritage northern side of the church are recent additions. A
Monument. The foundation stone of this single-storeyed structure adjoining the church on
remarkably large church was laid on 24 November its southern wing connects it with the Professed
1594 and the church was consecrated by Fr. Alexia House.
de Menezes, the Archbishop of Goa and Primate
The three-storeyed facade of the Church shows
of India consecrated it when it was completed on
Ionic, Doric and Corinthian Orders, and has a main
15 May 1605. In 1946 it was raised to the status of
entrance flanked by two smaller ones, each having
a minor Basilica.
Corinthian columns supporting a pediment. There
The Order of Jesuits was suppressed in 1759 and are two chapels, a main altar and a sacristy
its property confiscated by the Portuguese State. besides a choir inside the Church itself. There is a
The church was, however allowed to continue belfry is at the back.
services. This magnificent edifice stands as a
As one enters, beneath the choir, to the right is an
superb example of Baroque architecture in Goa.
altar of St. Anthony and to the left is an
The church is called "Bom Jesus" meaning 'good exceedingly well-carved wooden statue of St.
Jesus' or 'infant Jesus' to whom it is dedicated. The Francis Xavier. In the middle of the nave on the
façade has on it, at the top, the letters, "HIS" northern wall is the cenotaph of the benefactor of
which are the first three letters of Jesus in Greek. this church, Dom Jeronimo Mascarenhas, the
Captain of Cochin, who died in 1593, bequeathing
The imposing facade built out of black granite in
the resources out of which this church was built.
an exquisite combination of the Doric, Corinthian
The two columns supporting the choir bear slabs
and composite styles, is remarkable for its
Pscnotes.com Page 2
inscribed in Portuguese and Latin the dates of The interiors of the church has depictions of the
beginning of construction and the consecration. life of Saint Paul in pictures, posters and other
documents that portray his holy deeds. The
St. Paul’s- Kolkata
ambience of the church is soothing and allows you
St. Paul's Cathedral is rich in its history, culture to stay at peace with yourself, forgetting the noise
and religious relevance. Being of the major and chaos around you. A special meditation point
landmarks of the city, the church sees thousands has been set up in the church for those who wish
of visitors every year from across the globe. to meditate.
The church is one of the finest examples of St. Thomas-Chennai

buildings built using Gothic Revival style of
San Thome Basilica is a Roman Catholic (Latin Rite)
architecture. Though the cornerstone of the
minor basilica in Santhome, in the city of Chennai
church was laid in 1839, the structure was
(Madras), India. It was built in the 16th century by
complete only by 1847. St. Paul's Cathedral, the
Portuguese explorers, over the tomb of Saint
largest cathedral in Kolkata, is also the first
Thomas, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. In
cathedral that was built in the overseas territory
1893, it was rebuilt as a church with the status of a
of the British Empire.
cathedral by the British. The British version still
The church has a close resemblance to the stands today. It was designed in Neo-Gothic style,
Norwich Cathedral in England. Though the favoured by British architects in the late 19th
structure had witnessed earthquake twice and century. This church is one of the only three
ruined partially, the structure was soon rebuilt to known churches in the world built over the tomb
the cathedral we see today. of an apostle of Jesus, the other two being St.
Peter's Basilica in Vatican City and Santiago de
It is believed that the church was built to replace
Compostela Cathedral in Galicia, Spain.
St. John's Church due to the increasing European
population in the city. Designed by the famous It is claimed that St. Thomas’s apostolic ministry in
English architect Major W. N. Forbes, the church is India took place specifically at Cranganore along
a beautiful piece of art with its slender vertical the Malabar coast from 52 A.D to 68 A.D. His
piers, pointed arches and counterbalancing journey through Kerala is said to have resulted in
buttresses. numerous conversions. After spending 10 years on
the Malabar coast he is said to have travelled
Eastwards across the Deccan Plateau, arriving in
Pscnotes.com Page 3
Mylapore in 68 A.D. The cave at little mount is Concept of Decolonization, Nationalism and
claimed to be his favourite preaching spot. A 2000 Socialism, Globalization and Concept of
Modernity
year old never drying, a miraculous stream of
water on a rock face are said to be examples of Concept of Decolonization
the apostle’s divine exploits. A church atop St. Decolonization refers to the undoing
Thomas mount was built by Portuguese in 1547 to of colonialism, the establishment of governance or
authority through the creation of settlements by
mark the spot. It was on this St. Thomas Mount
another country or jurisdiction. The term generally
that the apostle was said to be killed by a lance refers to the achievement of independence by the
which pierced through his back. various Western colonies and protectorates in
Asia and [Africa]] following World War II. This
His mortal remains were believed to be buried in conforms with an intellectual movement known as
Post-Colonialism. A particularly active period of
the location over which the present day
decolonization occurred between 1945 to 1960,
Santhomes Cathedral Basilica stands. Sometime in beginning with the independence of Pakistan and
the 10th century A.D a group of Nestorian the Republic of India from Great Britain in 1947
and the First Indochina War. Some national
Christians from Persia founded the Christian
liberation movements were established before the
village of San Thomes and proceeded to build a war, but most did not achieve their aims until
church over the burial site of St. Thomas. This after it. Decolonization can be achieved by
structure fell to ruins between 14th and 15th attaining independence, integrating with the
administering power or another state, or
century. In 1522 the Portuguese moved the
establishing a "free association" status. The United
apostle’s remains to a new tomb and church Nations has stated that in the process of
which attained the status of Cathedral in 1606. decolonization there is no alternative to the
principle of self-determination. ecolonization was
Pope Pius XII honored the Cathedral Church of the overseen by the United Nations, with UN
membership as the prize each newly independent
Archdiocese of Madras - Mylapore raising it to the
nation cherished as a sign of membership in the
rank of Minor Basilica by apostolic brief dated community of nations. The United Nations
16th March 1956. Massive followings and the Trusteeship Council was suspended in 1994,
immense devotion of people to a very ancient after Palau, the last remaining United Nations
trust territory, achieved independence. From 1945
image of the Blessed Virgin also known as “Our
and the end of the twentieth century, the number
Lady of Mylapore” was among the motives that of sovereign nation-states mushroomed from 50
prompted the Pope to bestow this honour. to 192 and few stopped to ask if this was the right
direction for human political organization to be
moving. Decolonization may involve peaceful
negotiation, non-violent protest or violent revolt
Pscnotes.com Page 4
and armed struggle. Or, one faction pursues one The American and French revolutions may be
strategy while another pursues the opposite. regarded as its first powerful manifestations. After
Some argue because of neocolonialism many penetrating the new countries of Latin America it
former colonies are not truly free but remain spread in the early 19th century to central Europe
dependent on the world's leading nations. No one and from there, toward the middle of the century,
of principle wants to deny people their freedom, to eastern and southeastern Europe. At the
or perpetuate oppression, injustice and inequality. beginning of the 20th century nationalism
many celebrate decolonization in the name of flowered in the ancient lands of Asia and Africa.
freedom and realization of the basic human rights Thus the 19th century has been called the age of
of self-determination, others question whether nationalism in Europe, while the 20th century has
equality, justice, peace, the end of poverty, witnessed the rise and struggle of powerful
exploitation and the dependency of some on national movements throughout Asia and Africa.
others can be achieved as long as nation-states
Concept of Socialism
promote and protect their own interests, interests
that are not always at the expense of others' but Socialism is an economic system where the ways
which often are. As freedom spreads around the of making money (factories, offices, etc.) are
world, as more people gain the liberty to owned by a society as a whole, meaning the value
determine their own futures, some people hope made belongs to everyone in that society, instead
that a new world order might develop, with the of a group of private owners. People who agree
nation state receding in significance. Instead, with this type of system are called
global institutions would consider the needs of the socialists. There are two ways socialists think that
planet and of all its inhabitants. society can own the means of making wealth:
either the state (government of the country) is
Concept of Nationalism
used or worker-owned cooperatives are used.
Nationalism, ideology based on the premise that Another important belief is that management and
the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation- sharing are supposed to be based on public
state surpass other individual or group interests. interests. Socialists believe that everything in
society is made by the cooperative efforts of the
Nationalism is a modern movement. Throughout
people.
history people have been attached to their native
soil, to the traditions of their parents, and to There are many kinds of socialism, so no one
established territorial authorities; but it was not definition can apply to all of them; however, in all
until the end of the 18th century that nationalism types, the workers supposedly own the means of
began to be a generally production. The major differences between the
recognized sentiment molding public and private different varieties are the role of the free market
life and one of the great, if not the greatest, single or planning, how the means of production are
determining factors of modern history. Because of controlled, the role of management of workers
its dynamic vitality and its all-pervading character, and the government's role in the economy. In
nationalism is often thought to be very old; most Socialist Societies, corruption and lack of
sometimes it is mistakenly regarded as a incentive for workers to produce reduce
permanent factor in political behaviour.
Pscnotes.com Page 5
production and therefore the average standard of is the most well-known creator of the theory of
living socialism.
Social democracy is a kind of socialism that tries to Concept of Globalization

mix parts of socialism with capitalism. In this
The term `globalisation' means integration of
system, the government takes wealth (money)
economies and societies through cross country
from the rich and gives it to the poor like in a
flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods,
Communist state, but despite there being more
services, capital, finance and people. The essence
government control and less chance to make a
of globalisation is connectivity. Cross border
very large amount of money, people can still run
integration can have several dimensions - cultural,
their own businesses and own private property.
social, political and economic. In fact, some people
In many countries that use social democracy, fear cultural and social integration even more than
some services and industries are subsidized (given economic integration. However, the term
money to help them run) and/or partly controlled globalisation is used here in the limited sense of
by the government. economic integration which can happen through
the three channels of (a) trade in goods and
Another kind of Socialism is "Collectivization." In
services, (b) movement of capital and (c) flow of
this system, money and goods are shared more
finance. Besides, there is also the channel through
equally among the people, with the government in
movement of people. Globalisation has been a
control. In theory, this system results in the gap
historical process with ebbs and flows. During the
between classes getting smaller, with the poorest
Pre-World War I period of 1870 to 1914, there was
of a nation's people being helped by the state
rapid integration of the economies in terms of
while the richest agree to higher taxes and
trade flows, movement of capital and migration of
economic. Many countries see Socialism
people. The inter-war period witnessed the
differently. Socialist International is an
erection of various barriers to restrict free
organization dedicated to the cause of promoting
movement of goods and services. Although after
socialist ideals, and has ties with many Socialist
1945 there was a drive to increased integration,
parties, especially Social Democratic parties.
studies point out that trade and capital markets
are no more globalise today than they were at the
end of the 19th Century. However, there are more
History of Socialism concerns about globalisation now than before
because of the nature and speed of
A Welshman, Robert Owen, was the first socialist.
transformation. What is striking in the current
His followers began calling themselves socialists in
episode is not only the rapid pace but also the
1841. He is still regarded as a pioneer of the Co-
enormous impact of globalisation on market
operative Movement in Britain. He said that
integration, efficiency and industrial organisation.
workers should own the companies they worked
The gains and losses from globalisation can be
for. The workers would then share
analysed in the context of the three types of
the profits among themselves. He set up a new
channels of economic globalisation identified
model factory in New Lanark, Scotland. Karl Marx
earlier. According to the standard theory,
Pscnotes.com Page 6
international trade leads to allocation of resources A series of societal changes are implicit in the
that is consistent with comparative advantage. process of modernisation. Agrarian societies are
This results in specialisation which enhances characterised by the predominance of ascriptive,
productivity. It is accepted that international particularistic and diffused patterns; they have
trade, in general, is beneficial and that restrictive stable local groups and limited spatial mobility.
trade practices impede growth. However, even in Occupational differentiation is relatively simple
relation to trade in goods and services, there is and stable; and the stratification system is
one concern. Emerging economies will reap the deferential and has a diffused impact.
benefits of international trade only if they reach
The modern industrial society is characterised by
the full potential of their resource availability. This
the predominance of universalistic, specific and
requires time. That is why international trade
achievement norms; a high degree of mobility; a
agreements make exceptions by allowing longer
developed occupational system relatively
time to developing economies in terms of
insulated from other social structures; a class
reduction in tariff and non-tariff barriers. "Special
system often based on achievement; and the
and differentiated treatment," as it is described,
presence of functionally specific, non-
has become an accepted principle. It is this aspect
ascriptive structures and associations.
which needs to be stressed, while arguing the case
of developing countries. Historically evolved institutions continuously
adapt themselves to the changes dictated by the
Concept of Modernity
phenomenal increase in the human knowledge
Modernity may be understood as the common that has resulted from the control humanity has
behavioural system that is historically associated over its environment.
with the urban, industrial, and literate and
Modernisation, as a form of cultural response,
participant societies of Western Europe and North
involves attributes which are basically
America. It is characterised by a rational and
universalistic and evolutionary; they are pan-
scientific world-view, growth and the ever
humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-ideological. The
increasing application of science and technology,
essential attribute of modernisation is rationality.
which is coupled with the continuous adaptation
of the institutions of society to the imperatives of
the world-view and the emerging technological
ethos.
Modernity involves the rise of modern society Decline of handicrafts during British period
(secularised societies with an institutional
India’s traditional village economy was
separation of the state from civil society, a much
greater degree of social and technical division of characterised by the “blending of agriculture and
labour, and the formation of nation-states uniting handicrafts”. But this internal balance of the
cultural and political borders), a rationalistic village economy had been systematically
epistemology, and an individualistic and
slaughtered by the British Government. In the
objectivistic ontology.
process, traditional handicraft industries slipped
Pscnotes.com Page 7
away, from its pre-eminence and its decline A. Decline of Indian courts: The disappearance
started at the turn of the 18th century and of Indian courts struck the first blow at Indian
proceeded rapidly almost to the beginning of the handicrafts. As native states passed under
19th century. This process came to be known as British rule, the demand for fine articles, for
‘de-industrialisation’—a term opposite to display in durbars and other ceremonial
industrialisation. The use of the word ‘de- occasions disappeared. The ordinary demand
industrialisation’ could be traced to 1940. Its did continue for sometime longer, but the
dictionary meaning is ‘the reduction or destruction younger generation lacked the means and
of a nation’s industrial capacity’. This term came inducement to patronise the arts and
into prominence in India to describe the ‘process handicrafts. And they declined.
of destruction of Indian handicraft industries by B. The Establishment of British Rule: The
competition from the products of British establishment of British rule in India affected
manufacture during the nineteenth century’. cottage industries both directly and
indirectly. Directly it led to the establishment
Industrialisation is associated with a relative shift
of peace and order in the country which
in the proportion of national income as well as
adversely affected such handicrafts as the
workforce away from agriculture. In other words,
inlaying of arms, weapons and shields. This
with the progress of industrialisation, proportion
craft was common in the Punjab and Sindh.
of income generated by and the percentage of
By eliminating the need for such weapons
population dependent on industry should decline.
and by prohibiting their possession and use,
While estimating the distribution of global output
the British reduced the industry to producing
of manufactured goods, P. Bairoch concluded that
ornamental knick-knacks for European
India’s share of manufacturing output in the world
tourists. Similarly, the establishment of the
was as high as 1.9.7 p.c. in 1800. In a span of 60
British rule made it neces-sary, through an
years, it plummeted to 8.6 p.c. (in 1860) and to
un-written order, for Indians to wear patent
1.4. p.c. in 1913. The declining share of industrial
leather shoes when in the presence of British
output in the’ world output could be attributed to
superiors.This brought about the decay of the
an absolute decline in manufacturing output per
embroidered shoe industry. Indirectly, the
person.
British rule weekend the power of the guilds
which regulated trade and supervised the
quality of work done. As a consequence, evils
Causes of Decline:
Pscnotes.com Page 8
such as the adulteration of raw materials and the Punjab which declined due to indiscreet
poor work-manship crept in and artistic and European patronage.
commercial value of the products E. Competition of Machine Made Goods: Apart
deteriorated. from the abolition of Indian courts and the
C. Western Education: The new system of introduction of foreign influences, it was the
English education was another contributory superior manufacturing technique based on
factor. In the early stages, the newly power and im-proved machinery which
educated Indians were more westernized enabled the British manufacturers to drive
than even the Europeans themselves. They the Indian artisans from out of their home
blindly accepted European standards and market. It was what Ranade calls, the
fashions and looked down upon everything competition of Natures’ powers against
Indian. Matters came to such a sorry pass man’s labour’ which completed the ruin of
that to follow European tastes was regarded Indian handicrafts. The invention of the
as the hall mark of enlightenment. As a power loom in Europe brought about the ruin
result, demand for the products of of the Indian textile industry and, by 1834-
indigenous industries declined while that for 35,” the bones of the cotton-weavers were
Europeans goods increased. bleaching the plains of India.” The same story
D. Introduction of New Patterns: With the may be recounted of other Indian industries
disappearance of Indian states, old rulers and such as the ship-building Iron smelting, glass,
nobles also disappeared and their place was dyeing and paper manufacture. The Indian
taken up by the European Officers and domestic and cottage handicrafts could not
tourists. Indian craftsmen, however, did not possibly have withstood foreign competition
clearly understand the forms and patterns which was backed by a powerful industrial
which suited European tastes. They tried to organisation, big machinery, large-scale
please their new customers by copying their production and complex division of labour.
forms and patterns. Very often, the new The difficulties of the Indian industries were
products were very poor copies of the further aggravated by the construction of the
original and “lacked the vigour and life” of Suez canal, fall in freight rates and the
the indigenous products. An instance of this reduction of transport costs which made
kind is furnished by the Kaftgiri Industry in British goods more cheap in India.
Pscnotes.com Page 9
F. Policy of the British Govt.: In the beginning, emergence of dealers and financiers who
the commercial interests of East India reduced the artisans to “hewers of wood and
company led it to encourage Indian industries drawers of water” for their masters. The part
because its exports from India were largely played by middlemen in bringing about this
drawn from them. This policy, however, met stale of affairs is best illustrated by the
with determined opposition from vested activities of the East India Company itself.
interests in England which compelled the The company, being a dealer in the products
company to concentrate only on the export of cottage industries, made advances in cash
of raw- materials so necessary for the and raw-materials to buy the finished
expanding British Industries. This policy of products. Having done so once, it held the
making India subservient to the industries of craftsmen under its iron grip. For example, it
Great Britain was followed with rare provided that a weaver, who had received
determination and fatal success. Orders were advances from the company, “shall on no
issued to force Indian artisans, especially silk- account give to any other person, European
winders, to work in the company’s factories or native, either the labour or the produce
and not in their homes; commercial residents engaged to the company” that, on his selling
were vested with extensive legal powers over the cloth to others, the “weaver shall be
villages and communities of Indian weavers. liable to be prosecuted in the Diwani Adalat”
The use of dyed Indian calicoes was ; that weaver “shall be subject to a penalty of
prohibited. Extensive use was made of 35% on the stipulated price of every piece of
custom duties to crush Indian in-dustries. For cloth that he fails to deliver according to the
instance, in 1813, cotton and silk goods of written agreement”. Whenever the artisans
India could be profitably sold in the British were unable to carry out the agreements
market at a price 50-60% lower than the price forced upon them, their goods were forcibly
of cloth manufac-tured in England. However, seized and sold on the spot to make good the
duties ranging from 70-80% on their value deficiency. Unable to resist this injustice,
were imposed on Indian textiles in order to many weavers “cut off their thumbs to
drive them out of the British market. prevent their being forced to weave silk.”
G. Role of Intermediaries: Except the village
Impact of decline of handicraft industry on india
subsistence and rural art industries, in all
others, the extension of the market led to the
Cheap and machine-made imports flooded the This resulted in increased pressure on land. An
Indian market after the Charter Act of 1813 overburdened agriculture sector was a major
allowing one-way free trade for the British cause of poverty during British rule and this upset
citizens. On the other hand, Indian products found the village economic set-up. From being a net
it more and more difficult to penetrate the exporter, India became a net importer.
European markets. After 1820, European markets
were virtually closed to Indian exports. The newly
introduced rail network helped the European Critical evaluation of deindustrialization
products to reach the remotest corners of the

Nationalists and Their Critique
country.
Nationalists, Dada Bhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and
The loss of traditional livelihood was not
R.C. Dutt, Rajni Palme Dutt etc. saw the
accompanied by a process of industrialisation in
destruction of Indian industry as a consequence of
India, as had happened in other rapidly
colonialism and they discussed deindustrialization
industrialising countries of the time. This resulted
process in context of the impact of colonial rule in
in deindustrialisation of India at a time when
India. In the beginning of the 19th century,
Europe was witnessing a re-intensified Industrial
exports of small-scale industry products came
Revolution. This happened at a time when Indian
down, while on the other hand, imports of British
artisans and handicraftsmen were already feeling
industrial products were on the increase. This
the crunch due to loss of patronage by princes and
decline could be traced in cotton textiles’ import
the nobility, who were now under the influence of
by Britain between the period 1860 (96 million
new western tastes and values. Another feature
pound sterling) to 1880 (1 billion 70 million pound
of deindustrialisation was the decline of many
sterling) and finally in 1900 (27 billion pound
cities and a process of ruralisation of India. Many
sterling). R.C. Dutt and others argue that the
artisans, faced with diminishing returns and
decline in imports shows that the demands for
repressive policies (in Bengal, during the
Indian textiles was coming down in foreign
Company’s rule, artisans were paid low wages and
markets in the beginning of the 19th century and
forced to sell their products at low prices),
increasing exports indicate that the Indian
abandoned their professions, moved to villages
handicrafts were thrown out from the indigenous
and took to agriculture.
market. This policy was pursued with the object of
replacing the manufacturers of India, as far as
possible, by British manufacturers. was a lot cheaper. Morris also argued that in
In 1960’s David Morris David questioned the spite of the imports from Birmingham,
assumptions and arguments of the Nationalists. Manchester etc. Indian small-scale industry
He said that there was not much evidence survived because Indian small-scale industry
available to demonstrate deindustrialization produced its own market. Though there exists no
process in India. Morris claimed that British evidence that Indian industry did not face any
manufactured clothes did not harm the Indian destruction, but Morris gave a partial answer to
industry because the population of India was this question by being surprised how Indian small
increasing along with an increase of purchasing scale-industry survived in spite of oddities before
power of the Indians that led to an increase in the nation and the arrival of competition, vide
demand for Indian textiles in India; so the demand machine made cheaper imported commodities.
for clothes was met by raising British imports, However, the reality is that despite adverse
without damaging indigenous production. Bipin circumstances, the weavers did not abandon their
Chandra, Toru Matsui and Tapan Roychaudhuri occupation because they had deep attachment
have argued, in response to Morris, that evidence with caste-based occupations. The other reason
points towards deindustrialization. Going by was that they had no other alternative to earn
reports of famines, eye witnesses and traveler’s their livelihoods and many were trapped in debt.
accounts, official enquiries and government
The Nationalist faced a common criticism that
reports of the British East India Company etc.
they had not enough evidence to demonstrate
were all pointers towards the worse possible
deindustrialization, specifically in the period prior
impact of British manufactured goods in India.
to recordings made by the census. However later
These thinkers said that there was not enough.
historians, like Amiya Kumar Bagchi, managed to
to woven cloth was very low. During 1849 to 1889 get some statistical evidence. Bagchi showed the
the import of cloth increased by 25.5 million evidence provided by the survey conducted by
sterling, while on the other hand, yarn imports Francis Buchanan- Hamilton in Gangetic Bihar
increased by merely 1.8 million sterling. Indian between 1809-1813 and the census data of 1901.
weavers, therefore, could not really benefit from According to Bagchi’s analysis, the percentage of
the decline in yarn prices that was comparatively population dependent on industries was 18.6 in
less fruitful as it did not bring about the required 1809-1813, which declined to 8.5 percent in
reduction in the cost of their cloth to be able to subsequent findings Marika Vicziany pointed
compete with British machine-woven cloth, which out that Buchanan- Hamilton’s survey could not be
regarded as very reliable as he gathered general labour-force and between industrial work-
information from local people, who may have force and trade. In Daniel’s view, this hard
given him incorrect information due to fear of the segregation was not possible in an agricultural
motive of foreigners. Local people further economy like that of India which constrained
suspected that the East India Company might use people, during seasonal periods, to shift from one
the information to increase revenue or intervene industry to another.
in their lives. Vicziany also argued that Buchanan-
According to the Thorner, if these categories are
Hamilton’s classification of spinners was not very
merged then the picture looks different. Then the
accurate because spinners could not have
increase in the work-force in the primary sector,
supported themselves only on the basis of
i.e. agriculture works out to about 2% and the
spinning; in her view spinners did not earn enough
decline in industry and trade amounts to only
and should be classified as part-time spinners. So
about 3% between 1881-1931. Thorner also
the estimate of spinners was erroneous. Bagchi
dismissed the statistics on female labour on the
responded and said even if spinning did not
ground that census officials themselves regarded
support spinners fully it constituted the principal
them as inaccurate. Therefore in their view, which
means of their livelihood .
is somewhat controversial, the census figures do
The Other Side of the Debate not provide evidence to support substantial de-
industrialization. Nonetheless, Thorner, however,
In the early 1960s Daniel Thorner argued that the
conceded that there may have been de-
censuses from 1881-1931 showed that there was
industrialization in India before 1881.
not much change in the proportion of population
engaged in industrial occupations. He elaborated Some questions were raised by Tirthankar Roy and
that on a first impression, the census figures others, who have objected to the exclusion of
indicate that the male work-force in agriculture women from the analysis. Women’s participation
was 65% and increased to 72% in 1931. In the declined dramatically during the census period. It
same period their proportion in industry declined seems that in the Indian social context, women in
from 16% in 1881 to 9% in 1931 suggestive de- many artisan families gave up artisanal work
industrialization. However, Thorner questioned earlier than men to take up household or
this by describing the census categories as agricultural work. Hence any exclusion of their
erroneous because it assumed a clear-cut data would not show much change in occupational
separation between agricultural work-force and structure while the inclusion of data related to
women will show a decline in the number of  Sheshadri Iyer (1883-1901)

people engaged in industrial activity. Recent  P. N. Krishnamurthi (1901-1906)
 V. P. Madhav Rao (1906-1909)
research suggests that different regions and
 T. Anand Rao (1909-1912)
commodities experienced the impact of machine-  Sir M. Vishweshariah (1912-1918)
made goods in different ways, depending on when  M. Kantaraj Ars (1918-1922)
they came under colonial rule. Thus for example,  Sir A. R. Banerjee (1922-1926)
 Sir Mirza Ismail (1926-1941)
British-manufactured goods affected the economy
 N. Madhav Rao (1941-1946)
of eastern India far more than other regions.  Sir Arkot Ramaswami Mudaliyar (1946-
Historians like Tapan Roychaudhury argue that the 1947) (Last Dewan)
conditions of the artisans and weavers of eastern
India started deteriorating soon after the Battle of
 C. Rangacharlu (1881-1883)
Plassey (1757) and their condition worsened in the
19th century. It has also been suggested that that  Setting up of People Representative
Assembly.
the Madras Presidency suffered less compared to
 Bangalore - Mysore Railway
Bengal and western India.  4000 acres of land was given to the white
people for farming-later known as white
Progress of Mysore under the Dewans field.
 Sheshadri Iyer (1883-1901)

The post of the Dewan was created as the head of
the administrative machinery. The Wodeyars of
Mysore were fortunate enough to have wise and
able men as Dewans. These Dewans worked hard
to make the state progressive progressive and
 Wise and talented administrator.
model.
 Achieved all round economic progress.
 A graduate graduate of Madras University
University.
 Entered Mysore service as Judicial
Shirastedar.
 Later became the Deputy Commissioner.
 Appointed as Dewan – 1883 .
 Improved the finances of the state.
 Subsidy due from 1886 was waived for
Dewans of Mysore further 10 years.
 C. Rangacharlu (1881-1883)
 Bangalore-Gubbi, Harihar-Hindupur,
Mysore-Nanjangud, Kolar Gold field, Birur-
Shimoga Railway lines completed.
 Mysore civil service exam to select able
candidates.
 Shivanasamudra H ydro Electric Project :
1899 -1900.
 KGF received received electricity
electricity – 1902.  Sir M. Vishweshariah (1912-1918)
 Bangalore became the first Indian city to
have the electric facility -1905.
 Number of small projects were
undertaken to improve agriculture.
 Widening the canals – Mari Halla Project.
 Loans for digging the wells.  Architect of modern Mysore.
 Directorate of Agriculture and statistics  An era of all round development
formed.  Became the Dewan in 1912.
 Agriculture and industrial exhibition held at  Head of a technical dept. hold the highest
Mysore. office of Administration.
 Agricultural Banks introduced.  Born in 15 September 1861 at
 Gold Mining Started at Kolar-1886. Muddenahalli.
 Bangalore became the centre for textile  Membership of the Legislative Council -
trade. increased from 18 to 24 increased from 18
 Mysore spinning and manufacturing mill at to 24.
Bangalore.  Mysore Local Boards and Village Panchayat
 Estd. Geological Survey Dept.-1894 Act – 1918.
 Improved the efficiency of admn.  Elected members majority in Taluka and
 Introduced British postal service. District Boards.
 Founded Archaeological Dept.  Taluk and District Boards – constituted
 Mysore Infant Marriage Act – 1894. through elections.
 Education reachable to all sections.  Believed in Democracy
 For female education started Empress Girls  Council to discuss the budget.
H.S., Tumkur Maharani Maharani Girls H.S.,
Mysore Balika Pathashala, Bangalore. Economic Advancement:
 Encouraged Technical,Professional &
 Mysore -Arasikere Railway.
Higher Education.
 Bowringpet-Chikkaballapura via kolar.
 Introduced Scholarship scheme.
 Anxious to develop Bhatkal as Sea Port and
 Well known as Well known as “Rajya
connecting it by railway.
Durandhara”
 Malnad improvement committee.
 Estd. State Bank of Mysore – 1913.
 Mysore Chamber of Commerce.  Priority to Women Education.

 Dept. of Sericulture - 1916 .  Hostal for Harijans
 Mysore Dasara Exhibition.  Introduced Scholarship Scheme.
Industrialisation:  He wrote ‘Reconstructing India’, ‘Rapid
Developments of Industries’, ‘Planned
 Slogan – “Industrialise or Perish ”. Economy for India’ and ‘Memories of My
 Aimed to make Mysore industrially working life’
advanced in India.  Govt of India awarded “Bharata Ratna” in
 Bhadravati – Iron works and Wood 1955
Distillation Plant.
 Mysore – Sandalwood Factory.
 Bangalore – Govt. Soap Factory, The Metal  Sir Mirza Ismail (1926-1941)
Factory, The Central Industrial Workshop,
The Chrome & Tanning Factory.
Irrigation:
 KRS Dam at K annambadi.  Most outstanding outstanding Dewan of

 Irrigation to 3 lakh acres of land in Mandya Mysore.
& Malavalli  Followed the foot steps of Sir. M.V.
 Maker of modern & model Mysore.
Education  Graduate of the Bangalore Central College.
 Started various industries.
 Encouraged technical education.
 Expanded Bhadravati Iron works added
 Technical Institutions were opened
steel plant.
 Chamarajendra Technical Institute
 Cement and Paper factory at Bhadravati .
Technical Institute of Mysore.
 Match factory at Shimoga.
 The Silk Research Center of
 Khadi Unit (Kendra) at Badanval.
Channapattana.
 Sugar factory at Mandya.
 Govt. Engineering College at Bangalore.
 Chemicals and Fertiliser factory at
 School of Agriculture at Hebbal - 1913
Shravanabelagola.
(Gandhi 1913 (Gandhi Krishi Vijnana
 Glass factory at Bangalore.
Kendra – present Agri University).
 Famous Hindusthan Aeronatics Ltd. at
 Mysore University in 1916, Ist Vice
Bangalore.
Chancellor – V. Nanjundaih.
 Agricultural equipment factory at Mysore,
 Donation of 2 lacks to Banaras Hindu
Bangalore and Hassan.
University.
 Krishnarajendra Electric Goods factory at
 Estd. Kannada Sahitya Parishat at
Bangalore.
Bangalore - 1915.
 Export of Sandal oil, Sandal Soap,
 Public Libraries at Mysore & Bangalore.
Agarbathi and Mysore silk.
 Compulsory Primary Education.
 Mirza had a good aesthetic aesthetic Development of Hindi and Urdu

sense. Language
 Beautification of Towns & Cities by
creating Parks and gardens.
 Famous Brindavan Garden near KRS. Hindi and Urdu are two Hindustani Languages;
 Mysore, Bangalore became garden cities. spoken mostly in the northern and Central India
 Talks with Mahatma in 1927. and in Pakistan.
 Persuaded Viceroy Irwin to reduce the
annual tribute (34 lakhs to 24.5 lakhs). Hindi and Urdu are two different languages but
 Attended the Round Table Conference in these languages have many common things. Both
1932. Hindi and Urdu are developed in a similar phase
 Strengthening of Hydro Electric Projects. and adopted many changes.
 Capacity of the power station of
We will discuss about the development of both
Shivanasamudra was increased.
the languages one by one.
 Estd. the Shimsha Power Station - 1940.
 The Sharavti Project near Jogfalls -1938 (it
led to establish the Mahatma Gandhi H
Development of Hindi:
ydro Electric Station – 1948).
 Rural Electrification started Ist time in India Hindi in Khariboli form has been accepted as
– 1940. * 180 villages electrified. official language of India. It is written in Devnagari
 Built Kaveri high level Canal. script. It is listed in the 22 scheduled languages of
 1,20,000 acres of land under irrigation in India in our Constitution.
Mandya.
 Railway offices at Mysore. Hindi is one of the youngest languages of India
 Radio Station at Mysore. which come in literary only before 2-3 centuries
 Craft Institute at Bangalore. back.
 Mental Hospital at Bangalore. Hindi is 4th the most speaking languages of the
 Narasimharaja Hospital at Kolar. world after Mandarin, Spanish and English.
 Mecgann Hospital at Shimoga.
Now we will dig deep to find the foundation of
Mirja Ismail was succeeded by Dewan N. Madhav Hindi language. Hindi is an Indo-Aryan Language
Rao. Jayachamaraja Wodeyar was the last which find its root in various Prakrit languages in
Maharaja of Mysore. He was the adopted son of India. There were various Prakrit was being
KRW IV. The last Dewan of Mysore was Arcot spoken in various regions of like Magadhi, Ardha
Ramaswamy Mudaliyar. The post o f Dewan was Magadhi, Himalayan Prakrit, Shaurseni Prakrit etc.
abolished in 1949.
This was around 500-600 century than these
Prakrit were developed in their regions under the
patron of their rulers. Although Sanskrit was used
as official communication and for literary works,
yet regional languages were the languages of the have done a lot for the development of
masses. Hindi. Bharatendu Harishchandra also
known as father of Modern Hindi
Literature; did a lot for the
development of Hindi and to shape it in
standardized form.
Hindi language was originally called Hindvi. It
started taking shape around 10th century. It was
mostly spoken in the present day Delhi. It was
highly influenced by the Shaurseni Aprabhansha.
The vocabulary is derived mostly from the Sanskrit

Language. Development of Urdu:
We can divide the development of Hindi language The early history of Hindi and Urdu is almost
in 3 stages for our understanding: same. The invasion of foreigner from western part
of India from Middle East brought many changes
i) Early Stages
in the Indian people. The changes was not only in
ii) Middle Stage
culture, lifestyle but was in the language as well.
iii) Modern Stage
The invaders patronized Persian and Arabic form
of languages; which influenced the local languages
and vice-versa.
i) Early Stage: This was the making time
of Hindi when it was finding its root in Urdu is also a Hindustani language which found its
regional Prakrit. The time can be origin in various other languages. Urdu is mostly
considered form 5th century to 1300 spoken in the northern parts of India and is official
AD. In this time language of some states of India. After the
partition of India, Urdu was accepted as national
ii) Middle Stage: We can mark this time language of Pakistan.
from 14th century to 1800 Century. In
Urdu is developed from the medieval
this stage various saints and other poet
Apabhramsa of Shaurseni.
wrote which was the basis of Modern
day Hindi. Kabir, Ramananda, Tulsidas, Shaurseni is an Indo-Aryan language that is also
Gurunanak, Meerabai , Amir Khusrau the ancestor of other modern languages, including
had much impact on this. the Punjabi and Hindi dialects.
Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots

iii) Modern Stage: This was the time when in Sanskrit and Prakrit.
Hindi language developed fully. A lot of
Urdu developed under the influence of
development happened during this
the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which
time from grammar to modern novel
have contributed a significant amount of
writing. A lot of writers and scholars
vocabulary to formal speech.
The development of Urdu can be summarized in Development of Railway, Industralization and

three stages: constitutional development during British period
i) Early Stage
ii) Middle Stage
Railway
iii) Modern Stage
The British created the Indian Railways. They

envisioned it, planned it, engineered it and
i) Early Stage: The early stage of Hindi
and Urdu is almost same where it was instructed poor Indian laborers how to build it.
finding its source in regional Prakrit There is a common misconception that the British
languages. Invaders of Muslim rulers
“gifted” India the Railways. Nothing could be more
from West also brought development
to initial stages. This period can be wrong. The British did not build the Railways out
marked from 500-1300 AD. of love for India or seeing the need to “prosperify”
vast masses of poor Indians. They couldn’t have
ii) Middle Stage: With the upcoming of
Muslims rulers from west in India cared less. In order to govern this huge,
Persian language become prominent. disconnected and diverse country efficiently, they
Persian language itself has its roots in
needed stuff to be moved around the country
Arabic language. Urdu was influenced
by the Perso-Arabic language duo and quickly, like the mail of the Empire, materials,
marked its tremendous development. officials, laborers, troops and so on. During that
Period: 1400AD -1800 AD time, the revolutionary new “Railway technology”
in England was accelerating industrialization and
iii) Modern stage: British had played development of the Kingdom. The British realized
important role in developing Modern that an extensive railway network was exactly
day Urdu language. Persian was the
official language of many ruler’s court, what they needed in India to consolidate their
British were not happy with this and power, control the local population, reach into the
they tried developing Urdu to counter hinterlands and exploit the country to the
Persian language. Modern writers also
maximum. And this was what led to the beginning
played an important role in
development of Urdu language. of the Indian Railways. Letting the local populace
use the trains was just a generosity extended on
their part. Yes, the British built their Indian empire
not on the power of gunpowder, but on the power line. Meanwhile, GIPR was also hard at work trying
of steam. to cross the Khandala (Bhore) Ghat to reach Pune
from Mumbai.
Between 1854 and 1899, several railway
companies were incorporated and each began This huge railway network altered India’s
work on their own lines, pushing further and transport system. As a result, transport costs were
further inland from the coast. The biggest greatly reduced thereby permitting new
companies were GIPR (Great Indian Peninsular opportunities for profit. Regional specialisation
Railway) Bombay, EIR (East India Railway) Calcutta, began to occur and trade (both domestic and
MRC (Madras Railway Company) Madras, BB&CI foreign) flourished. India became a nation with its
(Bombay Baroda & Central India) Surat and others. local centres linked by rail to each other arid to
EIR completed construction of the Calcutta – Delhi the world. Railways made possible the
line via Allahabad in 1864 after 9 years of work establishment of a well-knit market. Railways, by
and the first train rolled into Delhi Junction (DLI) establishing these links, had an impact throughout
the same year. But a regular train began running the economy. Karl Marx observed that the railway
from Calcutta to Delhi only in 1866, was the system in India would become “truly the
precursor of today’s Howrah – Kalka Mail. BB&CI forerunner of modern industry”. “It was believed
completed construction of a line from Ahmedabad that railways would assist the economic
to Bombay in 1867 and started a service from development of India and help the import and
Virar to Bombay Backbay (present day distribution of manufactures and the collection
Churchgate), probably marking the beginnings of and export of raw materials and agricultural
what is today Mumbai’s most famous local train. produce. The official view was that the “the
By 1854, the very next year after the inaugural benefits covered by railways were at all-time
run, the Bombay – Thane line was doubled and great.”
extended up to Kalyan on the way to Igatpuri. But
But nationalists lambasted against this official
seemingly impossible Ghats obstructed the easy
claim and pinpointed that it was the railway which
construction of a line out of Mumbai, and it took
was responsible for the eclipse of some important
GIPR 10 years to finish the line across the Thal
industries of India. Despite massive investment in
(Thull) Ghat section to reach Igatpuri. By 1870,
the nature of a ‘big push’ in railways rather than
that line had extended to Jabalpur via Manmad
irrigation, ‘take off’ stage was hard-to come by.
and Itarsi, where it met EIR’s Allahabad – Jabalpur
branch line, completing the Bombay – Calcutta
But this was too much for nationalists. Railways the country. In the time of 1st World War some
did certainly help the process of industrialisation. goods, acquired by the people were reduced in
India. This gave some industrial progress in our
The impact of railways was felt in all sectors of the
country.
Indian economy. Both people and goods made an
extensive use of the railways. Vera Anstey, the Textile and cloth industries were established.
distinguished British authority on economic Consumer goods receieved high demand, on
development of India, argued that the account of trade relation with British. During the
construction of railways in India undoubtedly period of war Indian industries were encouraged
extended and revolutionised trade—both internal to produce goods. After the first world war
and external. industries in India took up the production of
machines goods in preference to consumer goods.
Before the advent of the railways in India, only a
As such key industries like Iron, Steel, Textiles and
very small proportion of agricultural output was
Sugar Industries came under tarrif protection.
exported as agriculture was carried on only for
During the second world war the industries in
subsistence. But railways transformed its very
England, America and Japan were engaged in the
nature by commercializing it. Railways made
production of war materials. At that time our
India’s agriculture internationally competitive and,
industries increased the production of Consumer
as a result, a floodgate of exports of agricultural
goods at a large scale and achieved great progress.
products such as wheat, rice, jute oilseeds, and
During the freedom struggle " Swadeshi "
cotton was opened up.
Movement in India was very much useful for the
Industralization production of native goods, as the British goods
were boycotted. A movement to protect the
Before the British rule, India was self-sufficient in
native goods and their indigenous industries,
textile and Cotton products but during the British
helped to keep up the country's economy.
rule, India fell down to the position of importing
cloth from England. In the 19th century A.D. Reasons for Low Industrial Development in India
British government abolished the tarrif protection
 Inadequate capital accumulation
of Indian goods. The country was reduced to the
 Mobilisation of unproductive investment;
position of supplier of raw material to British
(Keynes castigated inordinate love for
industries. In 1850 Jute mills were established in
liquidity of Indians. Male people were
India but there was no economic development in
desirous of seeing jewellery in the neck of 1773, the East India Company [EIC] was in deep
their female counterparts) financial trouble. The EIC owed money to both the
 Undue preference for quick-return Bank of England and the Government. The
yielding commerce and trading activities Company was important to Britain because it was
of the Indian capitalist classes; and a monopoly company in India and in the east and
 Concentration of entrepreneurship in the many influential people were shareholders. The
hands of a few small sections of Indians. Company failed to pay its dues to Government to
maintain its monopoly.
Constitutional developments during British rule
Provisions of the Regulating Act are as follows:
When the officials of the East India Company
acquired control over Bengal in 1765 they had  A Court of Directors was created at
little intention of making any innovations in its London to oversee the affairs of EIC in
administration. They only desired to carry on India.
profitable trade and to collect taxes for remission  The Governor of Bengal/Fort William was
to England .From 1762 to 1772 Indian officials elevated to the statue of Governor General
were allowed to function as before but under the of Bengal /Fort William [Warren Hastings
overall control of the British governor and British was first Governor-General of Bengal] and
officials. In 1772 the company ended the dual governors of Madras and Bombay
government and undertook to administer Bengal presidencies were brought under the
directly through its own set of officials. The East control of Governor General of Bengal.
India Company was at this time a commercial body  The institution of Governor General-in-
designed to trade with the East. But during the council was created with Governor General
period that elapsed between the Pitt’s India Act as head and with four other members to
(1784) and the Charter Act of 1833 the company carry out Legislative & Executive functions.
was gradually relieved of its long held trading  A Supreme Courtof Calcutta was provided
privileges in the east. with one chief justice and three puisne
judges. It was constituted in 1774 with Sir
Regulating Act of 1773
Ellijay Impey as chief justice. [It had
The Regulating Act of 1773 was first act of British jurisdiction over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
Parliament to exercise indirect control over the &British judges were to be sent to India to
affairs of East India Company's rule in India. By
administer the British legal system that possessions in effect controlling the acts
was used there]. and operations relating to the civil, military
and revenues of the Company.]
Pitt's India Act, 1784
 The membership in Governor General-in-
This was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain council [governing council of the Company]
intended to address the shortcomings of the was reduced to three members [1+ 3], and
Regulating Act of 1773. The supervisory role of the governor-general, a crown appointee,
British Parliament on the affairs of the EIC failed to was authorised to veto the majority
control the nepotism and corruption among the decisions.
officials of EIC and the system was not improving.
In order to exercise direct control rather than
having regulated role, the new Act was Charter Act of 1793
necessitated whereby Government can take a
The East India Company Act 1793, also known as
more active role in the affairs of the Company.
the Charter Act of 1793, was an Act of the
Provisions of the 1784 Act are as follows: Parliament of Great Britain which renewed the
charter issued to the British East India Company,
 It brought the affairs of EIC in India under
and continued the Company's rule in India.
the control of the British Government.
 A Board of Control was created at London Provisions of act are as follows:
with six members, two of whom were
 The Company's trade monopoly was
members of the British Cabinet and the
continued for a further 20 years.
remaining from the Privy Council. The
 Salaries for the staff and paid members
Board also had a president, who soon
of the Board of Control were also now
effectively became the minister for the
charged to the Company.
affairs of the East India Company.
 The Governor-General was granted
 This Act provided for a joint government of
extensive powers over the subordinate
British India by both the Company and the
presidencies.The Governor-General's
Crown with the government holding the
power of over-ruling his council was
ultimate authority.[The Board was given
affirmed, and extended over the
powers to superintend, direct and control
Governors of the subordinate
the government of the Company's
presidencies.
 Senior officials were forbidden from  It made the Governor-General of Bengal

leaving India without permission.Royal as the Governor-General of India.[Lord
approval was mandated for the William Bentinck (1828 to 1835) was the
appointment of the Governor-General, first Governor-General of India.
the governors, and the Commander-in- [Centralisation of Administration]
Chief.  It Centralised the Legislature with the
Governor General-in-council and thereby
The Charter Act of 1813
laws passed by the Central Council in
It renewed the charter issued to the British Calcutta would have automatic
East India Company, and continued the application for Madras & Bombay
Company's rule in India. provinces.
 It ended Company's commercial monopoly  For the first time, a provision was made
in India, except tea and opium.Indian trade for the appointment of a law member to
was thrown open to Englishmen. the Governor General-in-council who
 It made compulsory training for all civil would attend the council meetings as a
servants. matter of right (only) when the legislative
 It allotted Rs.100,000/- to promote functions are performed.
education in India.
The Charter Act, 1853
 Christian missionaries were allowed to
come to British India and preach their British Parliament was called upon to renew
religion. the Charter of the Company in 1853.The
 Financial provision was also made to Parliament had in the preceding year
encourage a revival in Indian literature and appointed two committees to go into the
for the promotion of science. affairs of the Company and on the basis of
their reports the Charter Act of 1853 was
Government of India Act 1833
framed and passed.
This Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Provisions of act are as follows:
was also meant for an extension of the royal
charter granted to the company for further by 20  The number of the members of the
years. courts of Directors was reduced from
24 to 18 out of which 6 were to be
It contained the following provisions:
nominated by the crown. Power was representing four provinces-Bengal,

given to the “Court of Directors” to Madras, Bombay and North Western
constitute a new presidency and also Provinces.
to alter and regulate from time to  It renewed the powers of the
time the limits of the various company and allowed it to retain
provinces. possession of Indian territories on the
 The act ended the right of “Court of condition that company should
Directors” for the recruitment and govern India in trust for the Crown.
recalling. The recruitment for the Unlikeearlier charter Acts, no
company jobs in the administration timeframe was fixed this time
was transferred to “Board of Control”.
The Government of India Act 1858
For the first time Written Competitive
Exams were held for the jobs in the This Act was passed to better administer the
administration. possessions of EIC in India under the backdrop of
 The Governor General of India was Indian rebellion in 1857. It was deliberated the
relieved from the additional complexities involved in the governing India under
responsibility of being the Governor the existing system and therefore wanted to end
of Bengal and a Lt. Governor of Bengal the company rule in India.
was appointed for administering

Provisions of the act are as follows:
Bengal.
 The Act of 1853 marked the beginning  This Act has ended the East India Company
of a Parliamentary system in India. rule in India and the British Crown took
The Act extended the machinery of over the administration of India.
legislation. The law member was  It abolished the “Court of Directors” and
made permanent/full member of the “Board of Control” and vested the powers
GG executive council. This EC while in Queen's Principal Secretary of State, a
sitting for legislative functions, has Minister in the British cabinet. Thus, the
enlarged by the additions of 6 system of double government (one at
members- the chief Justice and a London & another in India) introduced by
puisne judge of Supreme court of the Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was abolished.
Calcutta and 4 civil servants
 The secretary/ Minister in the cabinet was military, law, finance, and (after 1874)
re-designated as “Secretary of State” for public works.
India, assisted by a council of 15 members  The GG-in-council was enlarged by adding
was appointed to assist the Secretary of 6-12 members for legislative purpose.
State for India. He was empowered to These members would be nominated by
superintend, direct and control all the the Viceroy for a term of 2 years, but not
governmental affairs of India. [Charles less than half of them would non-officials.
Wood, the last president of Board of
The Indian Councils Act 1892
Control, was made the first Secretary of
State.] The Indian Councils Act 1892 was enacted by the
 The Secretary of State for India was Parliament of the United Kingdom to increase the
empowered to send some secret size of the various legislative councils in British
despatches to India directly without India. This act was made in response to the
consulting the Council of 15 members. He demand from the Indian National Congress to
was also authorised to constitute special expand legislative councils.
committees of his Council.
Provisions of the Act are as follows:
 The number of additional members in the

The Indian Councils Act 1861
“Imperial Legislative Council” at Calcutta
The Indian Councils Act 1861 empowered the and “provincial Legislative Councils” were
viceroy to make rules for more convenient enhanced. In the Imperial Legislative
transaction of business. By using this provision council, there would be 10-16 non-officials.
Lord Canning has transformed the Viceroy of In the provincial councils the members
India's executive council into a cabinet run on the would be not less than 8, but not more
“portfolio system”for easy legislation and than 20.
administration.  Two fifths of the total members of the
councils were to be non-officials. Some of
 A fifth member was added to the
them could be indirectly elected and
“Viceroy’s executive Council” *1+5+. This
others are nominated bythe Viceroy. Thus
cabinet had six "ordinary members" who
a system or an element of election, albeit
each took charge of a separate department
indirect was introduced for the first time.
in Calcutta's government: home, revenue,
 The non-official members to the Imperil It was fixed as 50 in the provinces of

Legislative Council were (indirectly) elected Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the
by the provincial legislatures. The non- rest of the provinces it was 30.
official members of the provincial councils  The members of the Legislative Councils,
were elected by the Local bodies such as both at the Centre and in the provinces,
district boards, municipalities, universities were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio
and chambers of commerce. Thus was members (Governor General and the
introduced the principle of representation. members of their Executive Councils),
nominated official members (those
The Indian Councils Act 1909 /Morley-Minto
nominated by the Governor General and
Reforms
were government officials), nominated
The Indian Councils Act 1909 commonly known as non-official members (nominated by the
the Morley-Minto Reforms, was an Act of the Governor General but were not
Parliament of the United Kingdom that brought government officials) and elected
about a limited increase in the involvement of members (elected by different categories
Indians in the governance of British India. John of Indian people).
Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India,  .The most controversial provision in the
and the Conservative Governor-General of India, act was separate communal electorate
The Earl of Minto, believed that cracking down on was given to the Muslims [Only Muslims
uprising in Bengal was necessary but not sufficient would vote for the Muslim candidates]
for restoring stability to the British Raj after Lord and representation in excess of their
Curzon's partitioning of Bengal. They believed that population. The income qualification for
a dramatic step was required to put heart into Muslim voters [for voting] was kept at
loyal elements of the Indian upper classes and the lower than that of Hindus.
growing Westernised section of the population.
Provisions of the act are as follows:

The Government of India Act, 1919 or Montagu-
 The size of the Legislature both at Central Chelmsford Reforms
and provinces was enlarged. The number
Lord Montagu, the secretary of Stateannounced in
of the members of the Legislative Council
the House of Commons on 17th August 1917 that
at the Centre was increased from 16 to 60.
the goal of constitutional advance in India to be “
the gradual development of self governing their objections, a provision to assign them
institutions with a view to the progressive 25% of the Income tax was made.
realisation of responsible government as an  No bill of the legislature could be deemed
integral part of British Empire”. It was called to have been passed unless assented to by
“Montagu statement” or “August Statement” *not the governor general. The later could
to be confused with August offer made by Lord however enact a Bill without the assent of
Wawell in 1944]. The Montagu–Chelmsford the legislature.
Report in 1918 has laid down a fourfold formula to  This Act made the central legislature
implement the policy in first stage. bicameral. The lower house was the
Legislative Assembly, with 145 members
 This Act had a separate Preamble which
serving three year terms (the model for
declared that Objective of the British
today's Lok Sabha); the upper house was
Government is the gradual introduction of
the Council of States with 60 members
responsible Government in India. Diarchy
serving five year terms (the model for
was introduced as Provincial Level.
today's Rajya Sabha) The Act provided for
 Diarchy means a dual set of governments
the establishment of a Public Service
one is accountable another is not
Commission in India for the first time.
accountable. The provincial subjects were
divided into two groups: One was reserved
and another was transferred. The reserved
Government of India Act 1935
subjects were kept with the Governor and
transferred subjects were kept with the Act was passed by British Parliament in August
Indian Ministers. This division of subjects 1935. With 321 sections and 10 schedules, this
was basically what they meant by was the longest act passed by British Parliament
introducing the Diarchy. so far and was later split into two parts viz.
 The Government of India Act of 1919, Government of India Act 1935 and Government of
made a provision for classification of the Burma Act 1935. The Government of India Act
central and provincial subjects. The Act 1935 derived material from four key sources viz.
kept the Income Tax as source of revenue Report of the Simon Commission, discussions at
to the Central Government. However, for the Third Round Table Conference, the White
Bengal and Bombay for which, to meet Paper of 1933 and the reports of the Joint select
committees. This act ended the system of dyarchy
introduced by GOI Act 1919 and provided for of the Constitution Drafting Committee. The text
establishment of a Federation of India to be made prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional
up of provinces of British India and some or all of guarantees and protections for a wide range of
the Princely states. However, the federation never civil liberties for individual citizens, including
came into being as the required number of freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability
princely states did not join it. and outlawing all forms of discrimination.
Ambedkar argued for extensive economic and
Salient Features of the Government of India Act
social rights for women, and also won the
1935 were as follows:
Constituent Assembly’s support for introducing a
 Abolition of provincial dyarchy and system of reservations of jobs for members of the
introduction of dyarchy at centre SC and ST. Ambedkar kept the clauses of the
 . Abolition of Indian Council and Constitution flexible so that amendments could be
introduction of an advisory body in its made as and when the situation demanded. He
place. provided an inspiring Preamble to the Constitution
 Provision for an All India Federation with ensuring justice, social, economic and political,
British India territories and princely states. liberty, equality and fraternity. The creation of an
 Elaborate safeguards and protective egalitarian social order, however, remains an
instruments for minorities. unfulfilled wishful thinking to this day.
 Supremacy of British Parliament. Increase
Dr Ambedkar was not only a learned scholar and
in size of legislatures, extension of
an eminent jurist but also a revolutionary who
franchise, division of subjects into three
fought against social evils like untouch-ability and
lists and retention of communal electorate.
caste restrictions. Throughout his life, he battled
Separation of Burma from India
social discrimination while upholding the rights of
Dr. Ambedkar and constitution the Dalits and other socially backward classes. He
Due to his seminal role in the framing of the Indian was not only a great national leader but also a
Constitution, Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar is popularly distinguished scholar of international repute. He
known all over India as the chief architect of the not only led various social movements for the
Indian Constitution. His efforts to eradicate social upliftment of the depressed sections of the Indian
evils were remarkable and that is why he is called society but also contributed to the understanding
the “messiah” of the Dalits and downtrodden in of the socio-economic and political problems of
India. Dr Ambedkar was appointed the Chairman India through his scholarly works on caste,
religion, culture, constitutional law and economic spectacular. Dr Ambedkar’s contribution to the
development. As a matter of fact he was an evolution of free India lies in his striving for
economist and his various scholarly works and ensuring justice—social, economic and political—
speeches indicate his deep understanding of the for one and all.
problems faced by the Indian society. He was
Fundamental Rights
appointed as the nation’s first Law Minister and
was posthu-mously awarded the Bharat Ratna in Ambedkar was a champion of fundamental rights,
1990-91. and Part III of the Indian Constitution guarantees

the fundamental rights to the citizens against the
On August 29, 1947 Dr. Ambedkar was appointed
state. Some of the fundamental rights contained
the Chairman of the Drafting Committee that was
in Articles 15(2), 17, 23, and 24 are also
constituted by Constituent Assembly to draft a
enforceable against individuals as they are very
Constitution for independent India. The draft
significant rights relating to the prohibition of
Constitution was the result of the collective efforts
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste,
of a galaxy of great leaders and legal scholars in
sex or place of birth etc. The text prepared by
the Constituent Assembly such as Jawaharlal
Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and
Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, B.R. Ambedkar, Sardar
protections for a wide range of civil liberties for
Patel, B.N. Rao, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar etc.
individual citizens, including freedom of religion,
The purpose of this paper is to examine the
the abolition of untouchability and outlawing all
contribution of Dr Ambedkar only to the Indian
forms of discrimination. Ambedkar argued for
Constitution.
extensive economic and social rights for women.
Dr Ambedkar played a seminal role in the framing
According to Ambedkar, the most significant
of the Indian Constitution. He used all his
feature of the fundamental rights is that these
experience and knowledge in drafting the
rights are made justiciable. The right to move to
Constitution. In his capacity as the Chairman of
the Supreme Court for enforcement of
the Drafting Committee, he hammered out a
fundamental rights under Article 32 is itself a
comprehensive workable Constitution into which
fundamental right. Article 32 authorises the
he incorporated his valuable views. He gave free
Supreme Court to issue directions, orders or writs
India its legal framework, and the people, the
in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus,
basis of their freedom. To this end, his
certioraris etc. or any other appropriate remedy,
contribution was significant, substantial, and
as the case may be, for the enforcement of funda- Part XI, and Schedule V and VI dealing with the
mental rights guaranteed by the Constitution. upliftment of the Scheduled Castes and Schedule
Tribes speak clearly about the substantial and
Parliamentary Democracy
significant contribution of Ambedkar for the
Dr. ambedkar was a strong advocate of the development of untouchables.5 Ambedkar made
parliamentary form of government right from the it his life’s mission to uplift the untouchables and
inception of the Government of India Act of 1935. other downtrodden masses from the unequal
He firmly believed that the parliamentary system position of inferiority to that of equal position of
of government alone can usher in an egalitarian parity in socio-economic status with high-caste
society through the application of the principles of Hindus. For achieving this goal the reservation
social democracy. Dr Ambedkar’s social policy or the scheme of protective discrimination
democracy comprised politicians, political parties was advocated and implemented by him for ten
with high standards of political morality, honesty years at least to ameliorate the conditions of the
and integrity and strong and highly responsible various depressed and down-trodden sections of
Opposition party or parties committed to the Hindu society.
cause of the downtrodden and depressed classes.
The Preamble of the Indian Constitution echoes
the principles of parliamentary democracy. Educational institutes- Taxila, Nalanda and
vallabhi
Protective Discrimination/Reservation
Taxila university
The real contribution of Ambedkar is reflected in
By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be
the protective discrimination scheme or the
one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in
reservation policy of the government envisaged
the world. Others do not consider it a university in
under some provisions of Part III and many of Part
the modern sense, in that the teachers living there
IV dealing with the constitutional mandate to
may not have had official membership of
ameliorate the condition of the Scheduled Castes
particular colleges, and there did not seem to have
and Scheduled Tribes and the other backward
existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential
classes. Provisions like Article 17 prohibiting
quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda
untouchability, Article 30 dealing with the
university in eastern India. Taxila became a noted
protection of minorities are some of the notable
centre of learning (including the religious
examples. Articles 15(4) and16(4) of Part III and
teachings of Buddhism) at least several centuries
BCE, and continued to attract students from in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the
around the old world until the destruction of the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism took shape
city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that there.[citation needed] Jivaka, the court physician
at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once
suzerainty" over other centres of learning in India cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting
and its primary concern was not with elementary, ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important
but higher education. Generally, a student entered personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied
Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the at Taxila.
most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas
Nalanda university
or Arts, which included skills such as archery,
hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large
addition to its law school, medical school, and Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of
school of military science. Students came to Taxila Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India. The site is
from far-off places such as Kashi, Kosala and located about 95 kilometres (59 mi) southeast of
Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey Patna near the town of Bihar Sharif, and was a
they had to undergo, on account of the excellence centre of learning from the fifth century CE to
of the learned teachers there, all recognised as c. 1200 CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The
authorities on their respective subjects. highly formalized methods of Vedic learning

helped inspire the establishment of large teaching
Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and
institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda, and
the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for
Vikramashila which are often characterised as
its association with Chanakya, also known as
India's early universities. Nalanda flourished under
Kautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta
the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the 5th and
Maurya and assisted in the founding of the
6th centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor
Mauryan empire. Chanakya's Arthashastra (The
of Kannauj. The liberal cultural traditions inherited
knowledge of Economics) is said to have been
from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth
composed in Taxila itself. The Ayurvedic healer
and prosperity until the ninth century. The
Charaka also studied at Taxila. He also started
subsequent centuries were a time of gradual
teaching at Taxila in the later period. Pāṇini, the
decline, a period during which the tantric
grammarian who codified the rules that would
developments of Buddhism became most
define Classical Sanskrit, has also been part of the
community at Taxila. The institution is significant
pronounced in eastern India under the Pala patronage, only in the monasteries of Bihar and
Empire. Bengal. By the time of the Palas, the traditional
Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism were
At its peak, the school attracted scholars and
imbued with Tantric practices involving secret
students from near and far with some travelling
rituals and magic. The rise of Hindu philosophies in
from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia.
the subcontinent and the waning of the Buddhist
Archaeological evidence also notes contact with
Pala dynasty after the 11th century meant that
the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose
Buddhism was hemmed in on multiple fronts,
kings built a monastery in the complex. Much of
political, philosophical, and moral. The final blow
our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the
was delivered when its still-flourishing
writings of pilgrim monks from East Asia such as
monasteries, the last visible symbols of its
Xuanzang and Yijing who travelled to the
existence in India, were overrun during the
Mahavihara in the 7th century. Vincent Smith
Muslim invasion that swept across Northern India
remarked that "a detailed history of Nalanda
at the turn of the 13th century.
would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism".
Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his Vikramshila university
travelogue as products of Nalanda are the names
Vikramashila was one of the two most important
of those who developed the philosophy of
centres of learning in India during the Pala Empire,
Mahayana. All students at Nalanda studied
along with Nalanda. Vikramashila was established
Mahayana as well as the texts of the eighteen
by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a
(Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum
supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at
also included other subjects such as the Vedas,
Nalanda. Atisha, the renowned pandita, is
logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine and Samkhya.
sometimes listed as a notable abbot. It was
The decline of Nalanda is concomitant with the destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin
disappearance of Buddhism in India. When Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. Vikramashila (village
Xuanzang travelled the length and breadth of India Antichak, district Bhagalpur, Bihar) is located at
in the 7th century, he observed that his religion about 50 km east of Bhagalpur and about 13 km
was in slow decay and even had ominous north-east of Kahalgaon, a town in Bhagalpur
premonitions of Nalanda's forthcoming district . It is approachable through 11 km long
demise.[69] Buddhism had steadily lost popularity motorable road diverting from NH-80 at Anadipur
with the laity and thrived, thanks to royal about 2 km from Kahalgaon.
A number of monasteries grew up during the Pāla Tibetan Buddhism. Subjects like philosophy,
period in ancient Bengal and Magadha. According grammar, metaphysics, Indian logic etc. were
to Tibetan sources, five great Mahaviharas stood taught here, but the most important branch of
out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the learning was tantrism.
era; Nalanda, past its prime but still illustrious,
Formation of Linguistic States:–
Somapura, Odantapura, and Jagaddala. The five
India is a land of many languages, each with its
monasteries formed a network; "all of them were
distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary
under state supervision" and there existed "a tradition. In 1917, the Congress Party had
system of co-ordination among them. It seems committed itself to the creation of linguistic
from the evidence that the different seats of provinces in a Free India. After Congress's Nagpur
Session in 1920, the principle was extended and
Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India
formalized with the creation of provincial
under the Pāla were regarded together as forming Congress Committee by linguistic zones.
a network, an interlinked group of institutions," The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was
and it was common for great scholars to move encouraged and supported by Mahatma Gandhi.
easily from position to position among them. After the bitter partition on the basis of religion
the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing
Vikramashila was founded by Pāla king
country further on the basis of language.
Dharmapala in the late 8th or early 9th century. It
Dhar commission
prospered for about four centuries before it was
destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji along with the other During that time some Marathi speaking Congress
members raised the pitches for separate
major centres of Buddhism in India around 1200.
Maharashtra State. Following this demand, other
Vikramashila is known to us mainly through language speaking people too demands a separate
Tibetan sources, especially the writings of state for them. Hence, Constituent Assembly in
1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces
Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of the
Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar, to
16th–17th centuries.Vikramashila was one of the enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces.
largest Buddhist universities, with more than one
The Dhar Commission advised against this at that
hundred teachers and about one thousand time reason being it might threaten national unity
students. It produced eminent scholars who were and also be administratively inconvenient.
often invited by foreign countries to spread JVP Committee

Buddhist learning, culture and religion. The most
After some time the clamor for linguistic states
distinguished and eminent among all was Atiśha again got momentum. To appease the vocal
Dipankara, a founder of the Sarma traditions of votaries of linguistic states, the congress appoints
a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as
Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to members, to examine "objectively and
examine the question afresh. This JVP Committee dispassionately" the entire question of the
revoked the seal of approval that the congress has reorganization of the states of the Union. The SRC
once put on the principle of linguistic provinces. submitted its report in October 1955. It recognized
for the most part on the linguistic principle and
The demands for separate state on the linguistic
recommended redrawing of state boundaries on
basis didn't subside. There were renewed
that basis.
movements aimed at linguistic autonomy in 1948,
1949. There was the campaign for Samyukta The then government accepted the SRC's
Karnataka, uniting Kannada speaking spread recommendations. Finally, the states
across the states of Madras, Mysore, Bombay, Reorganization Act was passed by parliament in
Hyderabad, Samyukta Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat November 1956. It provided for fourteen states
movement. In case of Punjab, struggle brought and six centrally administered territories. SRC
together both the factors language and religion opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.
(Sikh).
Case of Bombay
Andhra Movement
Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC's
After Independence, the speakers of Telugu asked report came from Maharashtra, where
the congress to implement its old resolution in widespread rioting took place. To fulfill their
favour of linguistic states. demand of separate Marathi speaking people's
state, there was the broad based Samyukta
On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter,
Maharashtra Samiti and on the other hand in
Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over
Bombay state, there was Maha Gujarat Janata
the demand for a separate Andhra and expired
Parishad led the movement for Gujarati people.
after fifty-eight days. After his death people were
agitated and it was followed by rioting, After on years of the reorganization of states Act,
demonstrations, hartals and violence all over the government finally agreed in May 1960, the
Andhra. The Vishalandhra movement (as the bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra,
movement for a separate Andhra was called) Gujarat with Bombay city being included in
turned violent. Finally, the then PM, Nehru Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the
announced the formation of a separate Andhra capital of Gujarat.
State in December 1952.
Case of Punjab
State Reorganization Commission
The other state where an exception was made to
The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the
struggle for making of other states on linguistic state of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab,
lines in other parts of the country. which remained a trilingual state having three
language speakers-Punjab, Hindu and Pahari
Hence Nehru appointed in August 1953 the states
within its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of
Reorganisation Commission (SRC) with justice Fazl
the state, there was a strong demand for carving
out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking deploring their rulers. Satara, Jhansi, Sambalpur,
State). This demand got communal overtones. The Nagpur, etc. fill victim in his aggressive policy. All
Akali Dal led Sikh Communalists, while the Jan these states came under British rule. In 1856, he
captured Oudh on the plea of misrule. He looked
Sangh, led Hindu communalists.
the palaces of Nagpur and Oudh. Not only the
SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as it ruling house, but also the employees and other
dependent families were deprived of their livings
would not solve either the language or the
for the policy of Dalhousie. His maltreatment
communal problem of Punjab. Finally in 1966,
towards the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II hurt
Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into the sentiment of the Muslim community.
two Punjabi and Hindi speaking status of Punjab Discontinuation of the pension of the Peshwa
and Haryana, with the Pahari speaking district of Nana Sahib shocked the Marathas. This discontent
Kangra and a port of the Hoshiarpur district being of royal families, army men and common people
merged with HP. jointly exposed in the Great Revolt of 1857.
Finally, after more than ten years of continuous Economic cause: The Great Revolt of 1857 was
strife and popular struggles, the linguistic also an outburst of grievances due to the
reorganization of India was largely completed. economic exploitation of the company. India’s
traditional economy collapsed as a result of the
The Great Revolt of 1857 (also Indian rebellion of British ‘investment’ policies and revenue
1857, the Great uprising of 1857, the Great administration. The company’s trade policy
rebellion, Indian Sepoy mutiny) is regarded destroyed Indian handicrafts. Huge numbers of
as India’s First War of Independence against the Indians were thrown out of employment. The
British rule. It was the most remarkable single British, opened a new avenue of exploitation on
event in the history of India after the the peasants By introducing permanent
establishment of British rule. It was the result of settlement. Exploitation of the Zamindars gave
the century-old British rule in India. In comparison rise 10 landless laborers who became restless by
to the previous uprisings of the Indians, the Great and by. Thus out of discontent the artisans and
Revolt of 1857 was of a greater dimension and it peasantry joined hands with the sepoys in the
assumed almost an all-India character with mutiny.
participation of people from different sections of
the society. This Revolt was initiated by the sepoys Military cause: The sepoys of the company
of the company. So it has been commonly termed regiment had been feeling dissatisfied with the
as `Sepoy Mutiny‘. But it was not simply a revolt of English for various reasons.
the sepoys.
1. Thus was a great disparity in salaries

Causes between the Indian and European soldiers.
2. The Indian sepoys were treated with
The causes of the Great Revolt of 1857 and Sepoy
contempt by their European officers.
Mutiny may be studied in the following heads:
3. The sepoys were sent to distant parts of the
empire, but were not paid any extra
Political cause: Major political cause for the allowance.
outbreak of the Revolt was the policy of 4. Indian sepoys were refused promotion in
annexation followed by Dalhousie. On application service as like their European counterparts.
of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ or on the ground of mis-
governance he annexed states after states
Out of such discontent the Indian The British government came out with all the
sepoys led to a mutiny. powers to suppress the revolt. The sepoys fought
the battle with their limited strength for four
Social cause: The English could not establish any months. Then, the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th
social relationship with the Indians. The racial September British troops regained Delhi. Bahadur
arrogance of the British created a difference Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of
between the rulers and the ruled. Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi continued the
fight up to April, 1859 A.D. and surrendered to the
Enactment of some Acts greatly offended the British force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life in
sentiment of the people. Some of these acts were the battleground. Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan of
taken as deliberate blow at the Hindu religion, Bihar, Bahadur Khan, Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad
custom and right of inheritance. lost their lives one after the other. By the end of
1859 A.D. the British power was reestablished in
troubled areas.
Direct cause: At that time, Enfield rifles were
introduced in the army. The bullets of these rifles
were covered by paper with grease like thing. The Reason of failure of the revolt
Sepoys were to cut the cover by teeth before
There were several reasons behind the failure of
using it. The Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to
this revolt.
cut the covers. They protested against this and
were arrested. That ignited the fire.
1. There was no central organization of the
sepoys. There was no unified action also.
Under the leadership of Mangal Pandey the agony
Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no
of the Sepoys exposed at Barrackpore in Calcutta
one had acceptance as a real leader. They
(March, 1857 A.D.). But the planned revolt started
had different goals and times again they had
at Meerut (May, 1857 A.D.). Gradually it spread
contradictions.
from Punjab in the north to Narmada in south,
2. The British had a huge number of forces.
from Rajputana in the west to Bihar in the east. As
New groups of soldiers were sent to India
the revolt was started by the Indian sepoys in the
after the end of Crimean war. Fresh army
British army, the revolt became known as Sepoy
men came from Singapore. As a result of
mutiny. When the sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi
these, in the middle of the revolt the
there was huge upsurge. They declared old
strength of the British force was doubled.
Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the Badshah of
The chance of a win became remote.
India. He was accepted as the symbol of Hindu-
3. The sepoys had no improved arms with
Muslim unity. With the outbreak of mutiny among
them. On the other hand, the British force
Sepoys common men joined the revolt. Farmers
had huge and improved armory. They could
and artisans put further force behind the mutiny.
not match improved guns and rifles with
The second reason for this mass revolt was the
their old model musket, spears and sword.
unity among the Hindus and Muslims. On
So the defeat was almost certain.
observing this historians thought that, up to this
4. Further the leaders of this revolt could not
period there was no communal feelings among
get the support of several native states like
the masses.
Holker, Scindia and Rajput sardars and kings.
They supported the British. Educated
End of the Revolt middle-class people also were behind the
British power.
Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857 Importance and Outcome of the Great Revolt of
1857
There are differences of opinions amongst
historians about the character of this great revolt. It can be said that the great revolt of 1857 A.D.
Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in was a failure, but was not fruitless.
the North-Western province was a lawless revolt
by a group of sepoys. 1. United Effort: From this revolt, we can have a
picture of India’s struggle for keeping the rights.
On the other hand, some historians believe that it There were several revolts before this, but there
was more than just a sepoy mutiny as it had a was no feeling of Indian-ness in those revolts. The
large mass base. Though in the beginning it was revolt of 1857 A.D. was a collected effort of
like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned out to be different sections of people.
a real mass upsurge.
2. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants
Karl Marx in his several essays described this joined this revolt which was out and out against
revolt as nationalist fight for independence. the British. This was unique.
Marxist writers looked at this event as uprising of
peasants against feudal system of exploitation. 3. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M
V.D. Savarkar, the great revolutionary, described Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had
this revolt as the first struggle for independence. limitations and weaknesses, but their efforts to
M.N. Roy said that it was the reaction of the make India free from British rule
feudal against capitalism. was patriotic work and a progressive step. If we do
not consider any historical event on the basis of its
On the centenary of the great revolt Dr. Ramesh success then the revolt of 1857 A.D. was never a
Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book tragedy. Even inspite of failure that served a great
entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen purpose, it was a source of inspiration in India’s
Fifty Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was freedom struggle.
nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that
in some places few non-military persons came out 4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this
in support of the sepoys but they were local great revolt was the end of company’s rule in
landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his India. By a new act introduced in the British
opinion it was nothing better than feudalistic Parliament British government took the charge to
reaction of the revolt. rule India. From then onward a Viceroy as a
representative of British King ruled India.
But many historians are of opinion that the Great
movement of 1857 A.D. cannot be termed as 5. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s
narrow, isolated and reactionary. The sepoys Proclamation showered many promises in 1858
established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by A.D. Government service was promised
electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In irrespective of cast, religion and on the basis of
the Ajamgarh declaration a call was given to merit only. Ill framed “doctrine of lapse” of Lord
people of all classes of mass to unite against the Dalhousie was cancelled. New recruitment policy
British rule. It may be righty that they had no idea of the army men was announced to see that they
about national government, but nationalism was could not organize any revolt. In the important
there. So it can be called a national movement. positions of the government no native people
(Indian) was given any chance.
contributed towards the rise and growth of

Nationalism. One set of laws of British
ORIGIN OF NATIONALISM
Government across several regions led to political
The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of and administrative unity. This strengthened the
Renaissance in Europe when freedom from concept of citizenship and one nation among
religious restrictions led to the enhancement of Indians. This economic exploitation by the British
national identity. This expression of Nationalism agitated other people to unite and react against
was furthered by the French Revolution. The British Government’s control over their lives and
political changes resulted in the passing of resources. The social and religious reform
sovereignty from the hands of an absolute movements of the 19th century also contributed
monarch to the French citizens, who had the to the feeling of Nationalism. Swami Vivekananda,
power to constitute the nation and shape its Annie Besant, Henry Derozio and many others
destiny. The watchwords of the French Revolution revived the glory of ancient India, created faith
- Liberty, Equality and Fraternity - inspired the among the people in their religion and culture and
whole world. Many other revolutions like the thus gave the message of love for their
American Revolution, the Russian Revolution, etc. motherland. The intellectual and spiritual side of
also strengthened the idea of Nationalism. Nationalism was voiced by persons like Bankim
Chandra Chatterji, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and
Rise of Nationalism in India Aurobindo Ghosh. Bankim Chandra’s hymn to the
Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became the rallying
For India, the making of national identity was a
cry of patriotic nationalists. It inspired generations
long process whose roots can be drawn from the
to supreme self-sacrifice. Simultaneously, it
ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled by
created a fear in the minds of the British. The
emperors like Ashoka and Samudragupta in
impact was so strong that the British had to ban
ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in Medieval
the song. Similarly, Swami Vivekananda’s message
times. But, it was only in the 19th Century that the
to the people, “Arise, awake and stop not till the
concept of a national identity and national
goal is reached”, appealed to the Indians. It acted
consciousness emerged. This growth was
as a potent force in the course of Indian
intimately connected to the anti-colonial
Nationalism.
movement. The social, economic and political
factors had inspired the people to define and Around this time many organizations were being
achieve their national identity. People began formed which raised their voices against British
discovering their unity in the process of their rule. Most of these organizations were regional in
struggle against colonialism. nature. Some of these organizations were very
active such as Bengal Indian Association, Bengal
The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule
Presidency Association, Pune Public Meeting, etc.
provided a shared bond that tied different groups
However it was felt that if these regional
together. Each class and group felt the effects of
organizations could work jointly it would help the
colonialism differently. Their experiences were
Indian masses to raise their voices against the
varied, and their notions of freedom were not
British Rule. This led to the formation of Indian
always the same. Several other causes also
National Congress in the year 1885.
EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS Government always in the form of petitions and
(1885) worked within the framework of law. It was for
this reason that the early Congress leaders were
The Indian National Congress was founded by
referred to as ‘Moderates’ They asked for: (a)
Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. Hume was a retired
representative legislatures, (b) Indianization of
Civil Service Officer. He saw a growing political
services, (c) reduction of military expenditure, (d)
consciousness among the Indians and wanted to
education, employment and holding of the ICS
give it a safe, constitutional outlet so that their
(Indian Civil Services) examination in India, (e)
resentment would not develop into popular
decrease in the burden of the cultivators, (f)
agitation against the British rule in India. He was
defense of civil rights, (g) separation of the
supported in this scheme by the Viceroy, Lord
judiciary from the executive, (h) change in the
Dufferin, and by a group of eminent Indians.
tenancy laws, (i) reduction in land revenue and
Womesh Chandra Banerjee of Calcutta was
salt duty, (j) policies to help in the growth of
elected as the first President. The Indian National
Indian industries and handicrafts, (k) introduction
Congress represented an urge of the politically
of welfare programmes for the people.
conscious Indians to set up a national organization
Unfortunately, their efforts did not bring many
to work for their betterment. Its leaders had
changes in the policies and administration of the
complete faith in the British Government and in its
British in India. In the beginning, the Britishers had
sense of justice. They believed that if they would
a favourable attitude towards the Congress. But,
place their grievances before the government
by 1887, this attitude began to change. They did
reasonably, the British would certainly try to
not fulfill the demands of the Moderates. The only
rectify them. Among the liberal leaders, the most
achievement of the Congress was the enactment
prominent were Firoz Shah Mehta, Gopal Krishna
of the Indian Councils Act, 1892 that enlarged the
Gokhale, Dada Bhai Naoroji, Ras Behari Bose,
legislature by adding a few nonofficial members
Badruddin Tayabji, etc. From 1885 to 1905, the
and passing of a resolution for holding Indian Civil
Indian National Congress had a very narrow social
Services Examination simultaneously in London
base. Its influence was confined to the urban
and in India. Many leaders gradually lost faith in
educated Indians. The early aims of this
the Constitutional process. Even though the
organization were limited only to communicate
Congress failed to achieve its goal, it succeeded in
with British government on behalf of the Indian
creating national awakening and instilling in the
people and voice their grievances. It was rightly
minds of the Indian people a sense of belonging to
called the era of the Moderates.
one Nation. They provided a forum for the Indians
Initial stages of Indian National Congress to discuss major national issues. By criticizing the
government policies, they gave the people
The congress placed its demands before the valuable political training. Though, They were not
government always in the form of petitions and ready to take aggressive steps which would bring
worked within the framework of law. It was for them in direct conflict with the Government. The
this reason that the early Congress leaders were most significant achievement was the foundation
referred to as ‘Moderates’. During its first twenty of a strong national movement. The Britishers who
years the Congress made moderate demands. The were earlier supporting the Moderates soon
members placed their demands before the
realized that the movement could turn into a realized the importance of boycott as a weapon
National force that would drive them out of the that could be used to paralyze the whole British
country. This totally changed their attitude. They administrative machinery in India. The boycott
passed strict laws to control education and curb and Swadeshi movements were instrumental in
the press. Minor concessions were given so as to the establishment of swadeshi enterprises - textile
win over some Congress leaders. The British mills, banks, hosiery, tanneries, chemical works
Viceroy, Lord Curzon was a staunch imperialist and and insurance companies. Swadeshi stores were
believed in the superiority of the English people. opened. Volunteers supplied goods at the
He passed an Act in 1898, making it an offence to doorstep of every household. The movement
provoke people against the British rulers. He spread to all classes and groups of people.
passed the Indian Universities Act in 1904, Everyone, including women and children, came
imposing stiff control over Indian Universities. forward to take part. The most active were school
Curzon was out to suppress the rising Nationalism and college students. This made the British
in India. This was evident from what he did in reverse the partition of Bengal and unite it in
1905. 1911. During this time, the role of Radical
Nationalists in the Indian National Congress, who
PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)
were called the ‘Garam Dal’, came to be
Curzon announced the partition of Bengal. The appreciated. They tried to involve people from all
reason for partition was given as an attempt to classes and groups including peasants, worker,
improve administration. But the real aim was to students as well as women. They succeeded in
‘Divide and Rule’. The partition was done in order uniting the Indian people against the common
to create a separate State for Muslims and so enemy - the British. The young people were
introduce the poison of communalism in the roused to the highest level of patriotism and zeal
country. However the Indians viewed the partition to free their country. They helped in making
as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing people self confident and self reliant. They also
national movement in Bengal and divide the revived the Indian Cottage industry.
Hindus and Muslims of the region. Widespread
THE RISE OF RADICAL NATIONALISTS
agitation ensued in the streets and in the press.
People of different parts of India opposed the The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress
partition of Bengal all over the country. This led to the rise of passionate, radical nationalists,
opposition was carried on by organized meetings, who came to be called the ‘Garam Dal’. Thus the
processions and demonstrations etc. Hindus and first phase of the nationalist movement came to
Muslims tied ‘rakhi’ on each other’s hands to show an end with government reaction against the
their unity and their protest. The use of Swadeshi Congress on the one hand and a split in the
(made in our own country by our own people) Congress in 1907 on the other. That is why the
goods, business, national education and Indian period after 1905 till 1918 can be referred to as
languages were encouraged. The new nationalist the ‘Era of Passionate Nationalists or Garam Dal’.
spirit of self reliance- shed the fear of repression Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin
including imprisonment and painful torture by the Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) were important leaders
British rule. It was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who of this Radical group. When the Moderates were
in the forefront of the action, they had maintained motivated Muslims to form a permanent political
a low profile but now they swung into action. association of their own. In December, 1906,
Their entry marked the beginning of a new trend during the Muhammadan Educational conference
and a new face in India’s struggle for freedom. in Dacca, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea
According to them, the Moderates had failed to of establishing a Central Muhammadan
define India’s political goals and the methods Association to take care of Muslim interests.
adopted by them were mild and ineffective. Accordingly, on 30th December, 1906, the All India
Besides, the Moderates remained confined to the Muslim League was founded. Another prominent
upper, landed class and failed to enlist mass person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president. The
support as a basis for negotiating with the British. main objective of the league was to protect and
advance the rights of Muslims in India and
The Garam Dal realized that the British were out
represent their needs to the government. By
to exploit Indians, destroy their self-sufficiency
encouraging the issue of separate electorates, the
and drain India of its wealth. They felt that Indians
government sowed the seed of communalism and
should now become free of foreign rule and
separatism among Indians. The formation of the
govern themselves. This group, instead of making
Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of
petitions to the government, believed in
the British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’.
organizing mass protests, criticizing government
Mohammad Ali Jinnah later joined the League.
policies, boycotting foreign goods and use of
Swadeshi (home-made) goods etc. They did not MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (1909)
believe in depending on the mercy of the
The Council Act of 1909 was an extension of the
Britishers, but believed that freedom was their
1892 reforms, also known as the Morley-Minto
right. Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave a slogan ‘Freedom
Reforms after the names of the then Secretary of
is our birth right and we must have it’. In 1916 the
State (Lord Morley) and the then Viceroy (Lord
two groups were again united with the efforts of
Minto). It increased the members of the
Mrs. Annie Besant. She started working for the
Legislative Assembly from sixteen to sixty. A few
Home rule movement in 1914. She was convinced
non-elected members were also added. Though
that India should be granted Self-Government. In
the members of the Legislative Council were
1916, Muslim League and Congress also came to
increased, they had no real powers. They
an understanding with each other and signed the
remained mainly advisory in character. They could
Lucknow Pact. Later, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar
not stop any bills from being passed. Nor did they
Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose became the
have any power over the budget.
eminent figures of Indian National Congress, who
led the freedom movement of India forward. The British made another calculated move to sow
the seed of communalism in Indian politics by
FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)
introducing separate electorates for the Muslims.
As the radical movement grew stronger the British This meant that from the constituencies
began to look for ways and means to break the dominated by Muslims only Muslim candidates
unity among Indian. They tried to do this through could be elected. Hindus could only vote for
the partition of Bengal and by sowing the seed of Hindus, and Muslims could only vote for Muslims.
communalism among Indian people. They
Many leaders protested against this communal emergence of Gandhi, the element of mass
electorate policy of the British to ‘Divide and Rule’. mobilisation was introduced. Till the coming of
independence three major mass movements were
THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE FIRST
launched; Non-Cooperation (1920-22), Civil
WORLD WAR
disobedience (1930-34) and Quit
The First World War started in the year of 1914. India(1942).Besides these mass movements the
This War was fought among the nations of Europe revolutionary movement, peasants and working
to get colonial monopoly. During war time, the class movements and state people's movements
British Government made an appeal to the Indian also played a vital role in the struggle for freedom.
leaders to join hands with them in their time of In this period sufficient emphasis was laid on the
crisis. Indian leaders agreed but they put their socioeconomic content of Swaraj. The Communist
own terms and conditions i.e. after the war was Party of India and the Socialist groups within the
over, the British government would give Congress pointed out towards economic
Constitutional (legislative and administrative) emancipation of the masses along with the
powers to the Indian People. Unfortunately, the importance of the struggle for independence.
steps taken by the British government during the
Impact of First World War on the National
World War I created unrest among the Indian
Movement.
people. This was because the British government
had taken a huge loan during war time which they The First World War (1914-1918) had a great
had to repay. They increased rent from the land, impact on the National Movement in India:
i.e. lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in the
a) Resentment among the Indians:
British Army. They increased the price of
necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal The British government declared India as an ally
and professional income. As a result, they had to and a belligerent. Indian people and resources
face protest from the Indian society. Farmers and were used in this war.It created great resentment
workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Kheda and among the Indians especially when they were not
Ahmedabad actively protested against the even consulted before joining the war.
exploitative policies of British government. Lakhs
b) Anguish among the Muslims:
of students left schools and colleges. Hundreds of
lawyers gave up their practice. Women also The British were fighting against the Turkish
significantly contributed in this movement and Empire which was ruled by the Caliph (Khalifa).The
their participation became wider with the Muslims had great respect for the Caliph.The
emergence of Gandhi. The boycott of foreign cloth Indian Muslims joined the Caliphate (Khilafat)
Movement for the defence of Turkey against the
became a mass movement, with thousands of
British.
bonfires of foreign cloth lighting the Indian sky.
c) Peasant's unrest:
NATIONAL MOVEMENT-POST FIRST WORLD WAR
SCENARIO
During the war, the peasant's unrest also grew.
After the First World War the Indian National These movements helped prepare the ground for
mass movement.
Movement entered into a new phase. With the
d) Home Rule Movement: activists without trial and arresting any individual
suspected of sedition and treachery and arresting
Annie Besant joined the Congress in 1914. In 1916 individuals without any warrant. A nationwide
she along with Bal Gangadhar Tilak started the protest was raised by calling a Hartal.
Home Rule Movement. The Home Rule League
demanded self government to the Indians. Mahatma Gandhi was extremely agitated by
enactment of Rowlatt Act. He was extremely
e) The Lucknow Pact (1916): critical about the act and argued that everyone
cannot be punished for isolated political crime.
In 1916, at the Lucknow Session, the 'moderates' The Act resulted in extensive outrage of political
and the 'extremists' were united. Besides; a pact leaders as well as the common public and
was made between the Congress and the Muslim Government adapted more repressive measures
League to work unitedly for their demands of to dominate the Native people. Gandhi and other
greater share and power for Indians in the leaders of national Congress found it futile to take
Executive Council and election of members of the the measure of constitutional opposition and
Legislative Councils. thereby called a `hartal` where Indians suspended
all the business and fasted to show their hatred
f) Emergence of Gandhiji: for the British legislation.
Gandhiji emerged as the leader of the nationalist However, the success of the Hartal in Delhi was
movement in India during the First World War. dominated as the tension raise high and resulted
in riot in Punjab and other provinces. Gandhi
Rowlatt Act found that Indians were not ready yet for the
protest in the path of `Ahimsa` (non-violence),
In the year 1919, the British Government passed a which was integral part of Satyagraha and the
new rule called Rowlatt Act, under which the Hartal, was suspended.
Government had the authority and power to
arrest people and keep them in prisons without The agitation reached the pinnacle in Amritsar of
any trial if they are suspected with the charge of Punjab. The Rowlatt act was effective from 10th
terrorism.The government also earned the power March, 1919. In Punjab the protest movement was
to refrain the newspapers from reporting and vast and strong. On 10th April, two renowned
printing news.The Act was ill famed as `Black Act` leaders of the Congress, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr.
by the people and Indians revolt in protest against Saifuddin Kithlew were arrested and were taken to
the Rowlatt Act. unknown place.A public meeting was held on 13th
April at Jallianwala Bagh in a small park enclosed
The positive aspect of reform by British by buildings on all sides to protest against the
Government was subjected to severe sabotage by arrest.
the Rowlatt act of 1919.The act was named after
the recommendations made in the previous year The meeting was absolutely peaceful and was also
to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt attended by women and children.Brigadier-
Commission.The Rowlatt Commission was General Reginald Dyer with his British troops
appointed to investigate the `seditious conspiracy` entered the park, closed the entrance of the park
of the Indian people.The Law passed empowered and commanded his army to fire on the gathered
the Viceroy people without any warning. The firing lasted for
Government with extraordinary power to stop all ten minutes and sixteen hundred rounds, killing
violations by silencing the press, confining political about thousand people and more than two
thousand people were left wounded and denounce many social tribulations. The British
unattended. This massacre of Jaliwanwalabagh police arrested him on the charge of creating
was the worst incidence of British rule and people unrest.
lost their trust on British Government.
However, the impact of reformation changed after
MAHATMA GANDHI this act and hundreds of people protested and
rallied outside the police stations and courts. They
The role of Mahatma Gandhi in Indian Freedom demanded his release, which the court unwillingly
Struggle is considered the most significant as he granted. Gandhi led planned protests against all
single-handedly spearheaded the movement for the landlords, who were exploiting the poor
Indian independence. The peaceful and non- farmers. Finally Mahatma Gandhi became
violent techniques of Mahatma Gandhi formed successful in forcing the British to agree with his
the basis of freedom struggle against the British demands of reforming the farmers. During this
yoke. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on agitation people addressed Mohandas
2nd October 1869. After he came back to India Karamchand Gandhi as
from South Africa, where he worked as a barrister, Bapu. Rabindranath Tagore accorded Mahatma
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who led the Congress (Great Soul) title to Gandhi in the year 1920.
party, introduced Mahatma Gandhi to the
concerns in India and the struggle of the people. Non Cooperation Movement.
The Indian independence movement came to a
head between the years 1918 and 1922.A series of The Gandhi Era in the Indian Freedom Struggle
non-violence campaigns of Civil Disobedience took place with the Non Cooperation
Movement was launched by the Indian National Movement.This movement was led by Mahatma
Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress. This was
Gandhi. The focus was to weaken the British the first-ever series of nationwide movement of
government through non cooperation. The nonviolent resistance. The movement took place
protests were mainly against abolition of salt tax, from September 1920 until February 1922.In the
land revenue, reducing military expenses etc. fight against injustice, Gandhi`s weapons were
non-cooperation and peaceful resistance. But
Champaran and Kheda Agitations. after the massacre and related violence, Gandhi
focused his
The Kheda Satyagraha and Champaran agitation in mind upon obtaining complete self-government.
1918 was one of Gandhi`s first significant steps to This soon transformed into Swaraj or complete
achieve Indian independence. Mahatma Gandhi political independence. Thus, under the leadership
went to Champaran (Bihar) in 1917 at the request of Mahatma Gandhi, the Congress Party was re-
of the poor peasants to enquire about the organised with a new constitution, with the aim of
situation as they were compelled by British indigo Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi further extended his
planters to grow indigo on 15% of their land and non-violence policy to include the Swadeshi Policy,
part with the whole crop for rent. In the sufferings which meant the rejection of foreign-made goods.
of a devastating famine, the British levied an
oppressive tax which they insisted on increasing. Mahatma Gandhi addressed all the Indians to
At the same time, Kheda in Gujarat was also wear Khadi (homespun cloth) instead of British-
experiencing the same problem. Hence, Mahatma made textiles. He strongly appealed to all Indians
Gandhi started reforming the villages, building of to spend some time spinning khadi for supporting
schools, clean-up of villages, construction of the independence movement of India. This was a
hospitals and encouraging the village leadership to policy to include women in the movement, as this
was not considered a respectable activity. of thousands were arrested. He called on all
Moreover; Gandhi also urged to boycott the Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline
British educational institutions, to resign from via non violence and Karo Ya Maro (Do or Die) in
government jobs, and to leave British titles. order to achieve ultimate freedom.
Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore resigned the On 9th of August, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi and the
title knight from the British soon after the entire Congress Working Committee were
Jalianwalabagh Massacre as a protest. When the arrested in Mumbai. In view of his deteriorating
movement reached great success, it ended health, he was released from the jail in May 1944
unexpectedly after the violent clash in Chauri because the British did not want him to die in
Chaura, Uttar Pradesh. Following this, Mahatma prison and enrage the nation. The cruel restraint
Gandhi was also arrested and sentenced to 6 years of the Quit India movement brought order to India
imprisonment. Indian National Congress was by the end of 1943 although the movement had
divided into two segments. Furthermore, support modest success in its aim. After the British gave
among the Hindu and Muslim people was also clear signs of transferring power to the Indians,
breaking down. However; Mahatma Gandhi only Gandhi called off the fight and all the prisoners
served around 2 years and was released. were released.
Dandi March. Partition and Indian Independence.
Mahatma Gandhi returned to the forefront again In 1946, upon persuasion of Sardar Vallabhbhai
in 1928. On March 12, 1930 Gandhi launched a Patel, Mahatma Gandhi reluctantly accepted the
new Satyagraha against the tax on salt. He started proposal of partition and independence offered by
the historic Dandi March, by walking from the British cabinet, in order to evade a civil
Ahmedabad to Dandi, to break the law that had war.After independence, Gandhi`s focus shifted to
deprived the poor of his right to make his own peace and communal harmony. He fasted for
salt. Gandhi broke the Salt law at the sea beach at abolition of communal violence and demanded
Dandi. This movement stimulated the entire that the Partition Council compensated Pakistan.
nation and it came to be known as Civil His demands were fulfilled and he broke his fast.
Disobedience Movement. On 8th May, 1933, he Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was, thus, able to
started a 21-day fast of self-purification in order to bring the whole nation under one umbrella to
help the Harijan movement. fight the British.Gandhi developed and improved
his techniques gradually to assure that his efforts
Quit India Movement made significant impact.
Mahatma Gandhi again became active in the Khilafat Movement

political arena after the outburst of World War II
in 1939. On August 8, 1942 Gandhi gave the call During the First World War, Turkey joined the
for Quit India Movement or Bharat Chhodo central powers against Britain. The symapathy of
Andolan. Soon after the arrest of Gandhi, Indian Muslims, who regarded the Sultan of
disorders broke out immediately through out the Turkey as their spiritual leader or Khalifa, was
country and many violent demonstrations took naturally with Turkey. After the war with defeat of
place.Quit India became the most powerful Turkey, the Allied power removed the Khalifa from
movement in the freedom struggle. Thousands of power in Turkey which aggrieved the Indian
freedom fighters were killed or injured by police Muslims against the British Government. Hence
gunfire, and hundreds the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in
India for the resumption of Khalifa's position. A Committees, was a truly remarkable feature of the
Khilafat Committee was formed under the non-cooperation movement in Kerala, in its early
leadership of Mahammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, stages. The speed with which the Khilafat agitation
Maulana Azad and Hasrat Mohini to organise a spread, especially in the Eranad and Valluvanad
country-wide agitation. The main object of Khilafat taluks, created alarm in official circles. A perplexed
Movement was to force the British Government to officialdom clamped down prohibitory orders in
change its attitude towards Turkey and to restore the two taluks. Meetings were banned and many
the Sultan. October 17, 1919 was observed as people were arrested in the name of law and
Khilafat Day, when the Hindus alongwith Muslims order. A tragic episode then ensued, namely the
in fasting observed hartal on that day. An All India Moppila Rebellion or the Malabar Rebellion of
Khilafat Conference was held at Delhi on 1921.Police attempted to arrest the secretary of
November 23, 1919 with Gandhi as its president. the Khilafat Committee of Pokottur in Eranad on a
The Conference resolved to withdraw all charge of having stolen a pistol.A crowd of 2000
cooperation from the Government, if the Khalifat Moppilas from the neighbourhood foiled the
demands were not met. Congress leaders, like attempt. The next day, a police party in search of
Lokamanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, viewed Khilafat rebels entered the famous Mambaram
the Khalifat Movement as an opportunity to bring mosque at Tirurangadi. They seized some records
about Hindu-Muslim unity against British. A joint and arrested a few Khilafat volunteers. A rumour
Hindu- Muslim deputation met the Viceroy on the spread that the mosque was desecrated.Hundreds
Khalifat issue, but it failed to yeild any of rustic Moppilas converged on Tirurangadi and
result.The central Khalifat Commettee met at besieged the local police station. The police
Allahabad from 1st to 3rd June, 1920 which was opened fire. The mob reacted in a mad fury.
attended by a number of congress leaders. In this Violence spread and engulfed Eranad and
meeting a programme of Non-Cooperation Valluvanad taluks and neighbouring areas for over
towards the Government was declared. It was to two months. Congress leaders tried in vain to
include boycott of titles, can oferred by the check the violence. Towards the later stages of the
Government, boycott of civil services, army and rebellion, owing to unfounded rumour of Hindus
police and non-payment of taxes to the having helped the police or sought police help,
Government. Gandhi insisted that unless the there were instances of atrocities perpetrated on
Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were undone, there Hindus. This marred the relations between the
was to be non-cooperation with the Government. two communities. Meanwhile British and Gurkha
regiments were rushed to the area. Martial law
was clamped. A series of repressive measures
Malabar Rebellion followed and by November, the rebellion was
practically crushed. Relief operations in the
The non - co - operation movement was in full ravaged areas, undertaken mostly by voluntary
swing during this period of time. It was particularly agencies which received help and funds from
strong in Malabar, where the Moppilas were Gandhiji, lasted for over six months.
agitated over the Khilafat issue. The Gandhian
movement had a tremendous impact in Kerala, Wagon Tragedy.
with large numbers joining the satyagrapha
campaign. Gandhiji visited Malabar in 1921, giving The epilogue (in the sense that it came to be
a further impetus to the movement. Khilafat known only later) was the "Wagon Tragedy" in
Committees sprang up in large numbers and the which 61 of the 70 Moppila prisoners packed in a
fraternity between the Hindus and Muslims, closed railway goods wagon and carried to
through the work in Congress-Khilafat Coimbatore jails, died of suffocation on November
10, 1921.In the wake of the suppression of the duties, Durbars and other functions, withdrawing
Malabar Rebellion and until almost the end of the children from government schools and colleges
decade, struggle purely for political freedom was and establishment of national schools and
on a low key. colleges. The people of India were instructed to
boycott the British courts and establish the private
Non-Cooperation Movement judicial courts. The Indians should use Swadeshi
cloth and boycott the foreign clothes and other
Non-Cooperation was a movement of passive things. Gandhiji strictly advised the Non-
resistance against British rule, which was initiated Cooperators to observe truth and non-violence.
by Mahatma Gandhi.To resist the dominance of The decision taken in Calcutta Session was
the British Government and advance the Indian supported in the Nagpur Session of the Congress
nationalist cause, the non-cooperation movement on December; 1920. The decision was also taken
was a non-violent movement that prevailed for the betterment of the party organization. Any
nationwide by Indian National Congress under the adult man or woman could take Congress
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. This movement membership for 4 annas as subscription. This
took place from September 1920 to February 1922 adoption of new rules gave a new energy to the
and initiated Gandhi era in the Independence Non-
Movement of India. Cooperation movement and from January of 1921
the movement gained a new momentum. Gandhi
The Rowlatt Act, Jaliwanwala Bagh massacre and along with Ali Brothers went to a nationwide tour
Martial Law in Punjab caused the native people during which he addressed the Indians in
not to trust the British Government anymore. The hundreds of meetings. In the first month of the
Montagu- Chelmesford Report with its diarchy movement, about nine thousand students left
could satisfy a few only. Until then Gandhi schools and colleges and joined the national
believed the justice and fair-play of the British institutions. During this period about eight
Government, but after this incidences he felt that hundred national institutions were established all
Non-cooperation with the Government in a non- over the country. The educational boycott was
violent way must be started. In the meantime the most successful in Bengal under the leadership of
Muslims in India also revolted against the harsh Chitta Ranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose. In
terms of the Treaty of severes between Allies and Punjab also the educational boycott was extensive
Turkey and they started Khilafat movement. under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai.The other
Gandhi also decided to stand beside them. active areas were Bombay, Bihar, Orissa, Assam,
Gandhiji`s idea of winning over Muslim support Uttar Pradesh. The movement also affected
also helped in Non-Cooperation Movement of Madras. The boycott of lawcorts by the lawyears
India. Gandhi had given a notice to the Viceroy in was not as successful as the educational boycott
his letter of 22nd June in which he had affirmed was. The leading lawyers like, Motilal Nehru, CR
the right recognized `from time immemorial of the Das, Mr Jayakar, V Patel, Asaf Ali Khan, S Kitchlew
subject to refuse to assist a ruler who misrules. and many others gave up their lucrative practices
After the notice had expired the Non-Cooperation and many followed their path inspired by their
movement was launched formally on 1st August of sacrifice. Bengal again led in this matter and
1920. At the Calcutta Session on September, 1920 Andhra, UP, Karnataka and Punjab followed the
the program of the movement was stated. The state.However the most successful item of the
programs of Non-cooperation involved the Non-Cooperation was the boycott of foreign
surrender of titles and offices and resignation clothes. It took such an extensive form that value
from the nominated posts in the government of import of the foreign clothes reduced from
body. It included not attending Government hundred and two crores in 1920-21 to fifty-seven
crores in 1921-22. Although some of the veteran The other example was the Anti-Union Board
political leaders like the Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin agitation in Midnapur led by Birendranath
Chandra Pal, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant Sashmal.
opposed Gandhiji`s plan but the younger
generation supported him fully. Muslim leaders As the Non-Cooperation movement proceeded
like Maulana Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim the woman of India, especially from Bengal
Ajmal Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Maulana Mohammad wanted to take active part in the protest
Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali also supported him. movement. The women nationalists were
assembled under the Mahila Karma Samaj or the
In the month of July 1921, the Government had to Ladies organization Board of the Pradesh Congress
face a new challenge. Mohammad Ali and other Committee of Bengal. The ladies members of that
leaders believed that it was `religiously unlawful organization arranged meeting and circularized
for the Muslims to continue in the British army` the spirit of Non-Cooperation. Women volunteers
and they were arrested for their view. Gandhi and were enlisted to take part in the movement. The
other Congress leaders supported Mahammad Ali ladies from many respected families led them.CR
and issued a manifesto. The next dramatic event Das`s wife Basanti Devi and sister Urmila Devi, JM
was visit of Prince of Wales on 17th November, Sengupta`s wife Nellie Sengupta, Mohini Devi,
1921. The day on which Prince boarded on Labanya Prabha Chanda played significant role in
Bombay Port the day was observed as a `Hartal this movement. Picketing of foreign wine and
Divas` all over India. The Prince was greeted with cloth shops and selling of Khaddar in the streets
empty streets and closed shops wherever he were the point of attention of this movement.
went. The Non-Cooperators gained more and
more energy at their success and became more The Government proclaimed Sections 108 and 144
aggressive. The congress volunteer corps turned of the code of criminal procedure at various
into a powerful parallel police. They used to march centers of agitation. The Congress Volunteer
in formation and dressed in uniform. Congress had Corpse was declared illegal. By December 1921
already granted permission to the Provincial More than thirty thousand people were arrested
Congress Committees to sanction total from all over the India. Except Gandhiji, most of
disobedience including non-payment of taxes. The the prominent leaders were inside jail. In mid-
Non-Co operational movement had other effects December Malaviya initiated a negotiation, which
also which are not very direct. In UP it became was futile. The conditions were like that it offered
difficult to distinguish between a Non-Co sacrifice of Khilafat leaders, which Gandhiji could
operational meeting and a peasant meeting. In never accept.
Malabar and Kerala the Muslim tenants roused
against their landlords. In Assam the labors of tea- At that time Gandhiji was also under a pressure
plantation went with strike. In Punjab the Akali from the higher leaders of Congress to start the
Movement was considered as a part of Non- mass civil disobedience. Gandhiji gave an
Cooperation movement. The Non-Cooperation ultimatum to the Government but the British
movement particularly strengthened in Bengal. Government paid no attention to it. In response,
The movement was not only seen in Kolkata but it Gandhiji initiated a civil disobedience movement
also agitated the rural Bengal and an elemental in Bardoli Taluqa of Surat district of Gujrat.
awakening was observed. The movement reached Unfortunately at this time the tragedy of Chauri
a climax after the Gurkha assault on coolies on the Chaura occurred that change the course of the
river port of Chandpur (20-21st May).The whole movement, where a mob of three thousand
Eastern Bengal was under the lash of the people killed twenty-five policemen and one
movement under the leadership of JM Sengupta. inspector. Gandhi was in support of complete
nonviolence and this incident was too much for reform showed that the British were still unwilling
him to bear. He ordered to suspend the to grant responsible government.
movement at once. Thus, on February 12th, 1922
the Non-Cooperation movement totally stopped. Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru decided that
the way to combat this situation was to enter the
There were limitations in achievements of Non- provincial legislative councils. Central legislative
Cooperation Movement as it apparently failed to assembly carries out a policy of uniform,
achieve its object of securing the Khilafat and continuous and consistent obstruction, with a
changing the misdeeds of Punjab. The Swaraj view to make government through the assembly
could not be achieved in a year as it was promised. and councils impossible would force the British to
The retreat of the February 1922 was only grant real reforms. In a special session of congress
temporary. The movement slowed down held in Delhi in September 1923, a compromise
gradually. The part of Battle was over but the war between no-changers and pro-changers was
continued. reached. The former would continue with the
constructive programme, whereas the latter could
Swaraj Party contest
the upcoming elections. Gandhiji gave his
Swaraj Party was established to fight the mighty blessings to this arrangement. Although they had
force of British head-on. Mahatma Gandhi was little time for campaigning, the swarajists did well
released from jail in 1924.He and his close in the elections. They became the largest party in
followers, such as Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and the central assembly and the dominant party in
Rajendra Prasad, occupied themselves with the two provinces. For the next few years swarajist
constructive programme, such as hand-spinning politicians obstructed official business in the
on the charkha, uplift of the harijans or members assembly and the councils as well. But there were
of the depressed class. But not all the positive gains too.
congressmen were willing to abandon political
action. In 1922 a group had formed around Motilal In 1925 the swarajist leader Vithalbhai Patel was
Nehru and C. R. Das that wished to enter the elected president of the central legislative
government`s legislative councils and wreck them assembly. C. R. Das, who had refused to form a
front within. They were opposed by the `no- ministry in Bengal, was elected mayor of Calcutta
changers` who insisted that the 1920 programme, (now Kolkata). In this position `Deshbandhu` did
which called for the boycott of council elections, much valuable service for his countrymen. The
should not be altered. At the Gaya congress in tragic death of C. R. Das in 1925 removed a great
December 1922, matters came to a head. The patriot from the scene at a critical moment. The
`nochangers` prevailed, but early the next year the Swaraj Party, which had already begun to break
`pro-changers` formed their own party. This party up, disintegrated quickly. As usual, the people of
was at first known as the congress-Khilafat Swaraj discord were religion. Communalminded Muslims
Party and later simply the swarajya or swaraj isolated themselves, while the so-called social
party. The new councils were inaugurated in activist began to cooperate with the government
1921.The non-congress parties which had entered with a desire to safeguard Hindu interests. By
them had not been successful in influencing March end the swarajists day in the sun had
government policy. And eventually diarchy proved ended. Block in their attempt to effect change;
to be a failure. Provincial minister could not act they walked out of the legislative assembly.It has
effectively even in `transferred` subjects because become a history in and out of India.
the new safeguards made the governors more
autocratic even than before. Only the Montford
MONTAGUE- CHELMSFORD REFORMS (Act of 'separate electorates for Sikhs, Anglo-Indians,

1919) Christians and Europeans.
The Home Rule movement and the rise of The Act of 1919 introduced Diarchy in the
revolutionary terrorism mainly led the British provinces. Accordingly, the Rights of the Central
authority to pacify the rising tide in India. and Provincial Governments were divided in clear-
Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India and Montague; cut terms. The central list included rights over
the Secretary of Indian Council submitted a defence, foreign affairs, telegraphs, railways,
proposal in 1918 to the British Parliament. As a postal and foreign trade. The provincial list dealt
result, the Act of 1919 was passed. Accordingly; with the affairs like health, sanitation, education,
the number of members of the Council of the public work, irrigation, jail, police and justice. The
Secretary of State (Indian Council) was fixed at 12. powers which were not included in the state list
Among them 3 were to be Indians and half of its vested in the hands of the Centre. In case of any
total members were to be chosen from among conflict between the 'reserved' and 'unreserved'
those who must have resided in India at least for powers of the State (the former included finance,
ten years. It limited the powers of the Secretary of police, revenue and publication of books and the
States. The Viceroy was empowered to nominate latter included health, sanitation and local-self
as many members to his Executive Council as· he government).The Governor had its final say. The
wished. The Councilors were nominated for five Diarchy was introduced in 1921 in Bengal, Madras,
years. Bombay, U.P., M.P., Punjab, Bihar, Orissa and
Assam. In 1932, it was extended to the North-
The Central Legislature consisted of the Council of West Frontier Province.
States and Legislative Assembly. The Upper House
or Council of States consisted of 60 members. No doubt, the Act of 1919 reformed some of the
Among them 33 were to be elected and 27 were maladies of the Morley-Minot Reforms of 1909,
to be nominated by the Viceroy. Each province in and introduced .Diarchy. Still it was not free from
India was allotted a fixed number of shortcomings. Limited franchise, no clear-cut
representatives to represent in the Council of division of powers between the Centre and the
States for 5 years. The Legislature Assembly or the States, Viceroy's authority over every matter etc.
Lower House consisted of 144 members out of were some of the defects of the Act of 19.19
which 103 were to be elected and the rest of the which brought dissatisfaction among the Indians.
members were to be nominated. The life of the
Legislative Assembly was for 3 years. The franchise Simon Commission
of both the Houses was restricted which differed
in different provinces. The Viceroy was The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of
empowered to summon, prorogue and dissolve seven British Members of Parliament that had
the Chambers. The first Speaker was to be been dispatched to India in 1927 to study
nominated by the Viceroy and after that the constitutional reform. The Commission was
speakers would be elected. The provincial named Simon Commission, following the name of
Legislature consisted of only one House known as the chairperson of the Commission Sir John Simon.
the Legislative Council. The number increased now The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced
what was a beforehand. The power of the Councils the system of dyarchy to govern the provinces of
also increased a little. British India. However, the Indian public
However, the Viceroy had control over the demanded for revision of the difficult dyarchy
Councils. The communal electorate system was form of government. Moreover the Government
further enhanced. It created provision for of India Act 1919 itself stated that a commission
would be appointed after ten years to investigate operate with the commission. But however it
the progress of the governance scheme and refused to do so. As a whole, Simon Commission in
suggest new steps for reform.In the late 1920, the India was a complete failure.
Conservative government, which was in power in
Britain feared imminent electoral defeat at the Working Class Movement and the Formation of
hands of the Labour Party. They also feared the AITUC
effects of the consequent transference of control
of India to such an inexperienced body. Hence, in The trade union movement in India forms a study
November of 1927, Prime Minister Stanley of the working class, their demands, response of
Baldwin appointed seven MPs (including Chairman their owners and redressal measures of the
Simon) to constitute the commission. government. In spite of the drain of wealth from
India and British apathetic attitude, the factories
The Simon Commission of 1919 was entrusted grew on this soil. The cotton mills in Bombay, the
with the charge to look into the state of Indian jute mills and tea industry grewup. The poor
constitutional affairs. The growth of the education Indian mass got employment in these factories as
and the development of the representative workers.Low wages, long working hours,
institution in British India were the significant unhygienic conditions, exploitation at the hands of
responsibilities vested with the Simon native and foreign capitalists made their condition
commission. The Simon commission was to give more miserable. The first Factory Act of 1881 and
report as to whether or what extent the principle the Acts of 1891, 1909, 1911 etc. could not end
of responsible government could be established in the plights of the working class people
India. The Simon commission was also asked to .
enquire the fact that how far it was desirable to The Russian Revolution of 1917 exerted
establish Second Chambers of the local legislature. tremendous influence over the working class
During the enquiry, the Simon commissions did people of the world. By the efforts of the leaders
snot however taken into accounts the relation of like N.M. Joshi, Lala Lajpat Rai and Joseph, the All-
the British Government with the Indian states and India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was
found the British Government extremely established in 1920. Nationalist leaders like C.R.
constitutional. The Simon Commission created Das and V. V. Giri also joined their hands with this
extreme dissatisfaction throughout the whole union. With the emergence of socialistic and
India. This was so because no Indian Members communist ideas, the left wing within the Indian
were included in the Commission. National Congress became active and leaders like
Subhas Chandra Bose and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
The Simon Commission was an all-White also presided over the sessions of AITUC.With the
Composition. Lords Birkenhead justified the recognition of the trade unions by the Trade Union
exclusion of the Indians members from the Simon Act of 1926, the trade union movements in India
Commission. He opined that since the Commission gained momentum. The fourth Congress of the
was composed by the Parliament, it was necessary Communist International sent a message to the
that the members of the Commission should be AITUC to overthrow capitalism and imperialism.
from the parliament. The Simon Commission The left wing within the AITUC also became very
created enough disaffection allovers the country active. The revolutionary of Muscovite group
and everywhere it was hailed with black flags. A wanted to affiliate the AITUC with the Red Labour
general hartal was observed throughout the Union framed at Moscow. In the power struggle,
Country on the day the commission landed in the liberal leader N.M. Joshi left the AITUC and
India. In such circumstance, the Central Assembly formed another organisation named' Indian Trade
was invited to form a joint Committee to co- Union Federation. Under the Leftist direction, the
AITUC launched vigorous programmes against the he is an inspiration source for the patriotic people
capitalist class. It foreshadowed a socialist State in of our motherland. It is important today to study
India with socialisation and nationalisation of the the contributions of Bhagat Singh and his
means of production. It organised meetings for
comrades when our country is again falling under
protecting the freedom of speech, association,
participation in national struggle etc.The the grip of imperialism and its designs.
Communist Party also flared up the flame. Though Unfortunately Bhagat Singh did not have much
the government passed several Acts to satisfythe place in the history textbooks. There was a
workers, still they carried on their programmes of concerted effort to underestimate the
strike and protest. The trade union activities were contributions of revolutionaries who sacrificed
so rampant that in 1928 Viceroy Lord Irwin everything for the liberation of our motherland.
arrested the prominent leaders and brought them
to Meerut for trial. After trial, S.A. Dange, Bhagat Singh came from a family of patriots and
Muzaffar Ahmed, Joglekar, Spratt etc. were given freedom fighters. His uncle, Ajit Singh was a
transportation or rigorous
pioneer in opposing the Colonization Act 1905 and
imprisonment.It aroused worldwide sympathy for
the union leaders. However, it hurled a terrible had to remain in exile till the country gained
blow on the trade union activities in India. Now independence. His father also was an active
the Leftists and Rightists joined their hands and participant in the struggle for the liberation of the
defended the case. country from the colonial rule. While as a student
Bhagat Singh came under the influence of the
During the Non-Cooperation Movement, the revolutionaries. The October revolution led by
British Government suppressed the trade union
Lenin attracted Bhagat Singh and he started to
leaders with iron hand. The Socialist Party formed
in 1934 wanted to cement coherence between the collect and read the literatures about socialism
moderate and the radical trade unions. During the and socialist revolution. The years of the twenties
popular governments between 1937-1938 the in general and those of 1928-30 in particular were
trade unions increased to 296. During Quit India of great significant in the history of India's
Movement, the Trade Union Movement went on freedom struggle.
as usual. The nationalist leaders failed to capture
the AITUC but the Communists had their hold over Due to the failure of first non-cooperation
it. After independence, the trade unions are movement, the revolutionaries of that period
performing their rule as usual.
were frustrated and started to think about some
REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS
alternative action plan. The formation of the
BHAGAT SINGH Hindustan Republican Association, the Hindustan
Socialist Republican Army and the Naujawan
The name Bhagat Singh has become a synonym of Bharat sabha (All India Youth League) all
revolution. He was one of the great happened during this period. Bhagat Singh and his
revolutionaries who made supreme sacrifice for comrades were imbued with the ideas of
the nation. Thousands of young people sacrificed revolution and socialism. The manifesto of HRA
their lives in the altar of India's liberation struggle says “The immediate object of the revolutionary
but the name Bhagat Singh has a special place in party in the domain of politics is to establish a
the history of our independence. No other young federal republic of the United States of India by an
revolutionary of India got much empathy in the organized and armed revolution. The basic
minds of the people of India like Bhagat Singh. Still
principle of this republic shall be universal suffrage them. Intent upon every aspect of British Court,
and the abolition of all system, which makes the justice and jail administration, they fought against
exploitation of man by man possible. In this every humiliating restriction, every discriminatory
republic the electors shall have the right to recall rule and demanded proper status for freedom
their representatives if so desired, otherwise the fighters in jail. They refused to be treated as
democracy shall be a mockery”. India could not common criminals and demanded treatment in
think about such ideas even after sixty years of consonance with dignity and prestige of the
independence! freedom struggle. During the trial days Bhagat
Singh and his comrades were asked to refrain from
The protest against the visit of Simon Commission
raising revolutionary slogans in the court. But they
turned into violence. Lala Lajpath rai died due to
continued to shout 'Inqilab Zindabad'. They were
police lathicharge. The country witnessed
beaten and handcuffed in the court; they were
unprecedented protest rallies. Bhagat Singh and
assaulted with lathis till they bled profusely and
his associates threw bombs in Central Assembly. A
fell unconscious. Bhagat Singh and his comrades
few days' later bombs exploded in the Central
succeeded in completely exposing the anti-Indian
Assembly they were arrested. The trial began in
and arbitrary character of British justice in India
1929 July. The farcical trial ended in October 1930
and the barbarities of the British Indian jails. This
awarded death sentence to Bhagat Singh, Rajguru
was the aim of their fight for which they prepared
and Sukhdev. The charge was conspiracy to
to undergo all the tortures. They turned their trial
overthrow the British rule and murder of a British
into a public trial of the British government.
official. They accepted the verdict with raising
slogans. A few days before the execution Bhagat In a joint statement before the trial court, Bhagat
Singh wrote a letter to the British authorities Singh and Batukeswar Dutt explained why they
demanding that as he and his two condemned threw the bombs in the Central Assembly. They
comrades were prisoners of war, they should not said their purpose was not to harm anyone but to
be hanged but that the sentence should be expose the dependent character of the Legislative
executed by a firing squad of the British army. This assembly which was being paraded by the British
was the unconquerable spirit and stuff of which as a Parliament create the belief that India was
Bhagat Singh was made. being democratically governed. The statement
further says'A radical change, therefore, is
The conduct of Bhagat Singh and his comrades
necessary and it is the duty of those who realize
during their historic trial at Lahore created new
this to reorganize society on a socialistic basis.
precedents of revolutionary behaviour. They were
Unless this thing is done and exploitation of man
making use of the British courts as a forum to
by man and nation by nations is brought to an
address the people, broadcast their revolutionary
end, sufferings and carnage with which humanity
views and ideology. This was something different
is threatened cannot be prevented. All talk of
from the nationalist tradition set by Mahatma
ending war and ushering in an era of universal
Gandhi. They appeared everyday in the nationalist
peace is undisguised hypocrisy”. In the statement
press and every activity of theirs was watched by
they explained about their concept about
lakhs of people. Their revolutionary declarations
revolution. They said that” By revolution, we mean
were also denied publicly but this did not restrain
the ultimate establishment of an order of the
society which may not be threatened by such slogans rose by Bhagat Singh and his comrades
breakdown and in which the sovereignty of the Long live revolution, long live proletariat and own
proletariat should be recognized and a world with imperialism -are still relevant.
federation should redeem humanity from the
Surya Sen (1894-1934)
bondage of capitalism and the misery of imperial
wars” Bhagat Singh symbolized his struggle in the Surya Sen(March 22, 1894 – January 12, 1934)
slogan he raised after he threw a bomb in the (also known as Masterda Surya Sen) was a
Legislative Assembly of Delhi- “Long Live prominent Bengali freedom fighter, an Indian
revolution” (Inquilab Zindabad), a slogan totally independence activist and the chief architect of
unfamiliar at that time to the Indian people. anti-British freedom movement in Chittagong,
Bengal (now in Bangladesh).He was born on 22
Bhagat Singh was not content with slogans. He
March 1894 in Chittagong district now in
embodied the indomitable courage, the death-
Bangladesh. He participated in nationwide non-
defying spirit, the capacity to sacrifice everything
cooperation movement as a revolutionary. He was
and unflinching courage in the face of torture. In
arrested in February 1933 by British and was
1930 July Bhagat Singh told some of his fellow
hanged on 12 January 1934.The Government of
comrades in jail said, “This is the highest award for
India released a commemorative stamp on him in
patriotism and I am proud that I am going to get it.
1977. Bangladesh issued a commemorative stamp
They think that by destroying my terrestrial body
on him in 1999.
they will be safe in this country. They are wrong.
They may kill me, but they cannot kill my ideas. Early life
They can crush my body, but they will not be able
to crush my spirit. My ideas will haunt the British His father's name was Ramaniranjan. A resident
like a curse till they are forced to run away from of Noapara in Chittagong, he was a teacher by
here. But this is one side of the picture. The other profession. He was initiated into revolutionary
side is equally bright. Bhagat Singh dead will be ideas in 1916 by one of his teachers while he was
more dangerous to the British enslavers than a student of Intermediate Class in the Chittagong
Bhagat Singh alive. After I am hanged, the College and joined the renowned revolutionary
fragrances of my revolutionary ideas will group Anushilan. But when he went to
permeate the atmosphere of this beautiful land of Behrampur College for BA course, came to know
ours. It will intoxicate the youth and make him about Jugantar and became more inspired with
mad for freedom and revolution and that will their ideas. On his return to Chittagong in 1918, he
bring the doom of the British imperialist nearer. organized Jugantar there. All revolutionary groups
This is my firm conviction. I am anxiously waiting were using Indian National Congress as umbrella
for the day when I will receive the highest award to work. Consequently in 1929, Surya Sen became
for my services to the country and my love for my the president of the Chittagong district committee
people”. Now this is the duty of the present day of the Indian National Congress. He continued to
youth to fulfill the dreams and aspirations of organize the hardline patriotic organisations and
Shaheed-eAzam Bhagat Singh by organizing first became a teacher of the National school in
revolutionary movement against neo imperialism Nandankanan and then joined the Umatara School
and neo colonialism. In this context the three
at Chandanpura. Hence, he was known as killed by the revolutionaries. This is how it

Mastarda (teacher brother). happened. Netra Sen's wife was all for Surya Sen,
and she was horrified by her husband's deed. She
By 1923 Surya Sen spread the revolutionary
felt mortified by her husband's betrayal of Surya
organization in different parts of Chittagong
Sen. One evening she was serving her husband
district. Aware of the limited equipment and other
food when a great admirer of Surya Sen came into
resources of the freedom fighters, he was
the house. He was carrying a very big knife, which
convinced of the need for secret guerrilla warfare
is called a "daa". With one stroke of the dal he
against the colonial Government. One of his early
chopped off the head of Netra Sen in the presence
successful undertakings was a broad day robbery
of his wife. Then slowly and stealthily he went
at the treasury office of the Bengal Assam Railway
away.
at Chittagong on December 23, 1923.
When the police arrived to investigate, they asked
Chittagong armoury raid and its aftermath.
Netra Sen's wife if she had seen who the murderer
His major success in the anti-British revolutionary was. She said, "I saw with my own eyes, but my
violence was the Chittagong Armoury Raid on April heart will not permit me to tell you his name. I am
18, 1930. Subsequent to the raid, he marched to sorry. I feel miserable that I was the wife of such a
the Jalalabad hills along with his fellow treacherous man, such an undivine man as Netra
revolutionaries. After the battle with the British Sen. My husband betrayed the greatest hero of
troops on April 22, he escaped from there. Surya Chittagong. My husband betrayed a great son of
Sen, being constantly followed up by the police, Mother India. My husband cast a slur on the face
had to hide at the house of Sabitri Devi, a widow, of India. Therefore; I cannot tell the name of the
near Patiya. A police and military force under person who took his life. He has definitely done
Captain Cameron surrounded the house on 13 the right thing. You can do anything with me. You
June 1932. Cameron was shot dead while can punish me, you can even kill me, but I shall
ascending the staircase and Surya Sen along with never tell the name of the person who killed my
Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Datta escaped to husband. Our Master-da will be hanged, I know,
safety. but his name will forever be synonymous with
India's immortal freedom-cry. Everybody loves
Surya Sen was always in hiding, moving from one him. Everybody adores him. I, too, love him and
place to another. Sometimes he used to take a job adore him, for he is the brightest sun in the
as a workman; sometimes he would take a job as a firmament of Chittagong. Surya means sun and he
farmer, or milkman, or priest, houseworker or is truly our sun. "Tarakeswar Dastidar, the new
even as a pious Muslim. This is how he used to president of the Chittagong Branch Jugantar Party,
avoid being captured. Either because of money, or made a preparation to rescue Surya Sen from the
out of jealousy, or because of both, Netra Sen told Chittagong Jail. But the plot was unearthed and
the British Government that Surya Sen was at his consequently frustrated. Tarakeswar and Kalpana
house. As a result, the police came and captured along with others were arrested. Special tribunals
him on February 16, 1933. This is how India's tried Surya Sen, Tarakeswar Dastidar, and Kalpana
supreme hero was arrested. But before Netra Sen Datta in 1933.
was able to get his 10,000-rupee reward he was
Surya Sen along with his Tarekeshwar Dastidar Ganguly, Narendra Mohan Sen and Sachindra Nath
was hanged by the British rulers on January 12, Sanyal were present at the meeting. The
1934. Before the death sentence Surya Sen was association was formed as an outgrowth of the
brutally tortured. It was reported that the British Anushilan Samiti. The party was established with
executioners broke all his teeth with hammer and the aim to organise armed revolution in order to
plucked all nails and broke all limbs and joints. He end the colonial rule and establish a Federal
was dragged to the rope unconscious. After his Republic of the United States of India. The name
death his dead body was not given any funeral. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was
The prison authority, it was found later, put his implicative after a similar revolutionary body in
dead body in a metallic cage and dumped into the Ireland.
Bay of Bengal.
During that period Gandhiji had declared to cancel
His last letter to his friends, written on 11 January, the Non-cooperation movement after the Chauri
stated, "Death is knocking at my door. My mind is Chaura incident. This decision of his created a lot
flying away towards eternity ...At such a pleasant, of rancour amongst the youngsters. Some of them
at such a grave, at such a solemn moment, what had jeopardised their careers for the
shall I leave behind you? Only one thing that is my movement.As HSRA was a revolutionary group,
dream, a golden dream-the dream of Free India.... they attempted to loot a train. They were
Never forget the 18th of April, 1930, the day of informed that the train was transferring
the eastern Rebellion in Chittagong... Write in red government money.On 9th August 1925, the
letters in the core of your hearts the names of the revolutionists ransacked the train. This now
patriots who have sacrificed their lives at the altar famous incident is known as the Kakori train
of India's freedom. robbery.As a result of the Kakori train robbery
case, Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil, Roshan
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
Singh, Rajendra Lahiri were hanged to death. It
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association before was an important setback for the Hindustan
1928 was known as the Hindustan Republican Socialist Republican Association.
Association. It is reckoned as one amongst the
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was
Indian independence associations during the time
aiming to create a Federal Republic of the United
of freedom struggle. Bhagat Singh, Yogendra
States of India. But later they changed their focus
Shukla and Chandrasekar Azad were the key
towards creating an India based on the Socialist
functionaries of Hindustan Socialist Republican
ideals of Lenin and Marx. Bhagat Singh declared
Association. The group is also considered one of
this at the Ferozshah Kotla Ruins in Delhi on 9th
the first socialist organisations in India. HSRA was
September 1928. Afterwards, the association was
invigorated by the ideologies of the Bolsheviks
renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican
involvement in the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Association, from Hindustan Republican
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was Association. HSRA in non-violent protest
first launched during a meeting in Bholachang advancement against the Simon Commission at
village, Brahamabaria subdivision, East Bengal. Lahore decided to support Lala Lajpat Rai. But in
Praiseworthy freedom fighters like- Pratul the protest procession, the police plunged into a
mass lathicharge and the wounds imposed on arouse public opinion. Bhagat Singh and
Lalaji proved life-threatening to him. This incident Batukeshwar Dutt offered to carry out the
was witnessed by Bhagat Singh and he swore to bombing and get arrested. The ideology behind
take revenge. the bombing was `to make the deaf government
hear the voices of its oppressed people`. Bhagat
It was decided by Hindustan Socialist Republican
Singh also believed that `the only way to
Association that the attempt would be taken
successfully convey his message to the public of
against J.A Scott, who had ordered the unlawful
India was to propaganda from Court`. He believed
lathi-charge. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Chander
that since all statements were registered in Court
Shekhar Azad and Jai Gopal were given the charge
and then promulgated, they could benefit support
to execute the plan. It was designed that Jai Gopal
for their crusade.
would signal Bhagat Singh and Rajguru when J.A
Scott would come out of his office. At the On April 8th 1929 when Vitthal Bhai Patel,
appointed time, on 17th December 1928 at President of the Central Assembly, moved up to
Lahore, a British official J. P.Saunders, the A.S.P., a give his ruling on failing to get an authority from
youngman of 21 but a probationer stepped out of the government that the bill would not be
his office. Raj Guru swooped on the British official imposed retrospectively, a bomb was detonated
with a pistol at Jai Gopal`s signal. The bullet near the empty treasure benches, followed by
perforated through his neck and almost killed him. another bomb explosion. Panic predominated
Bhagat Singh also rushed and pounced on him and everywhere. Nobody got killed as it was not
fired four or five shots.J.P.Saunders died on the thought of. The hall got filled with smoke. Bhagat
spot. Incidentally it was a terrible miscalculation Singh and BK Dutt started crying out "Long Live
on the part of Jai Gopal. He failed to differentiate Revolution, Down with Imperialism" as the smoke
between Scott and Saunders. Chanan Singh- a cleared. They also threw red leaflets on the floor,
head constable came forth to chase Bhagat Singh which began with the slogan of a French
and Raj Guru, but Chandra Shekhar Azad shot revolutionary "It needs a loud voice for a deaf to
Chanan down. The next day, Hindustan Socialist hear".
Republican Association came forward in public
On April 15th 1929, police raided the bomb
and in their proclamation said, "Inquilab Zindabad
factory of HSRA. As a result Kishori Lal, Sukhdev
(Long Live Revolution). We don`t enjoy killing an
and Jai Gopal were arrested. The Assembly Bomb
individual, but this individual was ruthless, mean
Case trial was started following this raid.On 23rd
and part and parcel of an unjust system. It is
March 1931 Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru
necessary to destroy such a system. This man has
were hanged. The great nationalist Baikuntha
been killed; because he was a cog in the wheel of
Shukla was also hanged for murdering
British rule. This government is the worst of all
Phanindrananth Ghosh who had become a
governments." Another significant action carried
government approver which later on led to the
out by the Hindustan Socialist Republican
hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and
Association was the Assembly Bomb Case. The
Rajguru.Baikuntha Shukla joined the freedom
association adjudicated to burst a blank bomb in
struggle at a young age and took active part in the
the Central Assembly in Delhi, in order to express
`Salt Satyagraha` of 1930.He was also associated
opposition against the tyrannical legislation and
with revolutionary organisations like the along with Master Da and Tarekeshwar Dastidar
Hindustan Seva Dal and Hindustan Socialist from their hiding place after a fierce battle with a
Republican Association. police/military squad, Kalpana was transported to
the Andaman’s. After her release from the penal
Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were executed
colony, Kalpana joined the communist party and
in 1931, as a result of their trial in the `Lahore
married PC Joshi a prominent communist leader.
conspiracy case`. Their death penalty gave birth to
tremendous agitation throughout the country. 2. Bina Das Bhaumik (1911)
Phanindrananth Ghosh was a key figure of the
An arts graduate, Bina was connected with
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. By
Calcutta Chhatri Sangha, a quasi revolutionary
turning into an approver, he betrayed the cause of
organization for young girls. She was sentenced to
the party. Baikuntha Shukla was given the charge
nine years imprisonment for her failed attempt on
to execute Phanindrananth Ghosh as an act of
the life of the Governor of Bengal, Stanley Jackson,
ideological revenge. He completed it in a
in 1932 at the annual convocation meeting of
successful manner on 9th November 1932.As a
Calcutta University. Following her release in 1938,
result Baikuntha Shukla was arrested and tried for
Bina joined the Congress party and was elected
murder. On May 14th 1934; Baikunth was
the secretary of South Calcutta Congress
convicted and hanged in Gaya Central Jail only at a
Committee. Later Bina became a member of West
young age of 28.
Bangla Rajyo Sobha. Bina married Jyotish Chandra
Another key revolutionary of Hindustan Socialist Bhaumik, her comrade at arms and a college
Republican Association, Chandrasekar Azad was teacher.
killed on 27th February 1931 in a gunfight with the
INFLUENCE OF RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
police. With the death of Chandrashekar Azad and
the hanging of its popular activists, Bhagat Singh, The socialist movement began to develop in India
Sukhdev and Rajguru, the fate of the association with the Russian Revolution. However, in 1871 a
was yet indecipherable. Hindustan Socialist group in Calcutta had contacted Karl Marx with
Republican Association was always in the forefront the purpose of organising an Indian section of the
of revolutionary movements in the northern parts First International. It did not materialise. The first
of India. The association consisted of younger article in an Indian publication (in English) that
generations of U.P, Bihar, Punjab, Bengal and mentions the names of Marx & Engels printed in
Maharashtra. The group possessed ideals, which the Modern Review in March 1912.The short
were directly opposite to Mahatma Gandhi`s biographical article titled Karl Marx – a modern
Congress. Rishi was written by the German-based Indian
revolutionary Lala Har Dayal. The first biography of
Women in Liberation war
Karl Marx in an Indian language was written by R.
1. Kalpana Datta Joshi (b.1913) Rama Krishna Pillai in 1914.
Born in Chittagong, Kalpana became an active Marxism made a major impact in India media at
member of Chittagong Jugantar party after the the time of the Russian Revolution. Of particular
famous armory raid led by Master Da. Arrested interest to many Indian papers and magazines was
the Bolshevik policy of right to self-determination comparative study of the approaches of both the
of all nations. Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal leaders with Lenin coming out as better of the
Gangadhar Tilak were amongst the prominent two. Together with Ranchoddas Bhavan Lotvala, a
Indians who expressed their admiration of Lenin local mill-owner, a library of Marxist Literature
and the new rulers in Russia. Abdul Sattar Khairi was set up and publishing of translations of
and Abdul Zabbar Khairi went to Moscow, Marxist classics began. In 1922, with Lotvala's
immediately on hearing about the revolution. In help, Dange launched the English weekly, Socialist,
Moscow, they met Lenin and conveyed their the first Indian Marxist journal.
greetings to him. The Russian Revolution also had
Regarding the political situation in the colonised
an impact on émigré Indian revolutionaries, such
world, the 1920 second congress of the
as the Ghadar Party in North America.
Communist International insisted that a united
The Khilafat movement contributed to the front should be formed between the proletariat,
emergence of early Indian communism. Many peasantry and national bourgeosie in the colonial
Indian Muslims left India to join the defence of the countries. Amongst the twenty-one conditions
Caliphate. Several of them became communists drafted by Lenin ahead of the congress was the
whilst visiting Soviet territory. Even some Hindus 11th thesis, which stipulated that all communist
joined the Muslim muhajirs in the travels to the parties must support the bourgeois-democratic
Soviet areas. The colonial authorities were clearly liberation movements in the colonies. Some of the
disturbed by the growing influence of Bolshevik delegates opposed the idea of alliance with the
sympathies in India.A first counter-move was the bourgeoisie, and preferred support to communist
issuing of a fatwa, urging Muslims to reject movements of these countries instead. Their
communism. The Home Department established a criticism was shared by the Indian revolutionary
special branch to monitor the communist M.N. Roy, who attended as a delegate of the
influence. Customs were ordered to check the Communist Party of Mexico. The congress
imports of Marxist literature to India. A great removed the term 'bourgeois-democratic' in what
number of anti-communist propaganda became the 8th condition.
publications were published.
The Communist Party of India was founded in
The First World War was accompanied with a Tashkent on 17 October 1920, soon after the
rapid increase of industries in India, resulting in a Second Congress of the Communist International.
growth of an industrial proletariat. At the same The founding members of the party were M.N.
time prices of essential commodities increased. Roy, Evelina Trench Roy (Roy’s wife), Abani
These were factors that contributed to the build Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani’s wife), Mohammad
up of the Indian trade union movement. Unions Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui
were formed in the urban centres across India, and M.P.B.T. Acharya. The CPI began efforts to
and strikes were organised. In 1920, the All India build a party organisation inside India. Roy made
Trade Union Congress was founded. contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in
Bengal. Small communist groups were formed in
One Indian impressed with developments in
Bengal (led by Muzaffar Ahmed), Bombay (led by
Russia was S. A. Dange in Bombay. In 1921; he
S.A. Dange), Madras (led by Singaravelu Chettiar),
published a pamphlet titled Gandhi Vs. Lenin, a
United Provinces (led by Shaukat Usmani) and rejoined the organisation in 1940 when the policy
Punjab (led by Ghulam Hussain). However, only was revised. He was then sent to Aligarh, where
Usmani became a CPI party member. he had the opportunity of meeting several
educationists and nationalists, including Reverend
On 1 May 1923 the Labour Kisan Party of
Wigram (his principal), Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru
Hindustan was founded in Madras, by Singaravelu
and Abul Kalam Azad. After returning to his own
Chettiar. The LKPH organised the first May Day
province (NWFP of British India), he worked for
celebration in India, and this was also the first
inculcation of ideas of nationalism in the minds of
time the red flag was used in India. On 25
Pathans.
December 1925 a communist conference was
organised in Kanpur. Colonial authorities Apart from being an ardent freedom fighter, Abdul
estimated that 500 persons took part in the Ghaffar Khan was a dedicated social reformer.
conference. The conference was convened by a Realising the need for social reconstruction, he
man called Satyabhakta, of whom little is known. propagated Gandhian principles—principles which
Satyabhakta is said to have argued for a ‘national he had himself adopted. He firmly believed in the
communism’ and against subordination under cult of khadi, non-violence, the need for
Comintern. Being outvoted by the other development of village industries and
delegates, Satyabhakta left both the conference emancipation of depressed classes and women.
venue in protest. The conference adopted the For the purpose of bringing about positive social
name ‘Communist Party of India’. changes he set up an organisation, Khudai
Khidmatgars (Servants of God) in 1929.
Abdul Ghaffar Khan & Khudai Khidmatgars
The organisation which was also known as 'Red
Born in village Uttamazai (now in Pakistan) in a
Shirts’ comprised non-violent revolutionaries who
Pathan family, Abdul Ghaffar Khan had his early
were also devoted social workers and played an
education in Peshawar. His meaningful political
active role in the nationalist movement. Because
career began in 1919 during agitations against
of his socialistic zeal, Ghaffar Khan was given the
Rowlatt Act and Khilafat Movements. Thereafter,
title Fakhar- e-Afghan (the pride of Afghan). In
from 1920 to 1947, he took a prominent part in
1940, he founded another Khudai Khidmatgar on
the activities of the Congress. He was involved in
the banks of Sardaryab and named it Markar-e-
all major political movements such as Non-
Allai-e-Khudai Khidmatgar.
Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Satyagraha and
Quit India. For several years, he was a member of Ghaffar Khan also advocated national education.
Congress Working Committee but declined the He was instrumental in the establishment of a
offer of presidentship of the organisation. During number of national schools in his province,
this period (1920- 1947), he was arrested several especially the Azad High School of Uttamanzai and
times and spent around fourteen crucial years of the Anjuman-ul-Afghanie. In 1928, he started a
his lifetime in jail. In the 1920s, he came to be monthly journal in Pushto, Pakhtoon, which was
known as 'Frontier Gandhi' because of his close stopped in 1931. However, it resumed publication
association with Gandhi. Abdul Ghaffar Khan a few years later as Das Roza. Although a pious
resigned from the INC in 1939 because of his Muslim, Ghaffar Khan believed in secularism. He
disapproval of the war policy of the Congress. He
condemned the communal politics of the Muslim 3rd of February, 1928 in various parts of the
League and argued against the idea of partition. region. Widespread demonstrations were held in
Kolkata on 19th of February, 1928, the day of
After partition, he started a struggle for
Simon`s arrival to the city. Further, on 1st of
establishment of Pakhtoonistan for Pathans and
March, 1928, meetings were held simultaneously
was jailed several times by successive Pakistani
in all 32 wards of the city, spurring people to
governments. He lived in exile in Afghanistan for
restore the movement for boycott of British
several years. In 1969, he was invited to India on
goods.
the occasion of Gandhi centenary celebrations. In
1987, he was presented the Bharat Ratna. Ghaffar Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 5th of May,
Khan passed away in 1988. 1930, just days before his projected raid on the
Dharasana Salt Works. The Dandi March and the
Purna Swaraj Resolution
resultant Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide
In December 1929, the Congress held its annual attention to the Civil Disobedience Movement
session at Lahore. Jawaharlal Nehru was the through widespread newspaper coverage. It
president at this session. In this session, the continued for almost a year, ending with the
Congress declared ‘Purna Swaraj’ or Complete release of Mahatma Gandhi from jail and after the
Independence as its ultimate goal. It asked all discussions at the Second Round Table Conference
Congressmen and nationalists not to participate in with Viceroy Lord Irwin. The crusade had a
elections to the legislatures and to resign from the significant effect on changing British attitudes
legislatures. It was decided that 26 January would toward Indian independence and caused huge
be henceforth observed as the Independence Day numbers of Indians to aggressively join the fight
every year. To achieve the aim of complete for the first time. The Salt March to Dandi and the
independence, the Congress decided to launch flogging of hundreds of non-violent protesters in
another mass movement – the Civil Disobedience Dharasana, marked the efficient use of civil
Movement. disobedience as a method for fighting social and
political injustice.
Civil Disobedience Movement Civil Disobedience
Movement, launched under the leadership of On 8th of April 1929, members of the Hindustan
Mahatma Gandhi, in 1930, was one of the most Socialist Republican Association attacked the
significant phases of Indian freedom struggle. The assembly chamber of the Imperial Legislative
Simon Commission, which was formed in Council in Delhi. In response, Lord Irwin published
November 1927 by the British Government to a Public Safety Bill. Moreover, on 31st of October,
chart and conclude a Constitution for India, Lord Irwin announced that the natural
included members of the British Parliament only. constitutional progress of India was the
As a result, the Commission was boycotted by attainment of Dominion Status. The Congress
every section of the Indian social and political Party indicated its willingness to cooperate in
platforms as an `All-White Commission`. The formulating a Dominion constitution. In
opposition to the Simon Commission in Bengal November, measures were accepted in such a way
was noteworthy. In disapproval against the that Congress rejected the declaration.
Commission, a `Hartal` or Strike was observed on
On 23rd of December, Lord Irwin met with Between February to March, 1931, Lord Irwin and
Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Gandhi met in a series of talks seeking settlement
Vallabhbhai Patel, Mohammad Ali Jinnah and Tej of the issues originating from the civil
Bahadur Sapru in New Delhi. Erwin however, could disobedience movement. In the agreement
not arrive at an agreement for framing a reached on 5th of March, Gandhi agreed to
constitution under Dominion Status. At the discontinue Civil Disobedience as it embraced
ensuing 1930 annual meeting of the Congress defiance of the law, non-payment of land revenue,
Party held at Lahore, the Congress declared itself publication of news-sheets, termination of its
for independence rather than Dominion Status boycott of British goods and the restraint of
and authorised a campaign of Civil Disobedience. aggressive picketing. The Government of India
Gandhi`s Civil Disobedience Movement came out agreed to cancel ordinances opposing the
as a march to Dandi, in objection to the tax on movement, to release Indian prisoners, return
salt. Gandhi reached Dandi on April 6th, and fines and property.
explicitly violated the salt law.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
On 18th of April, around one hundred
This pact was signed between Mahatma Gandhi
revolutionaries attacked police and railway
and the then Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin on 5
armouries at Chittagong. Mahatma Gandhi
March 1931.
condemned the raid, which had made a deep
impression throughout India. On 5th of May, the Salient features of this act were as following:
Government of India had Gandhi arrested and
lodged at Yervada Jail near Pune. Following the 1. The Congress would participate in the Round
arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, the British faced the Table Conference.
full programme of Civil Disobedience as composed
2. The Congress would discontinue the Civil
of Indian raids on salt depots, refusal to pay taxes
Disobedience Movement.
in chosen areas, spirits and avoidance of business
with all British firms, disobedience of forest laws 3. The Government would withdraw all ordinances
and boycott of foreign cloth. issued to curb the Congress.
On 30th of June, the Government of India 4. The Government would withdraw all
outlawed the All-India Congress Committee and prosecutions relating to offenses other than
the Congress Working Committee. Further, on violent one. The Government would release all
23rd of July, Lord Irwin facilitated visits to persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment
Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru by two for their activities in the civil disobedience
Indian Liberals, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and Mukund movement.
Ramrao Jayakar, for the purpose of finding ways to
Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the
end civil disobedience movement. On 25th of
attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels
January 1931, Lord Irwin authorised Gandhi`s
showing the march. Time magazine declared
release from prison and withdrew prohibition of
Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing
illegality against the Congress Working
Gandhi's march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt
Committee.
tax as some New Englanders once defied a British
tea tax." Civil disobedience continued until early federal Legislature, according to the agreement.
1931, when Gandhi was finally released from The provincial autonomy was also demanded by
prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the Congress in the Round Table Conference.
the two held talks on equal terms, and resulted in However, Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime
the Gandhi–Irwin Pact. The talks would lead to the Minister, made a momentous declaration on
Second Round Table Conference at the end of behalf of His Majesty`s Government. According to
1931. the view of His Majesty`s government it was
declared that the responsibility of the government
In the March of 1930, Gandhi met with the
should be placed upon legislatures, Central and
Viceroy, Lord Irwin and signed an agreement
Provincial with certain provisions as was
known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The two main
considered necessary.
clauses of the pact entailed; Congress
participation in the Round Table Conference and The absence of the Congress representations in
cessation of The Civil Disobedience Movement. Round Table conference led to a second session of
The Government of India released all satyagrahis the Round Table conference, where the Congress
from prison. representatives would participate. Several efforts
were made in that direction by Sir Tej Bahadur
Round Table Conferences
Sapru and Sir M.R. Jayakar, which led to the
The Simon Commissions in India induced the famous Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which was signed in
dissatisfaction throughout India. It met a violent March 1931. According to the Poona Pact, all
resistance in India and later the British political prisoners were released and the Civil
Government organized for the Rounds Table Disobedience Movement was called off.
conferences in order to take into consideration
In the second Round Table Conference, Gandhiji
the demands and grievances of the Indians
was appointed as the representative of the
directly. Demands for Swaraj, or self-rule, in India
Congress, which was convened from 1st
had been growing increasingly strong. By the year
September to 1st December in the year1931.But
1930, many British politicians believed that India
the significant issue of the Second Round Table
needed to move towards dominion status. As
conference was to solve the communal problem,
announced by the viceroy on behalf of the
which was not solved. This was because;
Government of England on October 31, 1929,
Mr.Jinnah inflexibility was secretly supported by
Round Table Conference was convened in London.
the British statesman like the Secretary of State
After lengthy discussions, three basic principles
for India; Sir Samuel Hoare. Disappointed by the
were agreed in the Conference and the British
result of the session of the Second Round Table
Government was made to accept those principles.
Conference, Gandhiji returned to India and
Three basic principles were put forwards in the subsequently arrested on his arrival in the
Round Table Conference. According to the country.
agreement, it was demanded that form of the new
Ramsay Macdonald announced that in default of
government of India was to be an All India
an agreed settlement as regards the respective
federation. The federal government, subject to
quanta of representation of different
some reservations would be responsible to the
communities, the British Government would have
to arbitrate their claims. Subsequently, on August violence and peace. The philosophy and ideology
4, 1932, Macdonald`s infamous "Communal is relevant still today.The philosophy of Gandhi
Award" came into existence. The concept of was based on truth, sacrifice, non- violence
Communal Award was related to the selfless service and cooperation. In modern times,
representation of different communities in the nonviolent methods of action have been a
provincial legislatures. However the "Communal powerful tool for social protest. According to
Award" declared by Ramsay Macdonald was Gandhi one should be brave and not a coward. He
partially modified by the Poona Pact. This was should present his views, suggestions and
accepted by the Hindu rulers due to Gandhiji, who thoughts without being violent. One should fight a
wanted to prevent a political breach between the war with the weapons of truth and non violence.
so-called caste Hindus and the Scheduled Castes. Gandhi said that ‘There is no god higher than
truth’. According to Gandhi’s thoughts
Consequently the third Round Table Conference
nonviolence is ultimate solution of every kind of
was again convened in London on November 17th
problem in the world. Gandhi was single person
to December 24th in the years 1932. A White
who fought against the British with the weapons
paper was issued in the year March 1933. The
of truth and Non-violence by persuading
details of the working basis of the new
countrymen to walk on the path of non-violence.
constitution of India were enumerated in the
Gandhi leading a decades-long nonviolent struggle
White Paper. It was declared that according to the
against British rule in India, which eventually
new constitution, there would be dyarchy at the
helped India, wins its independence in 1947. By
Center and the responsible governments in the
the efforts of Gandhi India became independent.
center. In February 1935, a bill was introduced in
Gandhi initiated non violence activities like Quit
the House of Commons by the Secretary of State
India movement and non-operation movement.
for India, which subsequently passed and enacted
Gandhi could never have done what he did alone,
as the government of India Act, 1935.
but with his ability to identify a seed here, a seed
Thus the Government of India Act came into there and nurture it, he was able to create a forest
existence in the Third Round Table Conference. of human change. He understood that it was not
The Government of India Act drew its materials enough to be a leader, but to create leaders.
from the Simon Commission, the report of the All-
In quite simple and clear words, Gandhism
Parties conference i.e. the Nehru Report, the
consists of the ideas, which Mahatma Gandhi put
discussions at the three successive Round Table
forth before human world. Along with that, to the
Conferences, the detail enumerated in the White
maximum possible extent, Mahatma Gandhi
Paper and the reports of the Joint Select
treated his individual life in accordance with these
Committees.
ideas. Clearly; Gandhism is a mixture of Gandhi’s
Gandhian Methods of Struggles-Strategies concepts and practices. The basic ground ship of
Gandhism happens to be non-violence. The non-
Introduction violence is the most ancient eternal value. This
non-violence is the ground of ancient-most
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was ‘a man of
civilization and culture of India.Mahatma Gandhi
millennium’ who imparts the lesson of truth, Non-
said on this very account while making his
concepts and practices based on non-violence: ‘I resistance, non-violent resistance, and civil
have nothing new to teach you’ Truth and non- revolution. Mahatma Gandhi had to struggle in his
violence are as old as hill. As we know, non- whole life, but he never disappointed, he
violence and truth are two sides of the same coin. continued his innate faith in non-violence and his
After knowing Gandhism, it is imperative for us to belief in the methods of Satyagraha. The
know clearly the concept of non-violence also as it significance of Satyagraha was soon accepted
accords the ground for Gandhism. Gandhi’s worldwide. Martin Luther King adopted the
importance in the political world scenario is methods of Satyagraha in his fight against the
twofold. First, he retrieved non-violence as a racial discrimination of the American authorities in
powerful political tool and secondly manifestation 1950. Gandhism is very much contextual today on
of a higher spiritual goal, culmination in world this accord. It is significant. We should grasp
peace. For Gandhi, means were as important as importance of Gandhism while analyzing it.
the end and there could be only one means - that
Presently a big portion of the world happens to be
of non-violence.
under Democratic system of Government.
As a situation opposite to violence is non-violence, Theoretically, this system stands out to be the
we can firmly state, total nonviolence consists in best up to now. This is a truth. It is the best
not hurting some other one’s intellect, speech or because people are connected with it directly or
action per own thought, utterance or deeds and indirectly at every level. Not only this, it is this very
not to deprive some one of his life. Mahatma system, which provides maximum opportunities of
Gandhi fully agrees with above-mentioned public progress and development. People can
derivation of non-violence. He himself has said, themselves decide in this system the mode of
Non-violence is not a concrete thing as it has their welfare. However, even though being
generally been enunciated. Undoubtedly, it is a theoretically the best system of government, if we
part of non-violence to abstain from hurting some peruse the democratic nations, we first of all find
living being, but it is only an iota pertaining to its that there is non-equal development of the
identity. The principle of nonviolence is shattered citizens. We subsequently find that these nations
by every evil thought, false utterance, hate or are more or less victimized by regionalism. They
wishing something bad unto someone. It is also have problem relating to language. They are under
shattered per possession of necessary worldly clutches of terrorism and communalism. There is
things. In this chain Mahatma Gandhi clarified in also the problem of negation of human rights in
an edition of Young India: ‘To hurt someone, to these nations. There are other vivid problems akin
think of some evil unto someone or to snatch to mention above and peace is far away so long as
one’s life under anger or selfishness, is violence. In these problems exist. All citizens must have equal
contrast, purest non-violence involves a tendency development and they should have communal
and presuming towards spiritual or physical harmony towards making all citizens collective and
benefit unto every one without selfishness and unified partners in progress. But, in reality, it is not
with pure thought after cool and clear so. It is essential that the nations of democratic
deliberations’. The ultimate yardstick of violence system of government should be free from above-
or non-violence is the spirit behind the action. mentioned problems, must be capable of ensuring
There are many examples of their use like equal development of their all citizens and the
citizens concerned must march forward on path of dignity for hard labor and mutual respect. In the
progress in unified way along with rendering traditional Indian society torn apart by caste and
contribution to world peace. creed based discriminations, Satyagraha stated
that no work was lowly. It championed secularism
Gandhi demonstrated to a world, weary with wars
and went a long way in eradicating untouchability
and continuing destruction that adherence to
from the heart of India's typically stratified
Truth and Non-violence is not meant for
society. Satyagraha glorified the role of women as
individuals alone but can be applied in global
an important member of the society. All in all,
affairs too. Gandhi’s vision for the country and his
Satyagraha instilled in the Indian mind a dignity
dreams for the community as a whole still hold
and a self respect that is yet unprecedented in its
good for India. He got the community to absorb
modern history. Gandhi’s system of Satyagraha
and reflect true values of humanity and to
was based on nonviolence, non-cooperation, truth
participate in tasks that would promote the
and honesty. Gandhi used non violence in India’s
greater good. These issues are still relevant to
freedom struggle as main weapon and India
what free India is and represents. The main cause
became independent from British rule.
of worry today is intolerance and hatred leading to
violence and it is here the values of Gandhi need Truth - The most powerful weapon.
to be adhered to with more passion.
Gandhism is more about the spirit of Gandhi’s
Gandhian Strategy journey to discover the truth, than what he finally
considered to be the truth. It is the foundation of
Gandhian strategy is mainly comprised with:
Gandhi’s teachings, and the spirit of his whole life
Satyagraha to examine and understand for oneself, and not
take anybody or any ideology for granted. Gandhi
Truth and honesty said: ‘The Truth is far more powerful than any
weapon of mass destruction’. Truth or 'Satya' was
Non-violence
the sovereign principle of Mahatma Gandhi's life.
Co-operation The Mahatma's life was an eternal conquest to
discover truth and his journey to that end was
Peace and love
marked by experiments on himself and learning
Satyagraha - A holistic approach towards life, from his own mistakes. Fittingly his autobiography
based on the ideals of truth and moral courage. was titled 'My Experiments with Truth.' Gandhi
strictly maintained that the concept of truth is
Satyagraha’s goal is winning over people’s hearts, above and beyond of all other considerations and
and this can be achieved only with tremendous one must unfailingly embrace truth throughout
patience, Satyagraha is more than a political tool one's life. Gandhi pioneered the term Satyagraha
of resistance. The similarities of the Satyagraha to which literally translates to 'an endeavor for truth
some of the greatest philosophical and religious . 'In the context of Indian freedom movement,
tenets of the world have been observed and much Satyagraha meant the resistance to the British
written about. However, in the specific context of oppression through mass civil obedience. The
India, Satyagraha was an immense influence. It tenets of Truth or Satya and nonviolence were
went a long way in instilling among the Indians a
pivotal to the Satyagraha movement and Gandhi thought the sensible approach would be to
ensured that the millions of Indians seeking an confront the ideas and alleviate the conditions
end to British rule adhered to these basic that motivated people to undertake such
principles steadfastly. desperate operations in the first place. As we
know, non-violence and truth go side by side.
Non-violence is ever lasting.
After knowing Gandhism, it is imperative for us to
Gandhian strategy is the collection of inspirations, know clearly the concept of non-violence also as it
principles, beliefs and philosophy. The accords the ground for Gandhism.
fundamentals of Gandhi’s non violence theory,
For Gandhi, means were as important as the end
Jainism and Buddhism were the most important
and there could be only one means- that of non-
influence. Both Jainism and Buddhism preached
violence. What is non-violence? Ordinarily, we
non-violence as the basic principal of existence.
attribute nonviolence as a dictum that prescribes
Gandhi was also influenced By Bhagvad Gita with
non-snatching of anyone’s life. Really, this is not
its stress on non attachment and selfless action,
complete derivation pertaining to the concept of
Christianity, along with its massage of love and
non-violence. Non-violence is quite opposite to
compassion, extended even to one’s enemies, was
violence. As such, it would be better to know the
another important influence on Gandhi’s life.
position relating to violence in order to know non-
Gandhi’s life was based on truth, honesty and
violence and to be in knowledge of its meaning.
moral courage.
According to a Jain scholar: ‘Whenever, we hurt
Mahatma Gandhi was great national hero, who some other living being through our thought,
served the nation with truth and non violence. utterance or action under non-cordial stipulation
Gandhi was against violence. He always disliked and non-apt learning, such an impure spirit or act
war on the ground of its violent nature. That’s why of destroying life of some other one, including the
when the Second World War began in 1939; he impure tendency, utterance or presuming, is taken
opposed the stand of British government dragging to be full of vice of violence. In such a situation,
India into war without consulting Indian leaders. even if there is no sort of violence externally, it
Gandhi was in favor of non violence; therefore he intrinsically ipso facto remains a tendency of
was against in any cooperation in war efforts. violence’. There are three categories of violence:-
According to Gandhi the use of non violence
When we hit physically anybody.
consists of anger, selfishness, hatred and enmity.
According to him violence cannot do anything When we think wrong and feel jealous with
good to human beings. A Gandhian strategy for anybody.
confronting terrorism, therefore, would consist of
When we aggressively speak and abuse to
the following:
anybody.
Stop an act of violence in its tracks. The effort to
All these categories create negative energy in
do so should be nonviolent but forceful. To focus
human body. The negative energy has adverse
solely on acts of terrorism, Gandhi argued, would
affect on human body. Gandhi criticized violence.
be like being concerned with weapons in an effort
It is a body of ideas and principles that describes
to stop the spread of racial hatred. Gandhi
the inspiration, vision and the life work of Gandhi. only through love an enemy could be permanently
It is particularly associated with his contributions won. Non violence is not passive. It is active,
to the idea and practice of non violence creative, provocative and challenging. Gandhi
resistance, sometimes also called civil resistance. described non-violence as ‘A force more powerful
The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what than all the weapons of world combined’. Non
Gandhi's ideas, words and actions mean to people violence is the greatest and most active force in
around the world, and how they used them for the world. Gandhi wrote, It is mightier than the
guidance in building their own future. Gandhism mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the
also permeates into the realm of the individual ingenuity of humanity. When we tap into the spirit
human being, non-political and nonsocial. A of non-violence, it becomes contagious and can
Gandhian can mean either an individual who topple empires. In relation to violence, there are
follows, or a specific philosophy which is two options in the world. These options are, we
attributed to, Gandhism. fight back or run away. Non violence gives us third
option: creative active, peaceful resistance to
In context of non-violence being perpetual,
injustice. Non violence means standing unmoving
Mahatma Gandhi states, ‘When we peruse the era
against injustice until injustice is transformed into
from beginning unto now relating to the period for
justice. Non-violence dose not harm to others and
which we gain historical evidence, we find that
does not adversely affect other directly .but it
man has been ultimately treading path of
works internally. Instead of killing others, we
nonviolence’. It is, as such, that non-violence came
should do in the nonviolent struggle for justice
into existence along with man. In case it has not
and human rights. Non-violence begins in the
been with man from the very beginning, there
heart then it moves out to our families, local
might have been self-doom by man. As Martin
communities, cities, nation and world.
Luther King Jr. said: "The choice is not between
violence and nonviolence but between Gandhi thought, debased those who adopted it. A
nonviolence and non-existence." violent posture adopted by public authorities
could lead to a civil order based on coercion. For
However, it has not been that and not only human
this reason Gandhi insisted on means consistent
race is alive in such a huge number but there has
with the moral goals of those engaged in the
been gradual enhancement in development and
conflict.
nearness in spite of presence of various obstacles
and nuisances. This could never have been, but Conclusion
because non-violence is perpetual, it happened.
Gandhi dreamed of a new world of non-violence
Mahatma Gandhi was against any form of
with overall peaceful environment. Non-violence
exploitation and injustice. According to him, evils
is a universal phenomenon and it has great
must be opposed at any cost. But he insisted that
relevance and significance. It is the ultimate
the weapons must be non violent and moral ones.
solution of all kinds of problems and conflicts in
The adoption of peaceful method made one
the society, nation and world. However, its result
superior and put the enemy at a disadvantage but
depends upon its understanding and proper
the condition is the opponent must be dealt with
application. The present scenario of violence and
mutual respect and love. Gandhi believed that
exploitation all over the world has raised an
important issue. Any nation which has been all citizens collective and unified partners in
suffered with communalism, dictatorship, progress. But, in reality, it is not so.
corruption and power games really needs to go
It is essential that the nations of democratic
back to Gandhi’s conviction of nonviolence and
system of government should be free from above-
truth as his mission. By adopting nonviolence,
mentioned problems, must be capable of ensuring
social, political, economic and religious conflicts
equal development of their all citizens and the
shall be removed. Undoubtedly, the social
citizens concerned must march forward on path of
doctrine of non violence that has emerged from
progress in unified way along with rendering
Gandhian ideas has now become the key to forge
contribution to world peace. Gandhism is very
and sustain the new social and political order.
much contextual today on this accord. It is
Today, there is need to adopt Ghandhian
significant.
philosophy and ideology in overall world to
remove all kind of problems and creating peaceful Gandhi inspires an alternative vision of politics and
environment. Gandhi is not the past, he is the resistance at a time when oppression is not only
future. He is an early sign of what we can be. getting more overt and physical but also more
insidious. His ideology of nonviolence is a good
Presently a big portion of the world happens to be
point to start from. It may not succeed, but it
under Democratic system of Government.
opens a world of possibilities and encourages us to
Theoretically, this system stands out to be the
think outside the box. His life also illustrates how
best up to now. This is a truth. It is the best
radical ideas are first dismissed, only to be tested
because people are connected with it directly or
and embraced later. Gandhi demonstrated to a
indirectly at every level. Not only this, it is this very
World, weary with wars and continuing
system, which provides maximum opportunities of
destruction that adherence to Truth and Non-
public progress and development. People can
violence is not meant for individuals alone but can
themselves decide in this system the mode of
be applied in global affairs too. Gandhi’s vision for
their welfare. However, even though being
the country and his dreams for the community as
theoretically the best system of government, if we
a whole still hold good for India. He got the
peruse the democratic nations, we first of all find
community to assimilate and reflect true values of
that there is non-equal development of the
humanity and to participate in tasks that would
citizens. We subsequently find that these nations
promote the greater good. These issues are still
are more or less victimized by regionalism. They
relevant to what free India is and represents. The
have problem relating to language. They are under
main cause of worry today is intolerance and
clutches of terrorism and communalism. There is
hatred leading to violence and it is here the values
also the problem of negation of human rights in
of Gandhi need to be adhered to with more
these nations. There are other vivid problems akin
passion. He is relevant not yesterday or today but
to mention above and peace is far away so long as
forever!!
these problems exist. These nations should get
themselves rid of these problems, all citizens of EMERGENCE OF LEFT WING
them must have equal development and they
should have communal harmony towards making Jawaharlal Nehru
Nehru's Nationalism and his role in the Freedom return from the British shores in 1912, the job of a
Movement are closely interrelated, since it was lawyer was the last of Nehru's priorities. As a
the nature of Nehru's Nationalist ideas that student he already felt himself closely attached to
dictated his course of action in the freedom the cause India's freedom, and had his sympathies
movement of India. Nehru's Nationalism: Nehru's with the Extremist leaders of Congress. After his
nationalism was not one of mindless jingoism. He return, he involved himself directly into the
was able to reach a common ground between an political scenario of the country.
erudite internationalism and a very keen
However, Nehru was still comparatively without a
understanding of the Indian condition. Nehru's
firm direction in these early years, not sure which
nationalism was marked by a fiery pride in the
path was the right path that would lead towards
heritage of the country. But he was willing to
India's freedom. His father's moderate ideologies
temper this pride with his readings and his
and elitist way of life disturbed him, as he thought
rationalist views that he received from his
him, like many other Congressmen of his
Western education in the West.
generation, to be much dissociated from the
Jawaharlal Nehru's role in the freedom movement ground realities of the land and the lives of the
of India has probably not received as much common people of India. He also realized that the
historical attention as it deserves. That is, of direct application of Socialist measures would not
course no surprise, as Jawaharlal Nehru's suit India's socio-economic profile. It was at that
astounding success as a statesman who ushered in time that he found a direction in the mode of civil
a new era of international relations through the resistance as preached by Gandhi. Gandhi's
formation of the NAM, and his stature as the first success in Champaran and Ahmedabad renewed
prime minister of independent India often and established his belief in Satyagraha. He was
adumbrate his position as a significant figure in not slow to adopt the cultural aspects of
the freedom movement of India. With his charm, Satyagraha as well. He read the Indian scriptures
highly impressive educational background, and of India, and dressed in home-spun clothes
selfless service to the nation, Nehru presented the becoming a staunch Gandhian in all senses.
face of a new and active India to thousands of Motilal and his entire family adopted the
Indians who looked up to him as a role model and Gandhian way of life. Nehru traveled across India,
a guide. and was warmly received by the masses. This filled
him with a renewed sense of self-confidence. It
Early Years of Nehru in the Freedom Movement
was time he decided to whole-heartedly commit
of India:
himself to the cause of Indian freedom.
Jawaharlal Nehru was born into politics. His father
Jawaharlal Nehru and the Non-Cooperation
Motilal Nehru was a veteran Congressman and
Movement:
committed to the cause of India's freedom for a
very long time. Nehru spent much of his The first big involvement of Jawaharlal Nehru
educational years in England studying first at came at the onset of the noncooperation
Harrow and then at Trinity College, Cambridge. movement in 1920. Nehru joined in whole-
However, the freedom of India was always on his heartedly in this Satyagraha based movement that
mind. It was therefore no surprise that after his stormed India. Nehru was arrested on charges of
anti governmental activities and was released a and insisted on more stern and immediate
few months later. In the rift formed within the measures to realize the goal of India's freedom.
Congress following the sudden closure of the non-
Nehru and the last days of Indian Freedom
cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura
Struggle:
incident, Nehru remained loyal to Gandhi's camp
and denied to join the Swaraj Party formed by The Government of India Act of 1935 called for
Motilal Nehru and CR Das. After his release, nation-wide elections. Nehru campaigned
Nehru's fame as a dynamic Congress leader was vigorously for Congress, although he himself did
well-established. He soon became the President of not contest directly in the elections. With Gandhi
the Allahabad Congress Committee in 1923. concentrating on the spiritual development of his
However, towards the end of the decade, Nehru followers and gradually dissociating himself from
grew increasingly impatient with the pacifist direct political action, the stature of Nehru within
nature of the senior Congressman. Along with the Congress ranks was now more than ever. He
Subhas Chandra Bose, Nehru was intent on became the Congress President in the consecutive
complete freedom and believed in giving an years of 1936 and 1937.By 1938, the rift in
ultimatum to the British Government to grant Congress was clear. With Bose and Gandhi forming
India dominion status. The senior leaders were the two feuding camps, Nehru was once more
bent on a slower and more patient approach. The faced with a political dilemma. However, he
Calcutta Congress of 1928 brought the rift into the decided to side with Gandhi and his methods.
open. Jawaharlal openly decried the Nehru Bose resigned as the Congress president, and
Commission framed by Motilal Nehru, and it Nehru's status in the Congress reached a height
needed the intervention of Mahatma Gandhi to previously unattained. This year started a new
persuade Nehru to abandon his fiery stance of phase in Nehru's career, especially after his denial
more direct action. to come to a compromise with the Muslim League.
Nehru and the Civil Disobedience Movement: With the clouds of World War II looming large in
the horizon, Nehru's skill in international relations
The Lahore Congress of 1929 was monumental in
would be tested once more. Nehru did not
the political career of Nehru as well as the history
support Bose's policy of siding with the Axis
of India's freedom struggle. Nehru was elected the
forces, and intended to extend support to the
president of Congress for the first time at a young
Allies. In the mean time, the Second Round Table
age of forty. He used the platform of the Lahore
conference failed and Gandhi launched the Quit
conference to declare the goal of complete
India movement in 1942. Nehru was arrested and
freedom or Purna Swaraj. The Civil Disobedience
was released only in 1945. By the time the World
movement was formally launched after the Lahore
War II was over and the new Labor Government of
Congress, and Nehru whole heartedly plunged
Britain seemed willing to grant India it’s long
himself in the non-violent protests and picketing
deserved freedom. However, the British
that took the nation by storm. Nehru was arrested
Government wanted to adopt a policy of waiting
again in 1930, beginning the second and the
and watching the result of the general elections of
longest phase of his prison stays. On his release,
1945.
he formed the Socialist party within the Congress
Nehru was once again at the center of activities. which he was imprisoned for the first time. Bose
He was arrested. His refusal to comply with was elected to the post of Chief Executive Officer
Jinnah's claims made partition inevitable, as of the newly constituted Calcutta Corporation in
Jinnah called for direct action. Although his fight April 1924. That same year in October, Bose was
for Indian freedom stood on the verge of success, arrested on suspicion of terrorism. At first, he was
Nehru knew his work was far from over. He had to kept in Alipur Jail and later he was exiled to
build a new India and had to guide the nascent Mandalay in Burma. Bose was once again arrested
economy towards success. on January, 1930. After his release from jail on
September 25, he was elected as the Mayor of the
Subhas Chandra Bose
City of Kolkata. Netaji was imprisoned eleven
Subhas Chandra Bose was most dynamic leader of times by the British over a span of 20 years either
India`s struggle for independence. He is more in India or in Rangoon. During the mid 1930s he
familiar with his name Netaji. His contribution was exiled by the British from India to Europe
towards India`s Freedom struggle was of a where he championed India`s cause and aspiration
revolutionary. Subhas Chandra Bose was born on for self-rule before gatherings and conferences.
23rd Jan, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa, India. From his Throughout his stay in Europe from 1933 to 1936,
childhood he was a bright student and was a he met several European leaders and thinkers. He
topper in the matriculation examination from the travelled extensively in India and in Europe before
whole of Kolkata province. He graduated from the stating his political opposition to Gandhi. Subhash
Scottish Church College in Kolkata with a First Chandra Bose married Emilie Schenkl, an Austrian
Class degree in Philosophy. Influenced by the born national, who was his secretary, in 1937 in
teachings of Swami Vivekananda, he was known German. Bose wrote many letters to Schenkl of
for his patriotic zeal as a student. He went to which many have been published in the book
England to fulfil his parents` desire to appear in "Letters to Emilie Schenkl", edited by Sisir Kumar
the Indian Civil Services. He stood fourth in order Bose and Sugata Bose.
of merit. But he left civil Service`s apprenticeship
Subhas Chandra Bose became the president of the
and joined India`s freedom struggle.
Haripura Indian National Congress against the
During his service with the Indian National wishes of Gandhiji in 1938. He was elected as the
Congress, he was greatly influenced by Bal president for two consecutive terms. Expressing
Gangadhar Tilak and Sri Aurobindo. He did not his disagreement with Bose, Gandhi commented
agree with Gandhiji`s methods of achieving "Subhas` victory is my defeat". Gandhi`s continued
Independence through non-violence. He believed opposition led to Netaji`s resignation from the
that the only way of achieving Independence was Working Committee. He was left with no
by shedding blood. He therefore returned to alternative but to form an independent party, the
Kolkata to work under Chittaranjan Das, the "All India Forward Bloc".
Bengali freedom fighter and co-founder of the
In his call to freedom, Subhas Chandra Bose
Swaraj Party. He was imprisoned for his
encouraged full participation of the Indian Masses
revolutionary activities on various occasions. In
to strive for independence. Bose initiated the
1921, Bose organized a boycott of the celebrations
concept of the "National Planning Committee" in
to mark the visit of the Prince of Wales to India for
1938. His correspondence reveals that despite his amongst them Jawaharlal Nehru. However, as the
clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply Communist International entered its 'Third Period'
impressed by their methodical and systematic phase, the communists deserted the WPP project.
approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian The WPP was wound up, as its leadership was
outlook towards life. The contrast between arrested by the British authorities in March 1929.
Gandhi and Bose is captured with reasonable
Founding of the party The party was founded in
measure in a saying attributable to him ""If people
Bengal on November 1, 1925, as the Labour
slap you once, slap them twice". Having failed to
Swaraj Party of the Indian National Congress. The
persuade Gandhi for the mass civil disobedience
founding leaders of the party were Kazi Nazrul
to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow`s
Islam, Hemanta Kumar Sarkar, Qutubuddin Ahmad
decision to declare war on India`s behalf without
and Shamsuddin Hussain. The founding manifesto
consulting the Congress leadership, he organised
was signed by Kazi Nazrul Islam.During the first
mass protests in Kolkata. The disobedience was
three month of existence, the party organisation
calling for the `Holwell Monument`
was very provisional. At the All Bengal Praja
commemorating the Black Hole of Kolkata. He was
Conference, held at Krishnagar on February 6,
thrown in Jail and was released only after a seven-
1926, a resolution was moved by Faizuddin
day hunger strike. Bose`s house in Kolkata was
Hussian Sahib of Mymensingh for the creation of a
kept under surveillance by the British. With two
workers-peasants party. The move was seconded
pending court cases; he felt that the British would
by Braja Nath Das of Bogra. The resolution was
not let him leave the country before the end of
passed by the conference, and in accordance with
the war. This set the scene for Bose`s escape to
this decision the name of the party was changed
Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. In
to 'Workers and Peasants Party of
Germany he instituted the Special Bureau for India
Bengal'.Dr.Naresh Chandra Sengupta was elected
under Adam von Trott zu Solz, broadcasting on the
party president and Hemanta Kumar Sarkar and
German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. Here he
Qutubuddin Ahmad were elected as joint
founded the "Free India Centre" in Berlin, and
secretaries.
created the Indian Legion consisting of some 4500
soldiers who were the Indian prisoners of war. The Build-up of the WPPs of Bengal and Bombay
soldiers had previously fought for the British in
North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces. As of 1926, the WPP of Bengal had only 40
members, and its growth in membership was very
Workers and Peasants Party slow.A two-room party office was set up at 37,
Harrison Road, Calcutta. British intelligence
The Workers and Peasants Party (WPP) was a
perceived that the Bengal Jute Workers
political party in India, which worked inside the
Association, the Mymensingh Workers and
Indian National Congress 1925-1929. It became an
Peasants Party (with branch in Atia), the
important front organisation for the Communist
Dhakeswari Mill Workers Union, the Bengal Glass
Party of India and an influential force in the
Workers Union, the Scavengers' Union of Bengal
Bombay labour movement. The party was able to
(with branches in Howrah, Dacca and
muster some success in making alliances with
Mymensingh) and the Workers Protection League
other left elements inside the Congress Party,
were led by the party. Soon after the 1926
conference of the WPP of Bengal, the Trade union struggles

underground Communist Party of India directed
Particularly the WPP of Bombay was successful in
its members to join the provincial Workers and
mobilising trade union work. It built unions
Peasants Parties. All open communist activities
amongst printing press, municipal and dock
were carried out through Workers and Peasants
workers. It gained influence amongst the workers
Parties. The Comintern organiser M.N. Roy took
of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. During
part in the build-up of the WPP. A WPP was
1928 the WPP led a general strike in Bombay,
formed in Bombay in January 1927.D.R.Thengdi
which lasted for months. At the time of the strike,
was elected president and S.S.Mirajkar general
the Girni Kamgar Union was founded.
secretary. The WPPs gained influence within the
Bombay and Bengal Pradesh Congress Anti-Simon struggle
Committees. From the WPP of Bombay, K.N.
Joglekar, R.S. Nimbkar and D.R. Tengdi were During the protests against the Simon
elected to the All India Congress Committee. From Commission, the WPP played a major role in
the WPP of Bengal, two party representatives organising manifestations in Calcutta and Bombay.
were elected to the AICC. The WPP In Bombay it also mobilised 'hartal' (general strike)
representatives together with Nehru were able to in protest against the Simon Commission.
convince the AICC to make the Indian National
1928 Bengal party conference
Congress an associate member of the League
against Imperialism. The WPP of Bengal held its third conference in
Bhatpara, in March 1928. After the conference the
Madras Congress
executive of the party published the conference
At the 1927 annual Congress session in Madras a documents in a book titled A Call for Action. In the
leader of the WPP of Bombay, K.N.Joglekar book an argument is presented that national
presented a proposal for a resolution in the independence was not possible as long as
Subjects Committee, that the Indian National capitalists dominated the freedom struggle. British
Congress should demand full independence for intelligence sources claimed that Philip Spratt had
India. The proposal was seconded by Jawaharlal been the author of the book.
Nehru. At the open session of the Madras
Formation of WPPs in Punjab and UP
Congress, Nehru moved the resolution and
Joglekar seconded it. The resolution was passed At a conference in Lyallpur in September 1928 the
unanimously. This was the first time in history that Punjab Kirti Kisan Party (Workers and Peasants
the Indian National Congress officially demanded Party of Punjab) was formed by the Kirti group.
full independence from British rule. During the Chabil Das, a Lahore propagandist of the
Madras session, the WPP functioned as a fraction. Naujawan Bharat Sabha, was elected president of
Directly after the Madras Congress, the WPP took the party. In October 1928 two WPPs were formed
part in a 'Republican Congress' meeting together in the United Provinces. One of them was the
with other left elements of the Congress Party and Bundelkhand Workers and Peasants Party, with
radical trade unionists. Nehru chaired the N.L.Kadam as its secretary and headquartered in
meeting. Jhansi. The party held its founding conference in
Jhansi on October 28-October 29, 1928.Jhavwala The political fortune of the WPP was to be
from Bombay presided over the conference. The terminated by changes in policy of the Communist
other was the U.P. Peasants and Workers Party International. The July 1928 sixth congress of the
which was founded at a conference in Meerut. Communist International declared that 'The Union
P.C. Joshi was elected president and Dharamvir of all communist groups and individuals scattered
Singh was elected general secretary The Meerut throughout the country into a single, illegal,
conference was attended by Philip Spratt, independent and centralized party represent the
Muzaffar Ahmed and Kedar Nath Sahgol. first task for Indian communists.' This was a
statement made in opposition to the building of
All India WPP conference
the 'multi-class' WPP. The new line was promoted
In late November 1928 the WPP of Bengal at the congress by the Finnish communist Otto
executive committee met with Philip Spratt and Kuusinen. In his report, he stated that it was
Muzaffar Ahmed. They decided to appoint Sohan 'necessary to reject the formation of any kind of
Singh Josh of the Punjab Kirti Kisan Party to chair bloc between the Communist Party and the
the All India Workers and Peasants Conference, to national-reformist opposition' in the colonies.
be held in Calcutta in December. The provincial Moreover, he claimed that parties like WPP could
WPPs attended All India Workers and Peasants develop into petty bourgeois parties. Leon Trotsky
Conference in Calcutta on December 22- concurred with this view. In June 1928, he had
December 24, 1928, at which the All India Workers submitted a document which called WPP an
and Peasants Party was formed. A 16-member invention of Joseph Stalin and that the party was a
national executive was elected. The Bengal, 'thoroughly anti-Marxist formation'. Abani
Bombay, Punjab and United Provinces were Mukherji, a founding member of CPI, had
allocated four seats each in the national executive. described WPP as a 'Kuomintang Party' and that
Out of these 16, ten were either identified as CPI WPP 'is accumulating by itself the elements of
members or as 'communists'.R.S. Nimbkar was the future Indian Fascism.'. S.N.Tagore and the
general secretary of the party. The conference delegates of the Communist Party of Great Britain
discussed an affiliation of the party with the argued for retaining the WPP. This declaration
League against Imperialism. Spratt and Ahmed created confusion amongst the communist ranks
urged the conference to approve the affiliation of in India. On December 2, 1928, the Executive
the party to the League. The conference decision Committee of the Communist International had
to postpone a decision on the issue to a later drafted a letter to the WPP, which singled out the
occasion. WPP as consisting '...largely of petit-bourgeois
intellectuals, and they were tied up with either the
1929 Bombay municipal election system of landlordism and usury or straight away
capitalist interests.' The letter did however take
The party contested the January 1929 Bombay
long time to reach the WPP. The Tenth Plenum of
municipal election, mustering around 12,500
the ECCI, July 3-July 19, 1929, directed the Indian
votes.
communists to break with WPP. When the
Comintern turns against the WPP communists deserted it, the WPP fell apart.
Meerut Conspiracy case
On March 20, 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and basis of class struggle, for the liberation of the
other labour leaders were made in several parts of masses. The party combined demand for full
India, in what became known as the Meerut independence with socio-economic demands. In
Conspiracy Case. Most of the WPP leadership was 1927, the WPP of Bombay presented a
now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were programme of action to the All India Congress
to last for four years, thus outliving the WPP. Committee. The programme proposed struggle for
Tengdi, the WPP of Bombay president, died whilst full independence combined with active socio-
the trial was still going on.S.S. Mirajkar stated in economic policies for the toiling classes. The WPP
his defense that:"It has already been pointed out of Bengal had submitted a manifesto the Madras
to the Court that the Workers' and Peasants' Party Congress session, which sought that the Congress
was a party inaugurated with a view to establish should engage in mass struggles for full
national independence through revolution." Abdul independence and that a Constituent Assembly
Majid on his behalf stated that:"If there is any should determine the constitution of an
resemblance between the Communist Party and independent India. The party also worked for the
the Workers' and Peasants' Party is that the abolishment of 'zamindari' system in agriculture.
immediate programme of the former and the
Publications
ultimate programme of the latter is one and the
same ... As both are revolutionary bodies it is The organ of the Labour Swaraj Party, and later
necessary that their national revolutionary the WPP of Bengal, was Langal ('Plough'). The
programme should resemble each other." chief editor of Langal was Kazi Nazrul Islam and
the editor was Manibhusan Mukhopadhaya.
The judgement in the case was ended with the
Langal stopped publication after 15 issues. On
following passage:
August 12, 1926 it was substituted by Ganavani. In
"As to the progress made in this conspiracy its 1928, the party also had a weekly Hindi organ, Lal
main achievements have been the establishment Nishan ('Red Flag'). A weekly newspaper in
of Workers and Peasant Parties in Bengal, Bombay Kushtia, Jagaran (‘awakening'), was politically
and Punjab and the U.P., but perhaps of deeper close to the party.In Punjab the publication Kirti
gravity was the hold that the members of the ('Worker') had been started in 1926 by Santokh
Bombay Party acquired over the workers in the Singh of the Ghadar Party. Soon it became the
textile industry in Bombay as shown by the extent organ of the Punjab Kirti Kisan Party and managed
of the control which they exercised during the by Sohan Singh Josh.
strike of 1928 and the success they were achieving
COMMUNAL AWARD
in pushing forward a thoroughly revolutionary
policy in the Girni Kamgar Union after the strike When the Indian leadership failed to come up with
came to an end."After the arrests of its main a constitutional solution of the communal issue,
leaders, the WPP was dissolved. the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald
announced his own formula for solving the
Policies
problem. He said that he was not only a Prime
The founding manifesto of the Labour Swaraj Minister of Britain but was also a friend of the
Party stressed that the party was organised on the Indians and thus wanted to solve the problems of
his friends. After the failure of the Second Round Conference in which they demanded for the
Table conference, Mr. MacDonald announced the replacement of separate electorates by joint
‘Communal Award’ on August 16, 1932. According electorates. Many nationalist Muslims and Sikhs
to the Award, the right of separate electorate was also participated in the conference. The Congress
not only given to the Muslims of India but also to also rejected the Award in Toto. Gandhi protested
all the minority communities in the country. The against the declaration of Untouchables as a
Award also declared untouchables as a minority minority and undertook a fast unto death. He also
and thus the Hindu depressed classes were given a held meetings with the Untouchable leadership
number of special seats, to be filled from special for the first time and try to convince them that
depressed class electorates in the area where they were very much part of the mainstream
their voters were concentrated. Under the Hindu society. He managed to sign the Poona Pact
Communal Award, the principle of weightage was with Dr.B.R. Ambedker, the leader of
also maintained with some modifications in the Untouchables in which the Congress met many of
Muslim minority provinces. Principle of weightage the Untouchables’ demands.
was also applied for Europeans in Bengal and
Poona Pact of 1932
Assam, Sikhs in the Punjab and North West
Frontier Province, and Hindus in Sindh and North Poona Pact of 1932 is an agreement between the
West Frontier Province. untouchables or depressed classes of India and
the Hindus. Dr. B.R.Ambedkar led the depressed
Though the Muslims constituted almost 56
class. The Poona Pact took place at Yerawada Jail
percent of the total population of Punjab, they
in Pune, Maharashtra on 24th September,
were given only 86 out of 175 seats in the Punjab
1932.During the first Round Table Conference,
Assembly. The Muslim majority of 54.8 percent in
Ambedkar favored the move of the British
Punjab was thus reduced to a minority. The
Government to provide separate electorate for
formula favored the Sikhs of Punjab and the
the oppressed classes as was done in case of other
Europeans of Bengal the most. The Award was not
minorities like Muslims, Sikh etc. The British
popular with any Indian party. Muslims were not
invited various Indian leaders in Round Table
happy with the Communal Award, as it has
Conferences during 1930-32 to draft a new
reduced their majority in Punjab and Bengal to a
constitution involving self rule for native Indians.
minority. Yet they were prepared to accept it. In
Mahatma Gandhi did not attend the first Round
its annual session held in November 1933, the All
Table but was present in the later ones. Gandhiji
India Muslim League passed a resolution that
strongly opposed the proposal of separate
reads; “Though the decision falls far short of the
electorate for the depressed classes as he thought
Muslim demands, the Muslims have accepted it in
that it would disintegrate Hindu society. He went
the best interest of the country, reserving to
for an indefinite hunger strike starting from
themselves the right to press for the acceptance
September 20,1932 against the decision of the
of all their demands.” On the other hand, the
then British Prime Minister J.Ramsay Mac Donald.
Hindus refused to accept the awards and decided
Mr. Ramsay granted communal award to the
to launch a campaign against it. For them it was
depressed classes as he gave them separate
not possible to accept the Untouchables as a
minority. They organized the Allahabad Unity
position in the constitution for governance of taken into consideration then. The legislature
British India. pointed out that the method of the single vote
and four persons getting the highest number of
The whole country was agitated at the health
votes in such primary elections shall be the
concern of Mahatma Gandhi. A mass upsurge
candidates for election by the general electorate.
generated in India to save the life of Gandhiji.
Ambedkar was put in a great pressure and he was 3. The symbol of the Depressed Classes in the
forced to soften his stand. The compromise Central Legislature shall be based on the principle
between the leaders of caste Hindu and the of joint electorates and reserved seats by the
depressed classes were achieved when Dr. method of primary election in the manner
B.R.Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact on provided for in clause above for their
September 24, 1932.The resolution was representation in the provincial legislatures.
announced in a public meeting on September 25
4. In the Central Legislature eighteen per cent of
in Bombay, which confirmed-" henceforth,
the seats allotted to the general electorate for
amongst Hindus no one shall be regarded as an
British India in the said legislature shall be
untouchable by reason of his birth and they will
reserved for the Depressed Classes.
have the same rights in all the social institutions as
the other Hindus have". This was a landmark step 5. The system of primary election to a panel of
for Dalit movement in India that gave share to the candidates for election to the Central and
Dalits in the political empowerment of democratic Provincial Legislatures as herein-before mentioned
India. shall come to an end after the first ten years,
unless terminated sooner by mutual agreement
The following text represents the agreement
under the provision of clause 6 below.
achieved between the leaders acting on behalf of
the oppressed classes and of rest of the 6. The system of representation of Depressed
community, regarding the position of that Classes by reserved seats in the Provincial and
particular class in the legislature and certain other Central Legislatures as provided for in clauses (1)
matters involved with their welfare. and (4) shall continue until determined otherwise
by mutual agreement between the communities
1.There shall be reserved seats for the depressed
concerned in this settlement.
classes out of general electorate seats in the
provincial legislature as follows- Madras 30; 7. The Franchise for the Central and Provincial
Bombay with Sind 25; Punjab 8; Bihar and Orissa Legislatures of the Depressed Classes shall be as
18; Central Provinces 20; Assam 7; Bengal 30; indicated, in the Lothian Committee Report.
United Provinces 20. Total 148.These figures are
based on the Prime Minister`s (British) decision. 8. There shall be no disabilities attached to any
one on the ground of his being a member of the
2. Election to these seats shall be by joint Depressed Classes in regard to any election to
electorate subjects by the following procedures - local bodies or appointment to the public services.
the members of the depressed classes formed the Every endeavour shall be made to secure a fair
Electoral College, which was in liberty to elect the representation of the Depressed Classes in these
panel of the depressed classes. Voting system was respects, subject to such educational qualifications
as may be laid down for appointment to the Public Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani,
Services. Singaravelu Chettiar, Ghulam Hussain and R.C.
Sharma were charged, in Cawnpore (now spelt
9. In every province out of the educational grant
Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case. The specific
an adequate sum shall be earmarked for providing
charge was that they as communists were seeking
educational facilities to the members of
"to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of
Depressed Classes.
British India, by complete separation of India from
Emergence of the Communist Party of India imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution."Pages
of newspapers daily splashed sensational
The Communist Party of India was founded in communist plans and people for the first time
Tashkent on October 17, 1920, soon after the learned such a large scale about communism and
Second Congress of the Communist International. its doctrines and the aims of the Communist
The founding members of the party were M.N. International in India. Singaravelu Chettiar was
Roy, Evelina Trench Roy (Roy's wife), Abani released on account of illness. M.N. Roy was in
Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani's wife), Mohammad Germany and R.C. Sharma in French Pondicherry,
Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui and therefore could not be arrested. Ghulam
and M.P.B.T. Acharya. The CPI began efforts to Hussain confessed that he had received money
build a party organisation inside India. Roy made from the Russians in Kabul and was pardoned.
contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani
Bengal.Small communist groups were formed in and Dange were sentenced for various terms of
Bengal (led by Muzaffar Ahmed), Bombay (led by imprisonment. This case was responsible for
S.A. Dange), Madras (led by Singaravelu Chettiar), actively introducing communism to a larger Indian
United Provinces (led by Shaukat Usmani) and audience. Dange was released from prison in
Punjab (led by Ghulam Hussain). However, only 1925.
Usmani became a CPI party member.
On December 25, 1925 a communist conference
During the 1920s and beginning of 1930s the party was organized in Kanpur. Colonial authorities
was badly organized, and in practice there were estimated that 500 persons took part in the
several communist groups working with limited conference.The conference was convened by a
national coordination. The British colonial man called Satyabhakta. At the conference
authorities had banned all communist activity, Satyabhakta argued for a 'national communism'
which made the task of building a united party and against subordination under Comintern. Being
very difficult. Between 1921 and 1924 there were outvoted by the other delegates, Satyabhakta left
four conspiracy trials against the communist both the conference venue in protest.The
movement; First Peshawar Conspiracy Case, conference adopted the name 'Communist Party
Second Peshawar Conspiracy Case, Moscow of India'. Groups such as LKPH dissolved into the
Conspiracy Case and the Cawnpore Bolshevik unified CPI. The émigré CPI, which probably had
Conspiracy Case. In the first three cases, Russian- little organic character anyway, was effectively
trained muhajir communists were put on trial. substituted by the organization now operating
However, the Cawnpore trial had more political inside India. Soon after the 1926 conference of the
impact. On March 17, 1924, M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange, Workers and Peasants Party of Bengal, the
underground CPI directed its members to join the was reorganised in 1933, after the communist
provincial Workers and Peasants Parties. All open leaders from the Meerut trials were released. A
communist activities were carried out through central committee of the party was set up. In 1934
Workers and Peasants Parties. the party was accepted as the Indian section of
the Communist International. When Indian
The sixth congress of the Communist International
leftwing elements formed the Congress Socialist
met in 1928. In 1927 the Kuomintang had turned
Party in 1934, the CPI branded it as Social Fascist.
on the Chinese communists, which led to a review
In connection with the change of policy of the
of the policy on forming alliances with the national
Comintern toward Popular Front politics, the
bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. The Colonial
Indian communists changed their relation to the
theses of the 6th Comintern congress called upon
Indian National Congress. The communists joined
the Indian communists to combat the 'national-
the Congress Socialist Party, which worked as the
reformist leaders' and to 'unmask the national
left wing of Congress. Through joining CSP the CPI
reformism of the Indian National Congress and
accepted the CSP demand for Constituent
oppose all phrases of the Swarajists, Gandhists,
Assembly, which it had denounced two years
etc. about passive resistance'. The congress did
before. The CPI however analysed that the
however some differentiation between the
demand for Constituent Assembly would not be a
character of the Chinese Kuomintang and the
substitute for soviets.
Indian Swarajist Party, considering the latter as
neither a reliable ally nor a direct enemy. The In July 1937, the first Kerala unit of CPI was
congress called on the Indian communists to founded at a clandestine meeting in Calicut.Five
utilize the contradictions between the national persons were present at the meeting, E.M.S.
bourgeoisie and the British imperialists. The Namboodiripad, Krishna Pillai, N.C.Sekhar, K.
congress also denounced the WPP. The Tenth Damodaran and S.V. Ghate. The first four were
Plenum of the Executive Committee of the members of the CSP in Kerala. The latter, Ghate,
Communist International, July 3, 1929 – July 19, was a CPI Central Committee member, who had
1929, directed the Indian communists to break arrived from Madras. Contacts between the CSP in
with WPP. When the communists deserted it, the Kerala and the CPI had begun in 1935, when P.
WPP fell apart. Sundarayya (CC member of CPI, based in Madras
at the time) met with EMS and Krishna Pillai.
On March 20, 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and
Sundarayya and Ghate visited Kerala at several
other labour leaders were made in several parts of
times and met with the CSP leaders there. The
India, in what became known as the Meerut
contacts were facilitated through the national
Conspiracy Case. The communist leadership was
meetings of the Congress, CSP and All India Kisan
now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were
Sabha. In 1936-1937, the cooperation between
to last for four years. As of 1934, the main centres
socialists and communists reached its peak.At the
of activity of CPI were Bombay; Calcutta and
2nd congress of the CSP, held in Meerut in January
Punjab. The party had also begun extending its
1936, a thesis was adopted which declared that
activities to Madras. A group of Andhra and Tamil
there was a need to build 'a united Indian Socialist
students, amongst them P. Sundarayya, were
Party based on Marxism-Leninism'. At the 3rd CSP
recruited to the CPI by Amir Hyder Khan. The party
congress, held in Faizpur, several communists
were included into the CSP National Executive the party. The conference adopted the
Committee. 'Programme of Democratic Revolution'. This
programme included the first mention of struggle
In Kerala communists won control over CSP, and
against caste injustice in a CPI document.
for a brief period controlled Congress there. Two
communists, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and Z.A. In several areas the party led armed struggles
Ahmed, became All India joint secretaries of CSP. against a series of local monarchs that were
The CPI also had two other members inside the reluctant to give up their power. Such insurgencies
CSP executive. On the occasion of the 1940 took place in Tripura, Telangana and Kerala. The
Ramgarh Congress Conference CPI released a most important rebellion took place in Telangana,
declaration called Proletarian Path, which sought against the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Communists
to utilize the weakened state of the British Empire built up a people's army and militia and controlled
in the time of war and gave a call for general an area with a population of three million. The
strike, no-tax, no-rent policies and mobilising for rebellion was brutally crushed and the party
an armed revolution uprising. The National abandoned the policy of armed struggle.BTR was
Executive of the CSP assembled at Ramgarh took a deposed and denounced as a 'left adventurist'.
decision that all communists were expelled from
In the general elections in 1957, the CPI emerged
CSP.
as the largest opposition party.In 1957, the CPI
In July 1942, the CPI was legalised. Communists won the state elections in Kerala. This was the first
strengthened their control over the All India Trade time that an opposition party won control over an
Union Congress. At the same time; communists Indian state.E.M.S.Namboodiripad became Chief
were politically cornered for their opposition to Minister. At the 1957 international meeting of
the Quit India Movement.CPI contested the Communist parties in Moscow, the Communist
Provincial Legislative Assembly elections of 1946 Party of China directed criticism at the CPI for
of its own. It had candidates in 108 out of 1585 having formed a ministry in Kerala.
seats. It won in eight seats. In total the CPI vote
A serious rift within the party surfaced in 1962.
counted 666 723, which should be seen with the
One reason was the Sino-Indian War, where a
backdrop that 86% of the adult population of India
faction of the Indian Communists backed the
lacked voting rights. The party had contested
position of the Indian government, while other
three seats in Bengal, and won all of them. One
sections of the party claimed that it was a conflict
CPI candidate, Somanth Lahiri, was elected to the
between a socialist and a capitalist state, and thus
Constituent Assembly. In 1946 the party launched
took a pro-Chinese position. There were three
the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, a militant
factions in the party - "internationalists",
campaign against feudalism. During the period
"centrists", and "nationalists"."Internationalists",
around and directly following Independence in
including B.T.Ranadive, P.Sundarayya, P.C.Joshi,
1947, the internal situation in the party was
Makineni Basavapunnaiah, Jyoti Basu, and
chaotic. The party shifted rapidly between
Harkishan Singh Surjeet, supported the Chinese
leftwing and right-wing positions. In February,
stand. The "nationalists", including prominent
1948, at the 2nd Party Congress in Calcutta, B.T.
leaders such as S.A. Dange, A.K.Gopalan backed
Ranadive (BTR) was elected General Secretary of
India."Centrists" took a neutral view; Ajoy Ghosh
was the prominent person in the centrist faction. its banner. Soon, its leaders became increasingly
In general, most of Bengal Communist leaders distant with Congress and repeatedly came in
supported China and most others supported India. confrontation with Congress governments, in
Hundreds of CPI leaders, accused of being pro- Bihar and United Province.
Chinese, were imprisoned. Some of the
In the subsequent years, the movement was
nationalists were also imprisoned, as they used to
increasingly dominated by Socialists and
express their opinion only in party forums, and
Communists as it moved away from the Congress.
CPI's official stand was pro-China. Ideological
By the 1938 Haripura session of the Congress,
differences lead to the split in the party in 1964
under the presidency of Netaji Subhash Chandra
when two different party conferences were held,
Bose, the rift became evident and, by May 1942,
one of CPI and one of the Communist Party of
the Communist Party of India, which was finally
India (Marxist).
legalized by the government in July 1942, had
FORMATION OF ALL INDIA KISAN SABHA taken over AIKS all across India, including Bengal
where its membership grew considerably. It took
All India Kisan Sabha is the peasant or farmers'
on the Communist Party's line of People's War and
wing of the Communist Party of India. The Kisan
stayed away from the Quit India Movement which
Sabha movement started in Bihar under the
started in August 1942, though this also meant
leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, who
losing its popular base. Many of its members
had formed in 1929 the Bihar Provincial Kisan
defied party orders and joined the movement.
Sabha (BPKS) to mobilise peasant grievances
Prominent members like N.G. Ranga, Indulal
against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy
Yagnik and Swami Sahajananda soon left the
rights. Gradually the peasant movement
organization, which increasingly found it difficult
intensified and spread across the rest of India. All
to approach the peasants without the watered-
these radical developments on the peasant front
down approach of pro-British and pro-war, and
culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan
increasing its pronationalist agenda, much to the
Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian
dismay of the British Raj which always though
National Congress in April 1936, with Swami
Communists would help them in countering the
Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first president.
nationalist movement. The Communist Party of
The other prominent members of this Sabha were
India (CPI) split into two in 1964; following this, so
N.G. Ranga, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash
did the All India Kisan Sabha, which each faction
Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Bankim
affiliated to the splinters.
Mukerji, and it involved prominent leaders like
N.G. Ranga, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Pandit Government of India Act, 1935
Karyanand Sharma, Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Pandit
The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 had
Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, Rahul
brought a large scale discontentment among the
Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, Ram Manohar Lohia,
people of India. The Non-Cooperation Movement
and Bankim Mukerji. The Kisan Manifesto,
launched by Gandhi had fanned the fire of this
released in August 1936, demanded abolition of
discontentment. In order to give some concession
the zamindari system and cancellation of rural
to Indians in the field of administration, the
debts; in October 1937 it adopted the red flag as
Government of India Act, 1935 was designed on
the basis of the recommendation of Simon Reserved Subjects which were looked after by
Commission. It envisaged an administrative set-up Viceroy through Executive Councilors and
for India such as: transferred Subjects through the Indian ministers,
not more than 10 in number selected from the
1. A Federal government would be established in
Legislature. Thus, this system of Diarchy was fully
India with the inclusion of the native States.
introduced in the Centre. At the Centre the
2. Diarchy introduced by the Act Of 1919 should Federal Legislature consisted of two Houses, the
be abolished from the State and established in the Council of States and Federal Assembly consisting
Centre. of 260 and 375 members respectively. The Council
of States (Upper House) was permanent body
3. The provinces would be given complete whose one-third members retired every year.
autonomy and the administrative subjects divided
into three lists i.e. Federal List that included the In case of the Provincial Government, the
subjects assigned to the Central Government; the Governor carried on the administration with the
Provincial List that consisted of all the subjects help of a Council of Ministers selected by him from
under the sole jurisdiction of the provinces and among the members of the Provincial Legislature.
finally, the Concurrent List upon whose subjects Of course, the composition of the Provincial
both the Centre and Provinces would exercise Legislature was different in several Provinces. The
their combined authority. Legislatures of U.P., Bihar, Assam, Bengal, Madras
and Bombay consisted of two Houses - the
4. A Federal Court was established at the Centre. Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council
whereas in other provinces, it consisted of one
Besides these main provisions, it also contained
House i.e.Legislative Assembly. The members of
the provisions of the formation of the provinces of
these Houses varied from Province to Province.
Sindh and Orissa, separate and communal
electorate system with reduction of the The India Act of 1935 was sugarcoated quinine as
qualification of voters; separation of Burma and was apparent from the very beginning. Though it
Aden from India and so on. Accordingly, the Home introduced Diarchy in the Centre and autonomy in
Government in England was reformed. The Indian the Province but the power of the elected or
Council was abolished and a few advisers varying nominated members were limited. Further, it
from 3 to 6 were appointed to advise the fanned the fire of communalism by retaining
Secretary of States in his policy formulation separate reserved electorates. In actual practice,
towards India. The Secretary was normally not this Act did not create scope for the self-
expected to poke his nose in the Indian affairs experience of the Indian Legislators as they
which were to be carried on by Governors. enjoyed only limited powers. On the other hand,
the India Act, 1935 had its merits too. It
Further, a High Commission was to be appointed
introduced Diarchy in the Centre and granted
by the Viceroy of India for a period of five years.
provincial autonomy. It also created field for some
Coming to the Federal Government, the Viceroy
practical experiences on the part of Indian leaders.
remained its head. He exercised a wide range of
In the ensuing election of 1936-37, the All-India
power concerning administration, legislation and
Congress gained majority in Madras, Bombay,
finance. The Act had created provisions for
Central Provinces, U.P., Bihar and Orissa. In Assam legislature will form the ministry that will function
and northwestern frontier, it became the largest on collective responsibility.
single party. Similarly, the Muslim League got
The Outcome of the Provincial Election in 1936-
absolute majority in Sindh. The legislators got
1937
experience in forming ministry in these provinces.
The most important fact regarding the The Provincial Elections which came as an
achievement of the Act can be stated that the outcome of the Government of India Act of 1935
political experience ingenerated in the minds of was contested by both the parties with an
the Indian leaders went a long way in making the expectation to have a chance for creating one`s
people of India conscious for their political liberty own government with their own representatives.
which they achieved in 1947. In spite of their personal contentions over the
provisions of Government of India Act, 1935 these
PROVINCIAL ELECTIONS
parties decided to prepare the agenda for
The Provincial Elections of 1936-37 was a leading elections and contest it with utmost sincerity. The
event which highlighted the clashing powers of election manifesto of both the parties showed a
both Indian National Congress and the Muslim lot of differences. While the manifesto of Muslim
League. Though the terms of the Government of League was vague and could hardly impress its
India Act was not acceptable to both the parties community with any particular promise except the
yet both chose to contest the election which concern showed towards the Muslim community
would help them to assess the view of the for their religious rights which it claims to protect,
common mass and the popular acceptance of the further asks for the repeal of all the repressive
parties. As such the parties depended on the laws, reduction of cost of administration, social,
outcome of the election to read the reaction of economic as well as political upliftment of the
the common man towards the prevailing political Muslim communities.
upheaval.
The election manifesto of the Congress, on the
Provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 other hand, had been quite clear. As drafted by
Jawaharlal Nehru it was more specific in which it
The provincial elections came as a result of the
rejected `the new constitution to its entirety`. It
provision made in the Government of India Act of
further presented the growing mass support of
1935 which stated that an electorate of nearly 36
the people and the role played by them in
million as compared to 7 million in 1920,
participating in the freedom struggle. The election
representing 30 percent of the adult population,
showed the popular strength of Indian National
would elect 1585 representatives for the
Congress all over the country. Out of 1161 seats it
provincial legislature. This created excitement
won 716 seats and secured a clear majority in
among all the Indian political parties who
almost six provinces out of eleven provinces in
considered it to be the first constitutionally
British India. It emerged as one of the largest party
responsible effort made by the British government
winning the majority of three large states of India.
towards India making India constitutionally more
Congress fared best in the state of Uttar Pradesh
responsible .The Act envisaged that the party
where it secured 133 out of 288 seats, in Bihar 95
which will win the majority of seats in the
out of 152, in Bombay (now Mumbai) 88 out of
175 ,in Central Province 71 out of 112, in Madras South East Asia. These developments led to the
(now Chennai) and Orissa it gained 150 out of 215 widening of the war into a world war.
seats and 36 out of 60 seats respectively. The
Indian national leaders were opposed to fascism
success of Congress in North West Frontier
and condemned it as the enemy of the freedom.
Province shattered the Muslim League. The
Many countries, allies against fascism, put
League also fared badly in Muslim majority
pressure on the British government to concede
provinces like Bengal. Out of 117 seats it won 38,
the demand of the Indian people. In March 1942,
in Punjab 2 out of 84 and in Sindh 3 out of 33.
Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to hold talks with
Thus the election results exhibited the popularity
the Indian leaders, which failed because the
of the Congress where the Muslim League could
British were not willing to promise independence
stand in no competition. However, even after
to India. At last, in August, 1942, Gandhiji gave
winning popularity none of the parties could claim
forth the slogan 'Quit India'. The Congress passed
the Muslim representation as in case of Congress
a resolution on 8th August 1942, which mentioned
the election results could only show its popularity
the 'immediate ending of British rule in India'. The
but not popular representation.
day after the resolution was passed, the Congress
was banned and all the important leaders were
pushed behind the bars.
SECOND WORLD WAR AND INDIAN
NATIONALISTS After the arrest of the leaders, there were
spontaneous demonstrations all over India. The
In September 1939, the Second World War broke
government tried to suppress the demonstrations.
out. Indian opinion was not sought but the British
Hundreds of people were killed and over 70,000
government dragged India in the war as a party.
persons arrested. In 1941, Subhash Chandra Bose
Britain which claimed to be fighting for freedom
had escaped from India and had reached
had destroyed the freedom of the Indian people
Germany. In July 1943 he came to Singapore. The
and had dragged India into the war. But India
Indian National Army was organised from among
cannot associate herself in a war said to be for
the Indian soldiers who had been taken prisoner
democratic freedom, when that very freedom is
by the Japanese. In 1944, three units of Indian
denied to her. The Congress demanded the
National Army along with Japanese troops moved
establishment of an Indian government
into the Imphal Kohima. Though the attempt to
responsible to the Central Legislative Assembly.
liberate India failed, the activities of Subhash
The British government did not agree even to this.
Chandra Bose and the INA served to strengthen
In November 1939, the Congress resigned in the anti-imperialist struggle in India.
protest. In October 1940, the Individual
Quit India Movement
Satyagraha was launched by Gandhiji. Vinoba
Bhave was chosen as the first person to offer the Quit India Movement which took place in the
Satyagraha. Within six months about 25,000 month of August has been one of the most
persons were in jail. At this time Germany popular mass movements during the freedom
attacked U.S.S.R and Japan attacked the U.S. naval struggle of India. With the failure of Cripps Mission
station at Pearl Harbor, and started advancing in the political situation had worsened leaving every
individual with full of frustration and disgust. The July Resolution was purposely neglected by
People in total frustration eagerly waited for one the government who now blamed the demands as
such popular movement which could bring a wrong timed. This forced the Indian National
complete end to Imperialism in India. It was at this Congress to pass another resolution in August
moment when Congress under the leadership of 1942, which took the July resolution as the basis
Mahatma Gandhi called for Quit India Movement for the new resolution. The Resolution for Quit
which turned out to be the most popular mass India was made in the Bombay (now Mumbai)
movement engulfing every section of the society. session of Congress held in 8th August, 1942 .The
Quit India Movement was one of the active agenda of the resolution declared that the
actions taken by the Indian National Congress committee resolves to sanction for the vindication
passed through the resolutions of July and August of India`s alienable right to freedom and
1942 insisting for an immediate independence for independence, the starting of a mass struggle on
India. Against the background of Cripps Mission the non - violent lines on the widest possible scale
and the compulsive inclusion of India in the war so that the country must utilize all non violent
the political scenario in India had worsened .As strength which it has gathered since last twenty
such if Congress was to keep its promises for an years. The committee placed the entire movement
independent India , the time has come when under Gandhi`s leadership and it was expected
Congress was to give a final blow to British that with launching of the movement every man
paramount in India. and woman who will be participating the
movement must function within four general
In July, Congress passed a resolution demanding
instruction of the party. In his famous `Do or Die`
immediate end of British rule in India. The
speech Gandhi declared four parameters of the
resolution gave a brief account of the efforts made
Quit India Movement - firstly forget the
by the congress to convince the British Rulers of
differences between the Hindus and the Muslims
the necessity to make India free not only for the
and think yourself as an Indian only; secondly
benefit for India but for the safety of the world as
realize that our quarrel is not with the British
well as the end of Nazism, Fascism, militarism and
people but with Imperialism under which they
other forms of imperialism all over the world. It
function; thirdly feel from today that you are a
further claimed that it had no intentions to
free man and not a dependent; and fourthly Do or
humiliate the Allied Powers and so appealed the
Die, either free India or in the attempt.
British Rule to withdraw its rule from India as soon
as possible. It further reiterated its efforts to solve In spite of his passing of the resolution he declared
the ever existing the communal drifts and that the struggle has yet not started and it will
cooperate with the efforts of United Nations to commence only after he meets the Viceroy with
create a peaceful world .As such if the government these demands. He appealed to all the journalists,
fails to grant the demands of the Congress then it civil servants, princes, soldiers and students to
will compel the party to go for a mass movement realize their responsibility towards the nation and
on the non violence basis which will gather all its participate if they wish to see India free on the
non violent strength as collected since 1920 and non - violent means.
organize a mass civil disobedience movement.
Reaction of British to the Movement
The attitude of the British Government had also On the other side the war also came in favour of
changed which now wanted to suppress every Allied powers .This made the secretary of State to
movement which will hamper its war image .As a condemn the Congress as growing revolutionary
result the quit India resolution was passed on 8th under Gandhi which aimed at crippling the
August and by 24 hours on 9 August Gandhi and government. As the government continued to
all prominent leaders were arrested. Congress was blame Mahatma Gandhi for the violence taking
declared an illegal party and simultaneous arrests place after the declaration of Quit India
took place all over the country. Quit India Movement, Gandhi gave an ultimatum with a 21
Movement has been popularly divided into three days fasting which began in 10th February 1943
phases .The first phase started from the day of and ended in 3rd March. Its main purpose was to
Gandhi`s arrest. The news of Quit India Movement draw world`s attention towards India cause.
and Gandhi`s arrest took the people unaware but
Overall the Quit India Movement was successful in
the reaction was spontaneous. All the major cities
breaking the myth o f the government that it was
of India which included Bombay (now Mumbai),
the most popularly accepted government and that
Calcutta (now Kolkata), Bangalore, Ahmedabad,
it was run by the majority of people who were
Patna and many more cities faced hartals and the
loyal to the crown. Turning out to be the most
entire nation came to a standstill. Government`s
popular movement in the freedom struggle for
reaction was repressive which began with
India this movement saw participation from all
indiscriminate firing and mass arrest.
sections of people.
The second phase began from the middle of
Indian National Army
August when the, focus shifted from the center to
the out skirts where mobs began to attack the Indian National Army, also known as the Azad
court buildings. Places like Eastern parts of Uttar Hind Fauj, was formed for the liberation of India
Pradesh, Bihar and Midnapore in West Bengal , from the British rule. It was formed in South-East
parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa where Asia in the year 1942 by pioneering Indian
infuriated mobs tried to set up parallel Nationalists and prisoners who wanted to throw
governments though short lived and unsuccessful. off the yoke of foreign domination and liberate
The large suppressions executed by the the country. The INA was initially formed under
government helped the people to organize the Mohan Singh, after the fall of Singapore, the
third phase of the movement which entered its captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the
longest and most formidable phase. This was British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan
characterized by the terrorist activities of the Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under
educated youth and was directed against the leadership of Subash Chandra Bose in 1943.
communications and police confrontations, Bose`s army was declared as the Azri Hukumat e
occasionally rising to the level of guerrilla warfare. Azad Hind. Indian National Army emerged along
In Bombay (now Mumbai), Poona, Satara, Baroda, with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance
parts of Kerela, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma
underground organizations became active. Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive
Government atrocities crossed all limits but failed confrontation with the British authorities.
to restrict the movement from reaching its climax.
Origin of Indian National Army Battles of Indian National Army
INA was formed during the first world war when The battles that were fought by the Indian
the Ghadar Party and the emergence form of the National Army during World War II were fought in
Indian Independence League planned to rebel in the South-East Asian region. The operations
the British Indian Army from the Punjab through include Malayan Campaign in 1942 as well as
Bengal to Hong Kong. However, this plan met with Burma Campaign. The operations of the INA
failure after the information was leaked to British involved the battle of Imphal, Kohima, Pokoku and
Intelligence. During the Second World War, the Irrawady River operations. It began a long march
plan to fight the British found revival and a over land and on foot towards Bangkok, along
number of leaders and movements were initiated. with Subash Chandra Bose. At the time of Japan`s
These included the various "liberation armies" surrender in September 1945, Bose left for
which were formed in as well as with the help of Manchuria to attempt to contact the advancing
Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus Soviet troops, and was reported to have died in an
in South East Asia the concept of the Indian air crash near Taiwan. On the other hand the INA
National Army emerged. It was supported by the fighters were imprisoned. The prisoners faced the
Japanese 15th army and led by Bose. death penalty, life imprisonment or a fine as
punishment if found guilty.
Composition of the Indian National Army
Women in Indian National Army
Indian National Army had many valued freedom
fighters that helped in the battles. They all had a Indian National Army was structured in a way that
brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, lodged active participation from women. A
freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were women regiment was formed in 1943. INA had
from every sphere ranging from barristers to John Thivy, Dr. Lakhsmi Sehgal, Narayan
plantation workers. The revival of the Indian Karruppiah as well as Janaki Thevar as its
National Army was done by Subhash Chandra members. Among the masses attending Bose`s
Bose. Most of the people who joined the army had rally on 9 July, Dr.Lakshmi, responded immediately
no prior military experience and thus to ensure a to his appeal to form a Women`s Regiment. She
well-trained army, Bose established an Officers visited many families to persuade the women to
Training School for INA officers and the Azad join the INA. Many were reluctant; however, she
School for the civilian volunteers Many youth managed to gather twenty enthusiastic girls who
were also sent to the Imperial Military Academy in were willing to break the traditional barriers. The
Japan for advanced training. Every soldier was girls presented the guard-of-honour to Bose. He
required to spend about six to eight hours of was impressed and invited Dr. Lakshmi to lead the
training daily. The training included physical Women`s Regiment. On 12 July 1943, Bose
training, army drill and handling arms such as announced the formation of the Women`s
rifles, pistols, hand grenades and bayonets. The Regiment, naming it "Rani of Jhansi Regiment"
soldiers also attended lectures of Indian and world which in later years was considered to be a special
history and military subjects like map reading as characteristic of the INA. INA fighters were not
well as signaling. invited to join the Indian Army after India`s
independence. However, a few ex-INA members
later have seen prominent public life or held states would be free to join, and in any case their
important positions in independent India. The treaty arrangements would be revised to meet the
Indian National Army thus rose to power under new situation.
the able leadership of Bose. Though it was
The offer dominated Indian politics for the rest of
ultimately disbanded, its heroic attempts at
the war. Although the British official circles
forming an army and taking a radical step towards
claimed that the Cripps offer marked a great
Indian Independence marked a significant step in
advance for its frankness and precision, it was
the Indian Independence Movement.
plagued throughout, and ultimately torpedoed, by
Cripps Mission numerous ambiguities and misunderstandings.
The Congress was very critical of the clauses
Cripps Mission was deputed by British parliament
regarding nomination of the states'
in early 1942 to contain the political crisis
representatives by the rulers and the provincial
obtained in India. The mission was headed by Sir
option Jawaharlal Nehru had desperately sought a
Stafford Cripps, a Cabinet Minister. Cripps, a
settlement largely because of his desire to
radical member of the Labour Party and the then
mobilize Indian support in the anti-fascist war,
Leader of the House of Commons, was known as a
while most Congress working Committee
strong supporter of Indian national movement.
members and Gandhi himself had been apathetic.
Cripps Mission was prompted by two
This embittered Congress-British relations and
considerations. First, Gandhi's call for the
things were then rapidly moving towards a total
Satyagraha (literally 'insistence on truth', generally
confrontation in the form of quit India movement.
rendered 'soul force') movement in October 1940
But Cripps blamed the Congress for the failure of
was designed to embarrass Britain's war efforts by
the Plan, while the Congress held the British
a mass upheaval in India and needed to be ended
government responsible for it. A chance of
in the British interest. Secondly, the fall of
establishing a united independent India was thus
Singapore (15 February 1942), Rangoon (8 March),
lost.
and the Andamans (23 March) to the Japanese
was threatening the entire fabric of British colonial The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (RIN Mutiny)
empire. In the face of these crises, the British felt
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny or the Bombay
obliged to make some gestures to win over Indian
Mutiny was the revolt of the Indian sailors. The
public support.
sailors who belonged to the Royal Indian Navy on
The Cripps offer reiterated the intention of the board ship and shore establishments at Bombay
British government to set up an Indian Union harbour went for a strike and organised a mutiny
within the British Commonwealth as soon as on 18th February 1946.The whole mutiny involved
possible after the war, and proposed specific steps 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000
towards that end. A constituent assembly would sailors. This revolt subsequently came to be
be elected by the provincial legislatures acting as known as the RIN revolt. It started as a protest
an Electoral College. This body would then against their general conditions. The immediate
negotiate a treaty with the British government. reason for the outbreak of the mutiny was their
The future right of secession from the pay and food. In addition to that there were more
Commonwealth was explicitly stated. The Indian elementary matters such as racist behaviour by
Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and National Army between November 1945 and May
disciplinary measures taken against the sailors 1946 variously for treason, torture, murder and
who demonstrated nationalist sympathy. The R.I.N abetment to murder. The first, and most famous,
revolt started electing a Naval Central Strike of the approximately ten trials was held in the Red
committee, Signalman M.S Khan and Telegraphist Fort in Delhi, hence deriving the name. In total,
Madan Singh were elected as the President and approximately ten courts-martial were held. The
Vice-President respectively. first of these, and the most celebrated one, was
the joint court-martial of Colonel Prem Sahgal,
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was widely
Colonel Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Major
supported by the Indian population. The one day
General Shah Nawaz Khan. The three had been
strike spread to other cities from Bombay and the
officers in the British Indian Army and taken POW
Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces also
in Malaya or Singapore. They had, like a large
joined this mutiny. Furthermore, in Madras and
number of other troops and officers of the British
Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts
Indian Army, joined the Indian National Army and
within the ranks of the Indian Army. The
later fought in Imphal and Burma alongside the
mutinying ships hoisted three flags which were
Japanese forces in allegiance to Azad Hind. These
tied together those of the Congress, Muslim
three came to be the only defendants in the INA
League, and the Red Flag of the Communist Party
trials who were charged of "Waging War against
of India (CPI). The flags signified the unity and
the King Emperor" (The Indian Army act of 1911
demarginalisation of communal issues among the
did not have a separate charge for treason) as well
mutineers. The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was
as Murder and abetment of Murder. Those
called off following a meeting between the
charged later only faced trial for torture and
President of the Naval Central Strike Committee
murder or abetment of murder. The trials covered
(NCSC), M. S. Khan, and Vallab Bhai Patel of the
arguments based on Military Law, Constitutional
Congress. Vallab Bhai Patel was sent to Bombay to
Law, International Law, and Politics. These trials
settle the crisis. Thus; Patel put forth a statement
attracted much publicity, and public sympathy for
calling on the strikers to end their action.
the defendants who were perceived as patriots in
Mohammed Ali Jinnah on behalf of the Muslim
India, and outcry over the grounds of the trial, as
League also supported the statement of Patel. As a
well as general emerging unease and unrest within
result, the strike ended and in spite of assurances
the troops of the Raj ultimately forced the then
of the good services there were widespread
Army Chief Claude Auchinleck to commute the
arrests of the Congress and the Muslim League.
sentences of the three defendants in the first trial.
Furthermore, there were incidents of courts
martial and large scale dismissals from the service. Cabinet Mission
However, after independence none of the
Cabinet Mission which arrived on 24th March
dismissed returned into either of the Indian or
1946 was mainly aimed at devolution of power
Pakistani navies.
from the British crown to India giving India
INA Trials independence under Dominion Status in the
Commonwealth of Nations. On 28th January 1946,
The INA trials or the Red Fort Trials refer to the
the Viceroy, announced in the legislative
courts martial of a number of officers of the Indian
Assembly, his intention to establish a new Abdur Rab Nishtar. The Government of India
executive council with political leaders and to invited Mahatma Gandhi to come and stand by if
create a constitution -making body in India. Plans needed for consultation. The agenda treated the
were finalised and devised with the sole grouping of provinces, nature of a union and the
enterprise of Clement Attlee, Prime Minister of constitution making process. Cripps` Union of All-
the United Kingdom. On 19th February 1946, in India Plan failed to win the acceptance of either
Parliament, the British Government announced the Congress or Muslim League. On May 12th, it
the forwarding of a team of three Cabinet became evident that no solution was possible and
Ministers to India to seek agreement on how to the Mission announced the failure of the
enact self-determination and Independence with conference.
the Indian political leaders. The Cabinet Mission
Proposals made by Cabinet Mission
included Lord Pethick Lawrence (1871-1961) the
Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps Cabinet Mission, on its arrival in India, aimed at
(1889- 1952), President of the Board of Trade and fulfilling three wide spectrum issues. Firstly, it
A.V.Alexander (1885-1965), First Lord of the came to hold a preparatory discussion with the
Admiralty. Cabinet Mission also received the boost elected members of British India and the Indian
of Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India during the states in ordered to secure maximum agreement
time. over the issue of framing a new constitution;
secondly, to set up a constitution -making body;
Meetings held by the Cabinet
and thirdly, to establish a full self-government in
On its arrival on 24th march 1946 the mission India. Along with this regarding the minorities it
aimed at having talks with all the major parties of claimed that they had full knowledge of the
India who had marked themselves on the political minorities but could not allow the minorities to
canvas of Indian politics. This included parties like place veto on the advance of majority party. The
Indian National Congress, Muslim League, The cabinet then sought to answer some of the vital
Sikhs, scheduled Casts and liberal leader Sir Tej questions which were engulfing Indian politics for
Bahadur Sapru. All the members surrounded long. On the issue of accepting an independent
around 472 members in total. The cabinet began Pakistan, the Cabinet Mission completely rejected
its discussion on 16th to 18th April when it met the idea on communal grounds and claimed that it
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah to would not solve the problem. As the committee
outline two plans, comprising a small Pakistan estimated that the Hindu and Muslim population
with sovereignty or a big Pakistan in an All India on the western zone were at a ratio of 62:38 and
Union. Jinnah avoided making a choice. Further, in on the eastern zone it was 51.7:48.3.On the basis
the days of 5th to 12th May 1946, in Shimla, the of these calculations the Cabinet came to a
Cabinet Mission convened a conference, including conclusion that a separate state of Pakistan was
four members each from the Congress Party and not viable. Secondly, the mission also raised
Muslim League. They included for the Congress: question regarding the level of communication to
Nehru, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sardar Vallabhbhai be established with the new state falling under
Patel and Abdul Ghaffar Khan and for the Muslim Pakistan .Even in case of distribution of Army also
League: Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan, Ismail Khan and it will turn out to be a trouble. On a positive side
the mission suggested creation of a federal Union independence of the two new nations of India and
consisting of British India and Indian states. The Pakistan.
union will deal with the foreign affairs, defense
Formation
and communication and authority to raise
finances for these subjects After the end of the Second World War, the British
authorities in India released all political prisoners
Reaction of the All India Parties to Cabinet
who had participated in the Quit India movement.
Mission
The Indian National Congress, the largest Indian
The Cabinet Mission was received with a multiple political party, which had long fought for national
reaction. As the Mission announced on16th May independence, agreed to participate in elections
its three tier scheme for forming a Union of All- for a constituent assembly, as did the Muslim
India consisting of Hindu-majority provinces, League. The newly elected government of Clement
Muslim majority Provinces and the Indian States. Attlee dispatched the 1946 Cabinet Mission to
On 25th June, the Congress Working Committee India to India to formulate proposals for the
passed a resolution to accept the Cabinet formation of a government that would lead an
Mission`s plan and to enter the Constituency independent India.
Assembly. The Sikhs on other side were in favour
The elections for the Constituent Assembly were
of a united India. The scheduled castes were
not direct elections, as the members were elected
against the partition and wanted to guarantees of
from each of the provincial legislative assemblies.
their human rights. The Hindu Mahasabha insisted
In the event, the Indian National Congress won a
on the favour of immediate transfer of power and
majority of the seats, some 69 per cent, including
indivisible India. Thus, the Cabinet Mission can be
almost every seat in areas with a majority Hindu
regarded as the most effective step adopted by
electorate. The Congress had clear majorities in
the British government to reach India towards
eight of the eleven provinces of British India. The
Independence. The mission for the first time made
Muslim League won the seats allocated to the
a public declaration of its intension to grant India
Muslim electorate.
free from subjugation. Though this mission only
talked of an interim government with a dominion Viceroy's Executive Council
status it was later on condemned for this.
Nevertheless it paved the way for the Indian The Viceroy's Executive Council became the
leaders to experience the running of a nation as a executive branch of the interim government.
whole. Originally headed by the Viceroy of India, it was
transformed into a council of ministers, with the
The interim government of India powers of a prime minister bestowed on the vice
president of the Council, a position held by the
The interim government of India, formed on 2
Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru. After
September 1946 from the newly elected
independence all members would be Indians,
Constituent Assembly of India, had the task of
apart from the Viceroy, in August to become the
assisting the transition of India and Pakistan from
Governor-General, Lord Mountbatten, who would
British rule to independence. It remained in place
hold only a ceremonial position, and the
until 15 August 1947, the date of the
Commander-in-Chief, India, Sir Claude Auchinleck, In October, 1943 Lord Wavell who had succeeded
replaced after independence by General Sir Rob Lord Linlithgow as Governor General, made an
Lockhart. The senior Congress leader Vallabhbhai attempt resolve the stalemate the deadlock in
Patel held the second-most powerful position in India. He went to England for consultations in
the Council, heading the Department of Home March 1945.The result of Governor`s
Affairs, Department of Information and consultations was soon revealed. He broadcast to
Broadcasting. The Sikh leader Baldev Singh was the people of Indian the proposals of the British
responsible for the Department of Defence and Government to resolve the deadlock in India on
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari was named to head 14th June.
the Department of Education and arts. Asaf Ali, a
Mr. Amery, he was the Secretary of State for India.
Muslim Congress leader, headed the Department
On 14th June made a similar statement in the
of Railways and Transport. Scheduled Caste leader
House of Commons: "The offer of March 1942
Jagjivan Ram headed the Department of Labour,
stands in it’s entirely without change and
while Rajendra Prasad headed the Department of
qualification." He also proposed the renovation of
Food and Agriculture and John Mathai headed the
the Governor General`s Executive Council pending
Department of Industries and Supplies.
the preparation of a new constitution. With the
Upon the Muslim League joining the interim expectation of the Governor-General and the
government, the second highest-ranking League Commander-in-chief all other member of the
politician, Liaquat Ali Khan, became the head of Executive Council would be nominated from
the Department of Finance. Abdur Rab Nishtar amongst leaders of Indian Political life. This
headed the Departments of Posts and Air and Council would have "a balanced representation of
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar headed the Department the main communities, including equal
of Commerce. The League nominated a Scheduled proportions of Muslims and caste Hindus. It would
Caste Hindu politician, Jogendra Nath Mandal, to work, if formed, under the existing constitution.
lead the Department of Law. Though the Governor-General`s veto would not be
abolished, it would not be used unnecessarily. The
Activities
portfolio of external Affairs was to be transferred
Although until August 1947 British India remained from the Governor-General to an Indian member
under the sovereignty of the United Kingdom, the of Council. A Conference of representatives
interim government proceeded to establish chosen by the Viceroy was to be convened with a
diplomatic relations with other countries, view to obtaining from the leaders of the various
including the United States. Meanwhile, the parties a joint list or failing it, separate lists of
Constituent Assembly, from which the Interim worthy people to constitute the new Executive
Government was drawn, struggled with the Council”. It was also expected "that provincial
challenging task of drafting a constitution for ministers in Section 93 Province would resume
independent India. office and that there would be coalition."
Wavell Plan, 1945 The Congress Working Committee members were

let out of jail. Their high hopes prevailed on all
sides as invitations for the planned Simla
Conference went out to the leaders including Direct Action Day hartal called by the Muslim
Gandhiji. The conference was adjourned after League on August 16, 1946 to get rid of 'British
three days of discussion and the meeting was held slavery and contemplated future caste-Hindu
on June 25, 1945. Mr. Jinnah had a short interview domination'. The backdrop of the Direct Action
with the Viceroy on 11th July. In this interview he Day was not only the Muslim League's acceptance
seems to have made it clear to the latter that the of the cabinet mission plan, but also the loss of
league, wishing to be regarded as the sole face it had to experience because of the plan's
representative of Indian Muslims. That was firmly rejection by the Congress. The 'British betrayal', as
opposed to the inclusion of any long league the Muslim League branded the Cabinet Mission's
Muslims in the Viceroy`s list. But the Viceroy could successive failed proposals to placate the
not agree to this point of view. Lord Wavell wound obstinate Congress, made Jinnah bid good-bye to
up the Conference by declaring a failure of the constitutional methods and resort to a
talks. The responsibilities for the failure lie partly programme of 'direct action for the achievement
on Lord Wavell himself and partly on Mr.Jinnah. of Pakistan', to quote a resolution of the Muslim
Mr. Maulana Azad, the Congress President put the League Council meeting (27-29 July 1946) in
blame for the break down directly on the Bombay.
shoulders of Mr. Jinnah. Lord Wavell should have
On the heels of this resolution the League Working
taken the leaders into confidence as regards the
Committee declared 16 August as 'Direct Action
composition of his own list of members of the
Day'. Directives were issued to League leaders and
Executive Council. Possibly the Congress leaders
the Muslim masses of the provinces to suspend all
might have been persuaded to accept that list
business on the 16 August and observe complete
either as a whole, or with minor modifications
hartal on that day. As the architect of the
mutually agreed upon. He should not have
reorganised Muslim League in Bengal, huseyn
allowed the league practically to veto the whole
shaheed suhrawardy, the Chief Minister, felt that
plan and thus alone to block the path of progress.
the Bengal hartal of the Day ought to be the most
It must be noted in this connections that the effective one. His immense preparations to make
Viceroy had assured the Congress President that the Day a success led to communal carnage,
"no party to the conference could be allowed to something that he perhaps never intended to
obstruct settlement out of wilfulness", but it happen. But things went beyond his control and
seems that as in the parallel case of Cripps, brutal communal violence ensued. A great portion
Wavell`s hands were stayed at the last moment. of Calcutta was on fire for a couple of days. 'The
The tangible result of the failure of the Simla Direct Action' riot in Calcutta soon spread
Conference was to strengthen the position of throughout the country, and was particularly
Mr.Jinnah and the Muslim League Which was destructively in Bihar and Noakhali. Both Hindus
clearly manifested in the elections of 1945-46. and Muslims fought each other more or less
evenly in Calcutta, but the encounter was mostly
one sided elsewhere. In Bihar, mostly Muslims
Direct Action Day (1946) were killed and in Noakhali, Hindus. But on the
whole Muslim casualties were heavier. Ironically
'Direct Action Day' had a direct result. The fate of
India was decided on that day, and on that day Union.' This view was based on a report, which
was sealed the fate of the united Bengal. Direct claimed that a future Pakistan would have no
Action Day made the partition of Bengal manufacturing or industrial areas of importance:
inevitable. no ports, except Karachi, or rail centres. It was also
argued that the connection between East and
Inshort, following continued rejection by the
West Pakistan would be difficult to defend and
Indian Congress of the proposal to divide India,
maintain. The report concluded: 'It is hard to resist
the Muslim League planned a protest which began
the conclusion that taking all considerations into
with a "Day of Direct Action"(16th August 1946) to
account the splitting up of India will be the reverse
assert the right of the Muslims to a separate
of beneficial as far as the livelihood of its people is
homeland. The protests triggered riots in Calcutta
concerned'.
in which 4,000 people lost their lives (known as
the “great Calcutta Riots"). Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as
Viceroy of India in 1947. Mountbatten's first
Mountbatten plan
proposed solution for the Indian subcontinent,
The British government sent a Cabinet Mission to known as the 'May Plan', was rejected by Congress
India in March 1946 to negotiate with Indian leader Jawaharlal Nehru on the grounds it would
leaders and agree to the terms of the transfer of cause the 'balkanisation of India'. The following
power. After difficult negotiations a federal month the 'May Plan' was substituted for the
solution was proposed. Despite initial agreement, 'June Plan', in which provinces would have to
both sides eventually rejected the plan. An interim choose between India and Pakistan. Bengal and
government with representatives of all the Indian Punjab both voted for partition. On 3 June 1947,
parties was proposed and implemented. However, Lord Mountbatten announced his plan. The salient
it soon collapsed through lack of agreement. features were:- Mountbatten's formula was to
While the Muslim League consented to join the divide India but retain maximum unity. The
interim government the Indian National Congress country would be partitioned but so would Punjab
refused. By the end of 1946 communal violence and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that
was escalating and the British began to fear that emerged would meet both the Congress and
India would descend into civil war. The British League's position to some extent. The League's
government's representative, Lord Wavell, put position on Pakistan was conceded to the extent
forward a breakdown plan as a safeguard in the that it would be created, but the Congress position
event of political deadlock. Wavell, however, on unity would be taken into account to make
believed that once the disadvantages of the Pakistan as small as possible. Whether it was
Pakistan scheme were exposed, Jinnah would see ruling out independence for the princes or unity
the advantages of working for the best possible for Bengal or Hyderabad's joining up with Pakistan
terms inside a united India. He wrote: instead of India, Mountbatten firmly supported
'Unfortunately the fact that Pakistan, when Congress on these issues. The Mountbatten Plan
soberly and realistically examined, is found to be a sought to affect an early transfer of power on the
very unattractive proposition, will place the basis of Dominion status to two successor states,
Moslems in a very disadvantageous position for India and Pakistan. For Britain, Dominion Status
making satisfactory terms with India for a Federal offered a chance of keeping India in the
commonwealth for India's economic strength and leaders also felt that the continuance of British
defense potential were deemed sounder and rule never was and never could be in the good
Britain had a greater value of trade and interest of Indians. Sooner they quit, the better it
investment there. would be.
The rationale for the early date for transfer of Partition of India
power was securing Congress agreement to
Partition of India was one of the historical steps
Dominion status. The additional benefit was that
taken on the basis of religion dividing the nation
the British could escape responsibility for the
into two parts namely Union of India (also known
rapidly deteriorating communal situation. A
as Republic of India) and Dominion of Pakistan
referendum was to be held in NWEP to ascertain
(further divided into Islamic Republic of Pakistan
whether the people in the area wanted to join
and Peoples` Republic of Bangladesh) on 14th and
India or not. The princely states would have the
15th of August 1947. With the dissolution of
option of joining either of the two dominions or to
British India the Partition of India was
remain independent. The Provinces of Assam,
incorporated through the division of two
Punjab and Bengal were also to be divided. A
provinces of Bengal and Punjab as Bengal was
boundary commission was to be set up to
divided into East Pakistan and West Bengal and
determine the boundaries of these states.
Punjab was further divided into West Punjab and
Reasons for the acceptance of "Partition" by the East Punjab.
Congress
Origin of Partition of India
By accepting the Mountbatten Plan/Partition, the
The partition of India had been the real instance of
Congress was only accepting what had become
peoples` demand through their representatives.
inevitable because of the long-term failure of the
The initial demand for a separate state was made
Congress to draw in the Muslim masses into the
by an eminent writer and philosopher Allama Iqbal
national movement and stem the surging waves of
who raised his voice for a separate electorate for
Muslim communalism, which, especially since
the less represented group of Muslim
1937, had been beating with increasing fury. The
Communities. With the passage of time this claim
Congress leaders felt by June, 1947 that only an
became the base of the newly emerging state of
immediate transfer of power could forestall the
Pakistan. Among other reasons division of Indian
spread of Direct Action and communal
subcontinent was important for various reasons.
disturbances. Sardar Patel rightly said, "a united
One such reason had been the old British policy of
India even if it was smaller in size was better than
divide and rule which came into action in case of
a disorganised and troubled and weak bigger
division of India and Pakistan. Also with the
India." Difficulties created by the obstructionist
communal awards the hatred rather differences
policies and tactics of the League proved to the
increased on both sides which could only be
Congress that the leaders of the Muslim League
pacified through division of state. It was further
were concerned only with their own interests and
claimed that the British wanted to make the
the future of India would not be safe with them in
Muslims their allies to oppose the apparent threat
the government. They would act as a stumbling
of the Hindu educated class. In order to gain
block in the path of India's progress. The Congress
support from the Muslims, the British supported Officially, Pakistan became a Dominion on 15
the All-India Muslim Conference. They infused the August 1947, Jinnah was sworn in as Governor-
notion that the Muslims were a separate political General and Liaqat Ali Khan was sworn in as the
entity. In addition to that the Muslims were given new Pakistan Cabinet. The effect of Partition was
separate electorates in local government all over deep rooted which raised some major issues of
British India by 1900s. With such moves the British the day. One such issue had been the issue of
followed a divide-and-rule policy in India. Hindus refugees which remained the most painful result
and Muslims were two separate identities which of Partition for both the nations. The city of Delhi
needed to be separated. All this growing anxiety received the maximum numbers of refugees and
only brought India closer to division. As a result overall 35000 refugees landed up in the northern
such demand got its shape in the 1935 session part of India including areas of Panipat and
when a formal resolution was passed claiming the Kurukhshetra which were further used as camps
separation. for them. Huge expansion of cities took place
which brought new areas in every city of northern
The partition took place at the midnight of 14th
India. Thus, the Partition of India did not remain a
and 15th August 1947. Mainly based on Famous
historical event only but came out as the most
Mountbatten Plan, the partition included division
painful event of passed history. It affected not
of geographical areas, population exchange,
only the physical location of people but their
administrative structure and army, navy and air
psychology as well. Ending up into brutal riots all
force as well. The main affected areas were
over the country the partition of India is regarded
Bengal, Punjab, Sindh and Jammu & Kashmir.
the bitterest experience of modern India.
Geographically the division included the division of
rivers as well as land areas; the exchange of Indian Independence Act, 1947
population meant movement of 14.5 million
The Indian Independence Act 1947 was the
people crossing the borders with a total of
legislation passed and enacted by the British
7,226,000 Muslims and 7,249,000 Hindus from
Parliament that officially announced the
each side. At the midnight of 14th august the
Independence of India and the partition of India.
ceremony of independence was organized a day
The legislation of Indian Independence Act was
after the birth of new state of Pakistan with New
designed by the Prime Minister Clement Attlee as
Delhi as India`s capital.
Indian Political Parties agreed on the transfer of
Impact of Partition of India power from the British Government to the
independent Indian Government and the Partition
On 7th August Mohammad Ali Jinnah along with
of India. This act received royal assent on 18th
his old associations went to Karachi. The
July, 1947.The Agreement was made with Lord
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan met on 11th
Mountbatten, which was known as the 3 June Plan
August and elected Jinnah as its President. Lord
or Mountbatten Plan. Indian Independence Act
Mountbatten went to Karachi on 13 August and
was passed in June 1947, which specified the
on the following day addressed the Pakistan
follows:
Constituent Assembly. He attended the
inauguration ceremony at Karachi. The birth of * The British rule of India should be over on the
Pakistan was an eventful occasion in history. midnight of August 15, 1947.
* An independent dominion of India shall be Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of India
created out of the United Provinces, Central under British rules and became the Governor
Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Madras General of Independent India. Jawaharlal Nehru
Presidency, the Carnatic, East Punjab, West became the Prime Minister of India, Dr. Rajendra
Bengal, Assam and the Northeast Frontier Agency. Prasad was the President and Sardar Vallabhbhai
The territories of the Andaman and Nicobar Patel was the Deputy Prime minister of India. Five
Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands are also hundred and sixty princely states were annexed
turned over to the Indian Dominion. with India, among which Junagadh and Hyderabad
was took over after military action.
* An independent dominion of Pakistan shall be
created out of the provinces of West Punjab, After-effects of Indian Independence Act
North West Frontier Province, Sindh and East
After passing the act some religion based riots
Bengal.
were there. The situation was much violent. The
* The all Princely states that were officially related Muslims had to migrate from the `Would be India`
to British Empire were made free from all the and Hindus had to migrate from the `Would be
treaties and relationships and they could decide Pakistan`. All of their possessions and properties
which dominion to join. Lord Mountbatten were left behind.
thought that if the princely state remained
POST INDEPENDENT ERA
independent within the dominion that may lead to
chaos and thus made their accession a necessity of The era after India’s independence from colonial
the Indian Independence Act. rule starts with its partition into two halves - India
and Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten became the first
* Both the Indian and Pakistan Dominions would
Governor General of free India and M.A. Jinnah
be members of the British Commonwealth and
that of Pakistan. The transition was violent, with
was allowed to leave whenever they pleased.
blood curling massacres all over the country,
* Both Dominions of India and Pakistan were ample proof to the historic acrimony that the
completely self-governing in their internal affairs, Indians shared within themselves.
foreign affairs and national security but the British
This bitterness continues till today with India and
monarch will continue to be their head of state,
Pakistan having fought three wars since
represented by the Governor-General of India and
independence. Events since independence have
a new Governor-General of Pakistan. Both
not quite been stable for both the countries. With
Dominions shall convene their Constituent
both of them marred by sectarian clashes and
Assemblies and write their respective
violent terrorist attacks, which by now has claimed
constitutions.
the lives of more than a million people throughout
* The British monarch shall be permitted to the sub-continent. India on its part has been
remove the title of Emperor of India from the successful in establishing a vibrant democracy and
Royal Style and Titles. King George VI has ever looked forward towards positive
subsequently removed the title by Order in council directions. But Pakistan is still struggling to
on June 22, 1948. establish itself as a state and has not been able to
overcome the colonial hang over. With its history Gandhiji at Birla house, just before his evening
marred by failed democratic experiments and prayers. The whole nation was shocked and
successful military takeovers. People of Pakistan stricken with grief and communal violence
are struck with a Herculean task of choosing retreated from the minds of men and women.
between democratic farce and autocratic misrule. Expressing the nation’s sorrow, Nehru spoke over
It is not just Pakistan that has corrupt politicians the All India Radio: ‘Friends and comrades, the
and ambitious military. India too has its share of light has gone out of our lives and there is
problems with politicians and bureaucracy but the darkness everywhere . . . The light has gone out, I
best thing in India is that people out there know said, and yet I was wrong. For the light that shone
their limitations. With 1 billion people having in this country was no ordinary light . . . that light
successfully tasted democracy for the past fifty represented something more than the immediate
years, they have successfully reaffirmed their faith present; it represented the living, the eternal
time and again in the institution. At the doorsteps truths, reminding us of the right path, drawing us
of the 20th century both of them provide a from error, taking this ancient country to
contrasting picture. Both of them have their fare freedom’.
share of problems, but on one side India is looking
REHABILITATION OF REFUGEES
forward to solving them on other side Pakistan is
getting messed up with it. The government had to stretch itself to the
maximum to give relief to and resettle and
ASSASSINATION OF GANDHI
rehabilitate the nearly six million refugees from
Rejoicing in August 1947, the man who had been Pakistan who had lost their all there and whose
in the forefront of the freedom struggle since world had been turned upside down. The task
1919, the man who had given the message of non- took some time but it was accomplished. By 1951,
violence and love and courage to the Indian the problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees
people, the man who had represented the best in from West Pakistan had been fully tackled. The
Indian culture and politics, was touring the hate- task of rehabilitating and resettling refugees from
torn lands of Bengal and Bihar, trying to douse the East Bengal was made more difficult by the fact
communal fire and bring comfort to people who that the exodus of Hindus from East Bengal
were paying through senseless slaughter the price continued for years. While nearly all the Hindus
of freedom. In reply to a message of birthday and Sikhs from West Pakistan had migrated in one
congratulations in 1947, Gandhiji said that he no go in 1947, a large number of Hindus in East
longer wished to live long and that he would Bengal had stayed on there in the initial years of
invoke the aid of the all-embracing Power to take 1947 and 1948. However, as violence against
me away from this ‘vale of tears’ rather than make Hindus broke out periodically in East Bengal, there
me a helpless witness of the butchery by man was a steady stream of refugees from there year
become savage, whether he dares to call himself a after year until 1971. Providing them with work
Muslim or a Hindu or what not. and shelter and psychological assurance, therefore
became a continuous and hence a difficult task.
The celebrations of independence had hardly died
Unlike in Bengal, most of the refugees from West
down when on 30th January 1948; a radical
Punjab could occupy the large lands and property
minded Hindu, Nathuram Godse, assassinated

left by the Muslim migrants to Pakistan from instruments of accession with a number of small
Punjab, U.P. and Rajasthan and could therefore be states of Orissa with the Province of Orissa. On
resettled on land. This was not the case in West 18th December, the Chattisgarh rulers merged
Bengal. In addition, because of linguistic affinity, it with the Central Provinces. Between the periods
was easier for Punjabi and Sindhi refugees to of 17th to 21st January 1948, Menon acquired the
settle in today’s Himachal Pradesh and Haryana agreement for scores of minor states in Kathiawar
and western U.P., Rajasthan and Delhi. The to form the Union of Kathiawar, which began to
resettlement of the refugees from East Bengal govern on February 15. This set the pattern for the
could take place only in Bengal and to a lesser subsequent accession and merger of many tiny
extent in Assam and Tripura. As a result; a very remaining states over the next five months.
large number of people who had been engaged in
For geographical and administrative reasons,
agricultural occupations before their displacement
Baroda and Kolhapur were annexed to the then
were forced to seek survival in semi-urban and
Bomaby Province; Gujarat states were also
urban contexts as the underclass.
merged with the Bombay Province. A second form
INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES of integration of 61 states was the formation of
the seven centrally administered areas. Thus the
Indian Independence Act, 1947 contains the
states of Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh
following provision regarding Indian States: All
(present day Madhya Pradesh), Tripura, Manipur,
treaties, agreements, etc between His Majesty`s
Bhopal, Kutch and Bilaspur were formed. Apart
Government and the rulers of the Indian States
from these the states of United States of Matsya,
shall lapse. The words ‘Emperor of India’ shall be
Union of Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Patiala
omitted from Royal Style and Titles. The Indian
and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan and
states will be free to accede to either of the new
United states of Cochin-Travancore were also
Dominion of India or Pakistan. Monarchy was
integrated to the India. However, the unification
abolished and hence, the princely states were to
of India was still incomplete without the French
be annexed. In the National Provisional
and Portuguese enclaves. The French authorities
Government, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel headed the
were more realistic when they ceded Pondicherry
State Department. Patel and his chief aide, VP
(Puducherry) and Chandannagore to India on 1st
Menon appealed to the sense of patriotism of the
November, 1954.However, the Portuguese
Indian princes and persuaded them to join the
Government maintained that since Goa was part
Indian union. The annexations were to take place
of the metropolitan territories of Portugal, it could
on the basis of surrender of three subjects of
be in no way affected by the British and French
Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication. Lord
withdrawal from India. When negotiations and
Mountbatten aided Patel in his mission too. As a
persuasions did not move the Portuguese
result by 15th August, as many as 136
government, units of Indian army had to be
jurisdictional states acceded to the Indian union.
mobilized and Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated
Kashmir`s Maharaja Hari Singh signed the
and annexed to India on 19th December, 1961.
Instrument of Accession on 26th October, 1947
Thus, after much toil Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and
and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1948. V P Menon,
his aides successfully integrated the Indian states
on the other hand, successfully negotiated
to form a unified country.

THE MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION legislators were to elect their quota based on their
population.
The Constitution of India came into force on 26
January 1950. Since then, the day is celebrated as It was only after this process had been completed
Republic Day. However, before 1950, 26 January that the representatives of all the provinces and
was called Independence Day. Since 26 January those of the princely states were to meet again to
1930, it was the day on which thousands of settle the Constitution of the Union. The Congress
people, in villages, in mohallas, in towns, in small responded to the Cabinet Mission scheme by
and big groups would take the independence pointing out that in its view the Constituent
pledge, committing themselves to the complete Assembly, once it came into being, would be
independence of India from British rule. It was sovereign. It would have the right to accept or
only fitting that the new republic should come into reject the Cabinet Mission's proposals on specifics.
being on that day, marking from its very inception The Constituent Assembly was to have 389
the continuity between the struggle for members. Of these, 296 were to be from British
independence and the adoption of the India and 93 from the princely Indian states.
Constitution that made India a Republic. The Initially, however, the Constituent Assembly
process of the evolution of the Constitution began comprised only of members from British India.
many decades before 26 January 1950 and has Elections of these were held in July-August 1946.
continued unabated since. Its origins lie deeply Of the 210 seats in the general category Congress
embedded in the struggle for independence from won 199. It also won 3 out of the 4 Sikh seats from
Britain and in the movements for responsible and Punjab. The Congress also won 3 of the 78 Muslim
constitutional government in the princely states. seats and the 3 seats from Coorg, Ajmer Merwara,
On 19 February 1946, the British government and Delhi. The total Congress tally was 208. The
declared that they were sending a Cabinet Mission Muslim League won 73 out of the 78 Muslim
to India to resolve the whole issue of freedom and seats. At 11 a.m., on 9 December 1946, the
constitution making. The Cabinet Mission, which Constituent Assembly of India began its first
arrived in India on 24 March 1946, held prolonged session. For all practical purposes, the chronicle of
discussions with Indian leaders. On 16 May 1946, independent India began on that historic day.
having failed to secure an agreement; it Independence was now a matter of dates. The real
announced a scheme of its own. It recognized that responsibility of deciding the constitutional
the best way of setting up constitution-making framework within which the government and
machinery would 'be by election based on adult people of India were to function had been
franchise; but any attempt to introduce such a transferred and assumed by the Indian people
step now would lead to a wholly unacceptable with the convening of the Constituent Assembly.
delay in the formulation of the new constitution. Only a coup d'etat could now reverse this
Therefore, it was decided that the newly-elected constitutional logic. 207 members attended the
legislative assemblies of the provinces were to first session. The Muslim League, having failed to
elect the members of the Constituent Assembly on prevent the convening of the Assembly, now
the basis of one representative for roughly one refused to join its deliberations. Consequently, the
million of the population. The Sikh and Muslim seventy-six Muslim members of the League stayed
away and the four Congress Muslim members

attended the session. On 11 December, Dr alternative was discarded decisively in favour of a

Rajendra Prasad was elected the permanent centralized parliamentary constitution.
Chairman; an office later designated as President
Adult Suffrage
of the Assembly. The third session was held from
28 April to 2 May 1947 and the League still did not The Congress had demanded adult suffrage since
join. On 3 June, the Mountbatten Plan was the twenties. It was hardly likely to hesitate now
announced which made it clear that India was to that it had the opportunity to realize its dreams. A
be partitioned. With India becoming independent few voices advocated confining of adult suffrage
on 15 August 1947; the Constituent Assembly to elections to the panchayats at the village level,
became a sovereign body, and also doubled as the and then indirect elections to higher-level bodies,
legislature for the new state. It was responsible for but the overwhelming consensus was in favour of
framing the Constitution as well as making direct elections by adult suffrage not a small
ordinary laws. The work was organized into five achievement in a Brahmanical, upper-caste
stages: first, committees were asked to present dominated, male-oriented, elitist, largely illiterate,
reports on basic issues; second, B.N. Rau, the society!
constitutional adviser, prepared an initial draft on
the basis of the reports of the reports of these Preamble
committees and his own research into the
The basic philosophy of the Constitution, its
constitutions of other countries; third, the drafting
moving spirit, is to be found in the Preamble. The
committee, chaired by Dr Ambedkar presented a
Preamble itself was based on the Objectives
detailed draft constitution which was published
Resolution drafted by Nehru and introduced in the
for public discussion and comments; fourth, the
Assembly in its first session on 13 December 1946
draft constitution was discussed and amendments.
and adopted on 22 January 1947.The Preamble
Salient features of the constitution states that the people of India in the Constituent
Assembly made a solemn resolve to secure to all
The Constitution of India lays down a set of rules citizens, Justice, social, economic and political;
to which the ordinary laws of the country must Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and
conform. It provides a framework for a democratic worship; Equality of status and of opportunity;
and parliamentary form of government. The and to promote among them all, Fraternity
Constitution also includes a list of Fundamental assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity
Rights and Directive Principles, the first, a of the nation.
guarantee against encroachments by the state and
the second, a set of directives to the state to Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
introduce reforms to make those rights effective.
The Fundamental Rights are divided into seven
Though the decision to give India a parliamentary
parts: the right of equality, the right of freedom,
system was not taken without serious debate, yet
the right against exploitation, the right to freedom
the alternative of panchayat-based indirect
of religion, cultural and educational rights, the
elections and decentralized government did not
right to property and the right to constitutional
have widespread support. Espoused by some
remedies. These rights, which are incorporated in
Gandhians, notably Shriman Narayan, this
Articles 12 to 35 of the Constitution, primarily

protect individuals and minority groups from though the terms secular (and socialist) were
arbitrary state action. But three of the articles added only by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the
protect the individual against the action of other spirit embodying the Constitution was secular.
private citizens: Article 17 abolishes
RE-ORGANISATION OF STATES
untouchability, Article 15(2) says that no citizen
shall suffer any disability in the use of shops, The reorganization of the states based on
restaurants, wells, roads, and other public places language, a major aspect of national consolidation
on account of his religion, race, caste, sex, or place and integration, came to the fore almost
of birth; and Article 23 prohibits forced labour, immediately after independence. The boundaries
which, though it was also extracted by the colonial of provinces in pre-1947 India had been drawn in a
state and the princely states, was more commonly haphazard manner as the British conquest of India
a characteristic of the exploitation by big, semi- had proceeded for nearly a hundred years. No
feudal landlords. These rights of citizens had to be heed was paid to linguistic or cultural cohesion so
protected by the state from encroachment by that most of the provinces were multi-lingual and
other citizens. Thus, the state had to not only multi-cultural. The interspersed princely states
avoid encroaching on the citizen's liberties; it had had added a further element of heterogeneity.
to ensure that other citizens did not do so either. The case for linguistic states as administrative
A citizen whose fundamental right has been units was very strong. Language is closely related
infringed or abridged could apply to the Supreme to culture and therefore to the customs of people.
Court or High Court for relief and this right cannot Besides, the massive spread of education and
be suspended except in case of declaration of growth of mass literacy can only occur through the
Emergency. The courts have the right to decide medium of the mother tongue. Nehru appointed
whether these rights have indeed been infringed in August 1953 the States Reorganization
and to employ effective remedies including issuing Commission (SRC), with Justice Fazi Ali,
of writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, K.M.Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members,
quo warranto and certiorari. to examine ‘objectively and dispassionately’ the
entire question of the reorganization of the states
The Directive Principles have expressly been
of the union. Throughout the two years of its
excluded from the purview of the courts. They are
work, the Commission was faced with meetings,
really in the nature of guidelines or instructions
demonstrations, agitations, and hunger strikes.
issued to future legislatures and executives. While
the Constitution clearly intended Directive Different linguistic groups clashed with each
Principles and Fundamental Rights to be read other; verbally as well as sometimes physically.
together and did not envisage a conflict between The SRC submitted its report in October 1955.
the two, it is a fact that serious differences of While laying down that due consideration should
interpretation have arisen many times on this be given to administrative and economic factors, it
issue. recognized for the most part the linguistic
principle and recommended redrawing of state
A Secular State
boundaries on that basis. The Commission,
The constitution declares India to be a sovereign, however, opposed the splitting of Bombay and
socialist, secular and democratic republic. Even Punjab. Despite strong reaction to the report in

many parts of the country, the SRC's in the Central Cabinet, resigned from his office on
recommendations were accepted, though with this question. The Gujaratis felt that they would be
certain modifications, and were quickly a minority in the new state. They too would not
implemented. The States Reorganization Act was agree to give up Bombay city to Maharashtra.
passed by parliament in November 1956. It Violence and arson now spread to Ahmedabad
provided for fourteen states and six centrally and other parts of Gujarat. Sixteen persons were
administered territories. The Telengana area of killed and 200 injured in police firings. In view of
Hyderabad state was transferred to Andhra; the disagreement over Bombay city, the
merging the Malabar district of the old Madras government stuck to its decision and passed the
Presidency with Travancore-Cochin created Kerala. States Reorganization Act in November 1956.
Certain Kannada speaking areas of the states of However, the matter could not rest there. In the
Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Coorg were 1957 elections the Bombay Congress scraped
added to the Mysore state. Merging the states of through with a slender majority. Popular agitation
Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi speaking continued for nearly five years. As Congress
areas of Hyderabad with it enlarged Bombay state. president, Indira Gandhi reopened the question
and was supported by the President, S.
The strongest reaction against the SRC's report
Radhakrishnan. The government finally agreed in
and the States Reorganization Act came from
May 1960 to bifurcate the state of Bombay into
Maharashtra where widespread rioting broke out
Maharashtra and Gujarat, with Bombay city being
and eighty people were killed in Bombay city in
included in Maharashtra, and Ahmedabad being
police firings in January 1956.The opposition
made the capital of Gujarat.
parties supported by a wide spectrum of public
opinion students, farmers, workers, artists, and The other state where an exception was made to
businesspersons organized a powerful protest the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the
movement. Under pressure, the government states of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab,
decided in June 1956 to divide the Bombay state which, however, remained a trilingual state having
into two linguistic states of Maharashtra and three language speakers ‘Punjabi, Hindi and
Gujarat with Bombay city forming a separate, Pahari’ within its borders. In the Punjabi-speaking
centrally administered state. This move too was part of the state, there was a strong demand for
strongly opposed by the Maharashtrians. Nehru carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi-
now vacillated and, unhappy at having hurt the speaking state). Unfortunately, the issue assumed
feelings of the people of Maharashtra, reverted in communal overtones. The Sikhs, led by the Akali
July to the formation of bilingual, greater Bombay. Dal, and the Hindus, led by the Jan Sangh, used
This move was, however, opposed by the people the linguistic issue to promote communal politics.
both of Maharashtra and Gujarat. The broad- While the Hindu communalists opposed the
based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and Maha demand for a Punjabi Suba by denying that
Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movements in the Punjabi was their mother tongue, the Sikh
two parts of the state. In Maharashtra, even a communalists put forward the demand as a Sikh
large section of Congressmen joined the demand demand for a Sikh state, claiming Punjabi written
for a unilingual Maharashtra with Bombay as its in Gurmukhi as a Sikh language. Finally, in 1966,
capital; and C.D. Deshmukh, the Finance Minister Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into

two Punjabi- and Hindi-speaking states of Punjab Patel invoked the patriotism of India's monarchs,
and Haryana, with the Pahari-speaking district of asking them to join in the freedom of their nation
Kangra and a part of the Hoshiarpur district being and act as responsible rulers who cared about the
merged with Himachal Pradesh. Chandigarh, the future of their people. He persuaded the princes
newly built city and capital of united Punjab, was of 565 states of the impossibility of independence
made a Union Territory and was to serve as the from the Indian republic, especially in the
joint capital of Punjab and Haryana. Thus, after presence of growing opposition from their
more than ten years of continuous strife and subjects.
popular struggles linguistic reorganization of India
He proposed favorable terms for the merger,
was largely completed, making room for greater
including creation of privy purses for the
political participation by the people.
descendants of the rulers. While encouraging the
rulers to act with patriotism, Patel did not rule out
force, setting . deadline of 15 August 1947 for
Integration of Princely States
them to sign the instrument of accession
Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562 princely document. All but three of the states willingly
states were given the option of joining either India merged into the Indian union—only Jammu and
or Pakistan, or choosing independence. Indian Kashmir, junagadh and Hyderabad did not fall into
nationalists and large segments of the public basket.
feared that if these states did not accede, most of
Integration of Junagadh: The West Gujarat known
the people and territory would be fragmented.
as Saurastra constituted a number of small states
The Congress as well as senior British officials
which did not have much potential from the point
considered Patel the best man for the task of
of view of economic and political independence. In
achieving unification of the princely states with
all, 327 such States existed in Gujarat. Sardar
the Indian dominion.
succeeded in bringing the small states together
Patel asked v.p.menon a senior civil servant with and it was a very important step towards national
whom he had worked over the partition of India to solidarity although the states were in theory free
become his right-hand as chief secretary of the to choose whether they wished to accede to India
States Ministry. On 6 May 1947, Patel began or Pakistan, Mountbatten had pointed out that
lobbying the princes, attempting to make them "geographic compulsions" meant that most of
receptive towards dialogue with the future them must choose India.
Government and trying to forestall potential
In effect, he took the position that only the states
conflicts. Patel used social meetings and unofficial
that shared a border with Pakistan could choose
surroundings to engage most monarchs, inviting
to accede to it. The Nawab of Junagadh, a princely
them to lunch and tea at his home in Delhi At
state located on the south-western end of Gujarat
these meetings, Patel stated that there was no
and having no common border with Pakistan,
inherent conflict between the Congress and the
chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring
princely order. Nonetheless, he stressed that the
Mountbatten's views, arguing that it could be
princes would need to accede to India in good
reached from Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two
faith by 15 August 1947.
states that were subject to the suzerainty of

Junagadh— Mangrol and Babariawad—reacted to India or Pakistan, as either would have provoked
this by declaring their independence from adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom. He
Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan and
Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states. proposed one with India as well, but announced
The rulers of neighboring states reacted angrily, that Kashmir intended to remain independent.
sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and However, his rule was opposed by Sheikh
appealed to the Government of India for Abdullah, the popular leader of Kashmir's largest
assistance. political party, the National Conference, who
demanded his abdication.
A group of Junagadhi people, led by Samaldas
Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Pakistan, attempting to force the issue of
Hukumat ("temporary government"). India Kashmir's accession, cut off supplies and transport
believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to links. The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition
Pakistan, the communal tension already had also severed transport links with India,
simmering in Gujarat would worsen, and refused meaning that Kashmir's only links with the two
to accept the accession. The government pointed dominions was by air. Rumours about atrocities
out that the state was 80% Hindu, and called for a against the Muslim population of Poonch by the
plebiscite to decide the question of accession. Maharajah's forces caused the outbreak of civil
Simultaneously, they cut off supplies of fuel and unrest. Shortly thereafter, Pathan tribesmen from
coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan
troops to the frontier, and reoccupied the crossed the border and entered Kashmir. The
principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar.
acceded to India. The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India, asking for
military assistance.
Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to
the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India India required the signing of an Instrument of
rejected. On 26 October, the Nawab and his family Accession and setting up an interim government
fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return. The
troops. On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing Maharaja complied, but Nehru declared that it
collapse, invited the Government of India to take would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite,
over the State's administration. The Government although there was no legal requirement to seek
of India agreed. such confirmation. Indian troops secured Jammu,
Srinagar and the valley itself during the First
A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948,
Kashmir War, but the intense fighting flagged with
which went almost unanimously in favour of
the onset of winter, which made much of the state
accession to India.
impassable.
Kashmir conflict: Kashmir was also a problem. At
Prime Minister Nehru, recognizing the degree of
the time of the transfer of power, Kashmir was
international attention brought to bear on the
ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu, although
dispute, declared a ceasefire and sought UN
the state itself had a Muslim majority. Hari Singh
arbitration, arguing that India would otherwise
was equally hesitant about acceding to either
have to invade Pakistan itself, in view of its failure

to stop the tribal incursions. The plebiscite was attacking Congress groups. Attempts by
never held, and on 26 January 1950, the Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed
Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir, and, in August, the Nizam, claiming that he feared
but with special provisions made for the state. an imminent invasion, attempted to approach the
India did not, however, secure administrative UN Security Council and the International Court of
control over all of Kashmir. The northern and Justice.
western portions of Kashmir came under
India now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed
Pakistan's control in 1947, and are today Pakistan-
to continue its independence, the prestige of the
administered Kashmir. In the 1962 Sino-Indian
Government would be tarnished and then neither
War, China occupied Aksai Chin.
Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm.
Hyderabad Operation Polo: Sardar’s greatest role The date for the attack was fixed as 13 September,
in the integration of states was his able handling even though General Sir Roy Bucher, the Indian
of the Hyderabad crisis. Most of the states chief of staff, had objected on grounds that
acceded to India, Hyderabad was a landlocked Hyderabad would be an additional front for the
state that stretched over 82,000 square miles Indian army after Kashmir.
(over 212,000 square kilometres) in southeastern
On 13 September, the Indian Army was sent into
India. While 87% of its 17 million people were
Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the grounds
Hindu, its ruler Nizam Osman Ali Khan was a
that the law and order situation there threatened
Muslim, and its politics were dominated by a
the peace of South India. The troops met little
Muslim elite. The Muslim nobility and the Ittehad-
resistance and between 13 and 18 September
ul-Muslimeen, a powerful pro-Nizam Muslim
took complete control of the state. The Nizam was
party, insisted Hyderabad remain independent
retained as the head of state in the same manner
and stand on an equal footing to India and
as the other princes who acceded to India.He
Pakistan. Accordingly, the Nizam in June 1947
thereupon disavowed the complaints that had
issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of
been made to the UN and, despite vehement
power, his state would be resuming
protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from
independence. The situation deteriorated further
other countries, the Security Council did not deal
in 1948. The Razakars ("volunteers"), a militia
further with the question, and Hyderabad was
affiliated to the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen and set up
absorbed into India.
under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi,
assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling Other States: Regarding the accession of the other
class against upsurges by the Hindu populace, and states, Sardar acted like a magic-stick. In no time,
began intensifying its activities and was accused of he could merge the States of Orissa, Chhatishgarh,
attempting to intimidate villages. Rajasthan, Punjab and so on. He realized that the
people of states were supreme and by organizing
The Hyderabad State Congress Party, affiliated to
the States’, people for establishment of popular
the Indian National Congress, launched a political
government, he could achieve success. He had,
agitation. Matters were made worse by
with him, able workers and supporters who had
communist groups, which had originally supported
worked untiringly to bring such a merger in record
the Congress but now switched sides and began
time. There are innumerable instances where

Sardar could bring down the rulers of the States to Up to 1793 A.D., The East India Company
terms and agree them to accession to India as per continued to follow the revenue farming system in
the terms and conditions stipulated by the Bengal Presidency. In 1782, Sir John Shore
Government of India. Sardar had to deal with Committee was appointed to draft a new land
diversified Kings having different attitude with revenue policy. The policy was approved by
caution and applying varied, human, social, Michael Dundas, The President of Board of
political and psychological approach. Control and William Pete the P.M. of England.
Land Revenue System under British Rule Permanent Settlement
Since the grant of diwani for Bengal, Bihar and The Permanent Settlement or Zamindari Sysem
Orissa in 1765, the major concern of the East India was introduced by Lord Corniwallis in 1793. In
Company's administration in India was to collect Bengal, North Cauvery Delta in Madras Presidency
as much revenue as possible. Agriculture was the and Varanasi division. It covered altogether 19% of
main basis of economy and the main source of the total cultivable land under company rule.
income and hence, although the nawabi
Terms and Conditions of the System
administration was retained with Muhammad
Reza Khan acting as the Naib Diwan for the  Zamindars were recognized as owner of the
Company, several land revenue experiments were lands. Zamindars were given the rights to
introduced in haste to maximise extraction. collect the rent from the peasants.
In 1772, Warren hastings introduced a new  The realized amount would be divided into 11
system, known as the farming system. European parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to Zamindars
District Collectors, as the nomenclature suggested, and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India
were to be in charge of revenue collection, while Company.
the revenue collecting right was farmed out to the  The Zamindars were also given Judicial powers
highest bidders. About the periodicity of the  The Sunset Law come into force in the event
settlements, a number of experiments were made. of Zamindars becoming defaulters.
 The system was introduced for a period of 10
But the farming system ultimately failed to
years.
improve the situation, as the farmers tried to
extract as much as possible without any concern
for the production process. The burden of revenue Effect of the system
demand on th peasants increased as a result and
 The effects of this system both on the
often it was so onerous that it could not be
zamindars and ryots were disastrous. As
collected at all. The net outcome of this whole
the revenue fixed by the system was too
period of rash experimentation was the ruination
high, many zamindars defaulted on
of the agricultural population. In 1784, Lord
payments. Their property was seized and
Cornwallis was therefore sent to India with a
distress sales were conducted leading to
specific mandate to streamline the revenue
their ruin. The rich zamindars who led
administration.
luxurious lives left their villages and

migrated into towns. They entrusted their  The cultivating peasants were, therefore,
rent collection to agents who exacted all gradually impoverished, and increasingly
kinds of illegal taxes besides the legal ones indebted and could not invest for the
from the ryots. extension of cultivation.
 The Ryorwari system did not also eliminate
village elites as inter mediaries between
 This had resulted in a great deal of misery the government and the peasantry. As
amongst the peasants and farmers. privileged rents and special rights of the
Therefore Lord Cornwallis’ idea of building mirasidars were recognised and caste
a system of benevolent land-lordism failed. privileges of the Brahmans respected.
Though initially the Company gained
financially, in the long run the Company Mahalwari System
suffered financial loss because land
productivity was high, income from it was Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during
meagre since it was a fixed sum. It should the period of William Bentick. It was introduced in
be noted that in pre- British period a share Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra,
on the crop was fixed as land tax. Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British India.The
Mahalwari system had many provisions of both
Ryotwari Settlement the Zamindari System and Ryotwari System. In this
system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each
The Ryotwari experiment was started by Mahal comprises one or more villages. Ownership
Alexander Reed in Baramahal in 1792 and was rights were vested with the peasants. The villages
continued by Thomas Munro from 1801 when he committee was held responsible for collection of
was asked to take charge of the revenue the taxes.
administration of the Ceded Districts. Instead of
zamindars they began to collect revenue directly Effects of the Land Revenue Policy
from the village , fixing the amount each village
had to pay. After this they proceeded to assess  Land become a Commodity for the first
each cultivator or ryot separately and thus evolved time in Indian history
the Ryotwari System. It created individual  Property rights in the land created for first
proprietary right in land, but it was vested in the time
peasants, rather than in the zamindars.  New rural classes were formed- The
absentee landlords, money lenders and
Effects of System age earning working class.
 Commercialisation of agriculture
 It raised the revenue income of the encouraged. As a result , shortage of food
government, but put the cultivators in crops took place causing famines. The 1832
great distress. Ganjan famine(Orissa) and 1875 deccan
 In many areas no surveys were carried out famine were the worst famines.
and the tax of a ryot was assessed on an  The revenue policy was the single most
arbitrary basis, based on village accounts. important cause for all the major civilian

rebellions in modern India, against the Bangladeshis had one language and were proud of
British. their ancestry; their language and literature were
older than Urdu, the national language of West
Pakistan, used by minority. Yet Mohammad Ali
Jinnah stated in a public speech in March 1948
that Urdu would remain the state language of
Pakistan. This infuriated all the non-Urdu speaking
people of East Pakistan. On February 21, 1952,
students and other civilians came out in the
streets in protest but the police cracked down on
Liberation War of Bangladesh the unarmed civilians. For East Pakistan, the
language movement was the first stepping stone
The Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971 was the
to independence.
culmination of a 25-year tumultuous relationship
between East and West Pakistan. The British failed Provincial Elections–1954
to keep a united India as riots started between the
Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims in 1946. The riots were The first provincial elections were held in East
so widespread that on August 14, 1947 India was Pakistan in 1954. In this election, Suhrawardy’s
portioned into two separate states. newly organized Awami League (Peoples’ League)
allied with Fazlul Huq’s Peasants’ and Workers’
Thus partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 Party and a coalition of other Bangladeshi-
divided British India into two independent dominated parties to form the United Front. In
countries of India and Pakistan. Pakistan was this election, the people of East Pakistan voted
composed of two wings–East and West Pakistan. unilaterally for the alliance. As a result, the United
The two wings were united emotionally, but the Front had the maximum number of seats. Nurul
marriage of the two wings was artificial as they Amin’s Muslim League, the dominant party in
had little in common other than religion. Their West Pakistan, won just 10 seats in East Pakistan;
speech, thought, food habits, dress, living and and thus, the Urdu-speaking people in East
generally speaking, their respective way of life, Pakistan’s ability to dictate policy was essentially
were totally different. finished. Fazlul Huq also became the chief minister
of East Pakistan. The fine showing of the United
These differences, in course of time, gave rise to a
Front convinced the politicians, civil servants, and
tumultuous relationship that failed to keep the
the military at the center that they had to
two wings united. The flawed relationship ended
constrain Bangladeshi nationalism.
in a brutal war in 1971. As such, it is imperative to
learn the background of the Liberation War of Ayub Khan’s Declaration of Martial Law–1958
Bangladesh in 1971.
In 1957 and 1958 governments rose and fell in
Causes of War Dhaka as the result of both instability in the
assembly alignments and of intervention by the
Language Movement–1952
central government.43 As a sequel to the
uncertainty, the deputy speaker of the house was

killed in a riot. In such a dilapidated condition, There is no doubt that the creation of an
president Mirza abrogated the constitution and independent Bangladesh was in India’s interest for
declared martial law. General Ayub Khan many reasons.
remained as the chief martial law administrator. In
 Firstly, the Indo–Pakistan War in 1965 over
1962 Ayub Khan promulgated the new
Kashmir was one of the tipping points in
constitution of Pakistan, primarily giving
this regard. India spent a huge amount of
enormous power to the president. Unfortunately,
money to keep armed forces at a constant
nothing addressed the concerns of East Bengal;
state of readiness along the border of her
and as such, anger, resentment and Bengali
hostile neighbor. A warm relationship with
nationalism continued to grow.
an independent Bangladesh would reduce
Awami League’s Six-Point Program–1966 this big expenditure.
 Secondly, India also wanted to start trading
Before the resignation of Ayub Khan, several
with East Pakistan for mutual benefit. But
events took place in the political spectrum. Among
due to several political deadlocks, it was
those, the Awami League’s Six-Point Program was
not a foregone conclusion.
viewed as a foundational document in
 Thirdly, Pakistani rulers created a problem
Bangladesh’s struggle for independence. This was
for India by training and militarily
not an instant memorandum developed within a
equipping the Naga rebels of Assam
short time. Rather, it was an outcome of
(northeastern part of India), who claimed a
Bangladeshi grievances accumulated for a long
portion of India to establish an
time. The initiation of the Six-Point Program
independent Nagaland.
started as a sequel to several events. However,
 Apart from these issues, millions of East
the election of 1965 played an important role in
Pakistanis had religious, cultural, and
formulating the program
linguistic ties with India. West Pakistani
National Election–1970 rulers also demeaned the Hindus of East
Pakistan; whereas India was a Hindu-
As Yahya Khan received the Six-Point Program
dominated country.
from the Awami League, he opined that he was
not in a position to implement them. He reiterated For all these reasons and more, India preferred an
his prime task was to hold a general election in independent Bangladesh as a tonic to all these
1970 and hand over power at that point. However, problems. The Indian government expected that if
in the December 1970 elections, the Awami Bangladesh became independent, it would
League won 160 of 162 seats from East Pakistan. cooperate with India in a much wider form.
Bhutto’s Pakistan Peoples’ Party was successful in
Course of War
the west, winning 81 of 83 seats. Yahya Khan
opened talks with both the leaders but failed to On March 25, 1971, Yahya Khan, Bhutto and other
reach a consensus, and thus failed to hand over members left for West Pakistan without giving any
the power to an elected government. message or warning to the Awami League leaders.
The West Pakistani military launched its sudden
India’s Perspective
attack on March 25, 1917 at 11 p.m.it used

automatic rifles, automatic weapons, bayonets

and tanks. Yahya Khan appointed General Tikka
Khan as the overall commander, and he was given
48 hours to suppress Bangladeshi nationalist Literary and Scholarly studies during british India
movement. Within 34 hours, approximately
10,000 unarmed civilians were killed. Bengali Literature
Until November 21, 1971, mostly Bangladeshi Before the impact of the West, the Bengali
regular forces along with the Mukti Bahini literature had two distinct sources—that of the
operated in different parts of the country. Besides,
learned and the well-to-do, and of the common
there were few naval and air assets utilized to
complement the war effort. However, on people. The aristocratic type of literature, that is
November 21, 1971 all the forces–Bangladesh the former type, was patronised by the Courts, the
Army, Navy, Air Force as well as the Mukti Bahini– Chiefs, the landlords.
launched their joint offensive against Pakistani
military. The poets who wrote for the common people
Pakistan launched the war against India on were kabiwals, Kirtanias, Yatras, lappa, Panchi,
December 3, 1971, the UN took a more vigorous Dhop etc. But the difference in the form and
approach to the problem. While Soviet Union was
content of the aristocratic and the common types
supporting India, the U.S. and Chine stood by
Pakistan. On December 5, 1971 Moscow vetoed a of literature was not radical.
U.S. resolution urging the Security Council to call
upon India and Pakistan to carry out a cease fire From the beginning of the nineteenth century a
and military withdrawal. new order began to emerge and a fresh era was
The Russians exercised another veto within 24 inaugurated in Bengali literature. It was, in fact,
hours when on December 7, 1971, the General after the establishment of the Fort William College
Assembly voted 104 against 11 to call upon India that important steps towards the development of
and Pakistan to cease fire immediately and
withdraw their forces to respective territories. modern Indian languages were taken.
While the UN was debating, the war on the In order to teach the young English officials Indian
ground was going in favor of India. In the langu-ages the college had to undertake
meantime, U.S. dispatched a naval task forces led
compilation works in different sub-jects and in
by the nuclear-powered carrier Enterprise from
U.S. seventh fleet. By the time the naval task force different languages for the instruction of the
was close to Chittagong port of East Pakistan, all students. Dr. Gilchrist was responsible for
Pakistani forces surrendered unconditionally. If
production of books in Hindustani, Persian and
the UN espoused cease fire would be in effect,
Bangladeshis’ hope for independence was not to Arabic while William Carey was for Bengali and
be materialized. other languages. Bengali scholars who wrote text

books were Mrityunjay Vidyalankar. Ramram Virginia, Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare and
Basu, Chandi Charan Munshi, Rajib Lochan Elizabeth’s the Exiles of Siberia, the different types
Mukhopaydhyaya etc. of movements such as social, religious and
political gave a great impetus to the production of
The Christian missionaries, were another agency in
litera-ture.
the develop-ment of Bengali prose—Carey,
Marshman and Ward were the pioneers in this In James Long’s catalogue of Bengali Works 1400
regard. Their main contributions were works on Bengali books and pamphlets have been listed as
Bengali gram-mar, Dictionary, Translation from have been produced in the first half of the
English. Felix Carey was respon-sible for the nineteenth century. Of the writers of the period
production of the first volume of an encyclopaedia Ram Mohan must be reckoned as the precursor
dea-ling with Physiology and Anatomy. Kalimohan and leader. His claim to be recognised as the
Banerjee an early con-vert to Christianity edited father of, the Bengali prose literature rests on his
an encyclopaedia in thirteen volumes called Vidya originality in composing Bengali in lucid, simple
Kalpadruma. Works on history, philosophy, style “at the same time persuasive, orderly and
science etc, were also brought out. suave, unruffled by winds of emotion or passion”.
His works were mainly in prose but he was also a
The development of the Bengali language was
master in poetical composition. He translated
largely helped by the contributions of the journals
Bhagavad Gita in verse and composed many
like Samachar Darpan, of the Serampore
religious songs.
missionaries, Sambad Kaumudi of Ram Mohan
Roy, Tattwabodhini Patrika of Devendranath Gujarati
Tagore – Sambad Prabhakar of Iswar Chan-dra
The progress of English education, foundation of
Gupta. Organisations like School Book Society
edu-cational newspapers and associations, and
established in 1817 arranged for the supply of
the efforts of the Christian missionaries gave a
cheap books for the schools, and pub-lication of
great impetus to Gujarati language. In 1814 The
translation of books in Bengali on subjects like
Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor
history, geography etc.
within the Government of Bombay was founded
The Vernacular Literature Society founded in 1851 by Archdeacon Barnes which gradually set up six
published books meant for use as rewards and schools four in Bombay city one in Surat and one
prizes. Among its publications were translation of in Broach; in 1826 it set up another school at
Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, St. Pierre’s Paul and Ahmadabad. Under the patronage of this society

Ranchhorbhai Girdharbhai who had learnt English His principal works are on Gujarati prosody,
produced first series of Gujarati text books and Gujarati figure of speech, Gujarati dictionary and a
became the guide of almost all the aspiring Dictionary my-thology. He is regarded as the
youngmen who took to literature and social father of modern Gujarati prose. The only other
reform. The work was carried forward by the important prose writer of this period was
students of Elphinstone College founded in 1827 Navalram Laksh- miram who was a friend of
and of the Bombay University founded in 1857. Narmada Shankar. Other important writers were
Mahipatram Rupram Nandshankar Tuljashankar.
Kinloch Forbes, an Assistant Judge at Ahmadabad
took interest in the study of Gujarati language and Marathi Literature
history and secured the services of poet
With the passing of the Peshwa’s kingdom into the
Dalpatram Dayabhai who collected old
hands of the British in the first quarter of the
manuscripts and folk-songs and folk-tales. In 1848
nineteenth century, a situation similar to that had
Forbes founded at Ahmadabad the Gujarat
developed in Bengal began to rise in ‘the Bombay
Vernacular Society later named Gujarat Vidya
Presidency and factors—political, social and
Sabha and started the first Gujarat fortnightly
economic began to operate as they did in Bengal.
called the Buddhiprakas. After his transfer to Surat
The Marathi language and literature began to be
he set up a similar society there and started a
transformed in the way similar to that of Bengal.
literary journal called Surat Samachar. Dalpatram’s
zeal for social reforms found expression in his Marathi literature in the eighteenth century and
poems. earlier was large-ly in verse expressing folk
sentiments of love and heroism as well as
Some of his poems found place in the school text
conveying religious and moral teachings. A new
books and had an influence over the young minds
literary deve-lopment began with Eknath and
for nearly forty years. His poem Hunnarkhanni
followed by writers like Tukaram, Mukteswar
Chadai (1850) dealt with the evil effects of modern
Ramdas etc. In the eighteenth century Marathi
industries on Indian crafts, and was regarded as
literature, mainly poetry, had two distinct
the first expression of Swadeshi. Narmada Sankar
divisions, one secular and the other reli-gious and
Lal-shankar was the most outstanding literary
classical.
figure of the second half of the nineteenth
century. In the secular literature were the love lyrics,
histori-cal ballads etc. while in religious and

classical group, composition in imitation of Sikandamama etc. were listed for translation by
Ramayana and Mahabharata, legends of Puranas the Society. In this way the foundations of the new
etc. appea-red. In prose there was not much Maratha Prose were laid through which secular
excellence to start with and there were and scientific knowledge was propagated.
adaptations from Sanskrit fables and lores like
In 1833 the government took a retrograde step by
Betal Panchaishi, Singhasan Battisi etc. Letters,
setting up the Bombay Board of Education
despatches and official records cons-tituted the
presided over by Sir Erskine Perry, which became a
third form of prose.
strong protagonist of English and began to
The new trend in literature made its appearance discourage pub-lication in local varnacular. But Bal
from the begin-ning of the nineteenth century. Sastri Jambhekar, Dadoba Pan-duranga took up
The Christian missionaries were pioneers in the the challenge and wrote a number of Marathi
new Marathi language and literature and Carey books.
pub-lished the first Marathi grammar with the
An urge and taste for reading Marathi had been
help of Marathi Pandit Vaijnath in 1805. In 1814
created by the Maratha journals that came out at
the Serampore Press published the first Marathi
that time. In 1832 Bombay Darpan the first
book Singhasan Battisi. Under the patronage of
Marathi journal was established by Jambhekar and
Monstuart Elphinstone, the first governor of
a second journal Digdarshan came out in 1840.
Bombay Presidency Bombay Na-tive Education
Bhau Maharaja brought out Prabhakar in 1841.
Society was founded in 1920 which undertook
Likewise Dnyanodaya, Dnyan Prakash, Vicharlahari
preparation of text books in local vernacular.
etc. came out in subsequent years. These Marathi
English treatises on sur-veying, mensuration,
journals gave a great stimulus to Marathi writing
anatomy nosology and materia medica were
as well as reading Marathi literature.
tran-slated in Marathi.
Urdu & Hindi Literature
School Book Society founded in 1822 encouraged
production of books for schools boys as well as Under the new conditions Urdu and Hindi began
adults and Goldsmith’s History of Rome, to make rapid progress. While Urdu followed the
Malcolm’s Persia, Wilk’s History of the Arabs and normal course of progress, Hindi was hampered
History of the Chinese, works on Physics, by a hesitancy as to whether Braja Bhasa or Khari
Chemistry, Ethics, History of Gujarat, Orme’s Boli should be adopted as literary language. While
Account of Hindusthan. Ain-i-Akbari, Braja Bhasa possessed considerable treasure of

literature both prose and poetry, Khari Boli was by many others and the Khari Boli became the
not considered to be sufficiently elegant as a main medium of the new Hindi poetical
medium of poetical composition. lite-rature.
But after the establishments of the Fort William Urdu developed with even pace and had already
College books were being produced in Khari Boli made great pro-gress. It was in the writings of
and the language was shown to have the Ghalib that Urdu prose and poetry showed new,
capability of serious writings. But in the hands of modern trends. Ghalib’s style of prose in his
Sadasukhlal, Lalluji Lai, Sadal Misra and Insallaih letters-simple yet rich conversational style became
Khan Khari Boli was used in prose composition to a model for modern expression. In poetry Ghalib’s
excellent effect. preference to meaning and thought, spontaneity
of style and expression, originality in use of simile
As to the dialect to be used in Hindi poetry the
and metaphors marked a great advance in Urdu
controversy continued. Develop-ment of Hindi as a
literature.
vigorous language took place in the nineteenth
cen-tury. Hindi journals, historical treatises, essays The foundations of the new school of Urdu
and dramas prepared the ground for subsequent literature were laid by Md. Husain Azad and Altaf
development of Hindi language and litera-ture. Husain Hali at Lahore to promote progressive Urdu
literature. Md. Husain Azad composed poems in
Some of the important Hindi prose writers such as
new style and in new themes such as Sham ki
Raja Shiva Prasad, (1823-95) who was responsible
Amad, i.e. Advent of Evening, Mathnavi Hubbi
for writing a history of India in three volumes used
Watan i.e. Love of Mother land, Dad-i-lnsaf, i.e.
many Persian words in his work. Raja Lakshaman
Praise of Jus-tice, Zanustan i.e. Winter, and
Singh based his composition on highly elegant
Khwab-i-Amn, i.e. Dream of Peace. Hali’s
Sanskrit style while Bharatendu Harish Chandra
contribution was even greater. He was equally
followed a middle course, and based his dramas
great poet, prose- writer and a critic. His poems
on English models.
dealt themes of patriotism, social re-forms Nature,
Hindi poetry composed in Braja Bhasa was largely elegy etc.
revivalist in nature. It was not until Sridhar Pathak
Maha gujarat andolan
(1859-1928) made use of Khari Boli in Hindi poetry
that the tradition of exclusive use of Braja Bhasa During British rule in India, sections of the western
for Hindi poetry was broken, His lead was followed coast of India were the part of the Bombay
Presidency. In 1937, Bombay Presidency was

included as a province of British India. After Andhra State, died on 16 December 1952 after
independence of India in 1947, the demand for undertaking a fast-unto-death. Subsequently,
linguistic states came up. On 17 June 1948, Andhra State was formed in 1953. This sparked
Rajendra Prasad set up the Linguistic Provinces agitations all over the country demanding
Commission to recommend whether or not the linguistic states. In December 1953, Prime
states should be reorganized on a linguistic basis. Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the States
The commission included S. K. Dhar (retired Judge Reorganisation Commission (SRC) to prepare
of the Allahabad High Court), J. N. Lal (lawyer) and report on the creation of linguistic states. The
Panna Lall (retired Indian Civil Service officer), and commission was headed by Justice Fazal Ali so it
so it was called Dhar commission. In its 10 was called Fazal Ali Commission. The commission
December 1948 report, the Commission reported in 1955 to reorganise states of India.
recommended that "the formation of provinces on
exclusively or even mainly linguistic considerations
is not in the larger interests of the Indian nation".
The Mahagujarat conference was held in 1948 to Agitation
include all Gujarati speaking people under one

SRC considered to form states on linguistic basis
administration which finally resulted in formation
but recommended that Bombay state should stay
of Gujarat. According to the autobiography of
as a bilingual state. It was further enlarged by the
Indulal Yagnik, Bombay state chief minister B. G.
addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, the
Kher and the then home minister Morarji Desai
Marathi-speaking districts of Nagpur Division of
visited Dang in May, 1949. B. G. Kher stated that
Madhya Pradesh, and the Marathawada region of
tribal people of Dang spoke Marathi and focus
Hyderabad. The southernmost districts of Bombay
should be on that. Indulal Yagnik and others
state were included in Mysore State. So it had
visited Dang to examine this. Gujarati Sabha also
Gujarati-speaking population in north and
sent a committee for examination and agitate on
Marathi-speaking population in southern parts.
negligence by government. The committee
Both Gujarati and Marathi people opposed the
reported that Dang is more related to Gujarat.
SRC’s recommendation and strongly demanded
By 1952, the demand for separate Telugu-majority separate linguistic states. The situation became
Andhra State had started in Madras State. Potti complicated because both of them wanted to
Sreeramulu, one of the activists demanding include Bombay city (now Mumbai) in their own

states due to its economic and cosmopolitan solved through discussions. Gandhian activist
values. Jawaharlal Nehru also suggested to form Ghelubhai Nayak actively lobbied for accession of
three states; Maharashtra, Gujarat and centrally Dang in Gujarat. Mumbai went to Maharashtra
governed city-state of Bombay to solve conflict. and Dang went to Gujarat.
Protest broke out in Bombay and other Marathi-

speaking districts later known as Samyukta
Missionary activities in India
Maharashtra Movement demanding separate
There are two views among scholars about the
Marathi state. Morarji Desai, then the Chief
origin of Christianity in India. According to one,
Minister of Bombay State, was against it. On 8
the foundation of the Christian church in India was
August 1956, some college students of
laid by Saint Thomas, one of the twelve Apostles
Ahmedabad went to local Congress House near Lal
of Jesus. The other view would ascribe the arrival
Darwaza to demand separate state. Morarji Desai
of Christianity in India to the enterprise of
did not listen them and police repression resulted
Christian merchants and missionaries belonging to
in death of five to eight students. It triggered
the East Syrian and Persian churches. But it has
massive protests across the state. Indulal Yagnik
been widely believed that India was St. Thomas’
came out of his retirement from politics and
sphere of work. As Cardinal Tisserant says there
founded Mahagujarat Janata Parishad to guide
was a very ancient evangelization started by St.
movement. Many protesters including Indulal
Thomas, the Apostle and mainly in South India.
Yagnik and Dinkar Mehta, Dhanvant Shroff were
arrested and kept at Gaekwad Haveli in The Charter act of 1833 approved the permanent
Ahmedabad for a few days and later imprisoned in presence of missionaries in India and made
Sabarmati Central Jail for three and half months. provision for Anglican hierarchy at Calcutta. With
Protest also spread in other parts of the state the expansion of the British Empire missionaries
which forced Morarji Desai to go on week-long began to arrive and Christianity began to spread
fast. People did not turned up to support him by establishing dioceses at Madras and Bombay.
during fast and stayed in home following self- Ever since there existed a renewed cooperation
imposed curfew, Janata Curfew. Just before the between the missionaries and the colonial power
declaration of carving three states as Nehru in helping one another in their missions.
suggested, 180 members of Parliament suggested
By the end of the eighteenth century a new wave
return to bilingual Bombay state together. There
of the spirit of evangelization permeated
was conflict over Mumbai and Dang which was

Protestant Churches. In 1792 the English Baptists stories, created a very distorted image about the
organised the first Anglican mission Baptist people and culture in India. They were imbued
Missionary Society. with the western ‘imperial sentiments’ and the
sense of cultural superiority and agreed with
Later Protestant missionary operations were
Charles Grant, the spokesman of the Evangelicals
undertaken on a large scale by LMS ( London
in England, that it was not any inborn weakness
missionary society) and CMS ( Church mission
that made Hindu degenerate but the nature of
society). Alongside the older societies there have
their religion. For the evangelicals India was in
come into the field a bewildering number of
darkness and would need the light present in the
missionary organisations. The characteristic
western world.
feature of nineteenth century missions was the
enthusiasm for the multiplication of missionary The Evangelicals and other mission societies made
efforts. The priority of the colonial missions was a combined attempt to change the policy of the
conversion. Conversion of individual souls was British Government and demanded the
considered the sole end of mission. To a European introduction of legal and social reforms in India. It
missionary non-Christian religions and Eastern was thus that William Bentick in March 1835
cultures were non-slavific and that Christianity issued his resolution intended mainly to promote
alone would redeem them. The British rule had European literature and science and utilize funds
provided favourable atmosphere and necessary mainly for English education. The study of Indian
infrastructure for the missions to work even in the literature and oriental works was admitted to be
remotest mountain villages without confronting of little intrinsic value and the opinion was that
much opposition. Julius Richter says that, it would these literatures inculcate the most serious errors
be hard to find any land possessing so great an on the subjects. Also the customs and traditions
attraction for the missionary societies. and the religious beliefs of the subject people
were considered by the missionary educators and
After the Charter of 1833 was renewed,
their societies in England as a sign of depravity and
missionaries were allowed freely to come to India.
futility. The remedy was the introduction of
Missionary teams became powerful and their style
English education.
of work changed. By this time a new set of
missionaries rooted in ‘the iconoclastic zeal of Alexander Duff, Scottish missionary and leading
extreme Protestantism’43 began to arrive. These educator whose ideas can be considered
missionaries, soon through letters, reports and representative of the majority of missionaries in

the nineteenth century, thought that though was a means towards this goal. That is to facilitate
Hindu philosophical discourse contained lofty change from exterior to interior, from trade to
terms in its religious vocabulary what they religion, a cultural revolution for the betterment
conveyed were only vain, foolish and wicked of the natives by disseminating knowledge of
conceptions. According to Duff, Hinduism spread Christianity and make them loyal to the British
like a dark universe where all life dies and death The comment of Arthur Mayhew is worth
lives. The Christian task for him was to do mentioning: “The evangelical supporters of
everything possible to demolish such a gigantic Anglican mission were far more interested in the
fabric of idolatry and superstition. Needless to say, dissemination of the Bible and baptismal statistics
such an attitude prevented any positive encounter than in any measure for the general
between Christianity and Indian culture. Duff, enlightenment of India”50. The primary interest of
Buchanan, Trevelyan, Macaulay and others had the Raj was to keep control over India. The
great influence on the missionary thinking. The dominant interest of missions was to work for the
missionaries and civil servants who came to India conversion of Indians to Christianity. But in the
were so prejudiced that they did not see anything colonial situation they found themselves in need
good in India society. of one another and so mutual support was but
natural.
The missionaries and their societies subscribed to
the view that civilizing the Indian people would Although the missionaries worked hard and
prepare the primitive religious people to embrace suffered a lot for bringing education and
Christianity. Nineteenth century Protestant awareness of social justice to the people living in
missiology could be understood against the the rural areas of India, as they were associated
background of Christianisation and civilizing as with the colonialimperial powers, the significance
two sides of the same coin. Missions were of their selfless service was either overlooked or
unwilling to understand the complexities of Indian misunderstood.
cultural variants. Deeply entrenched in them was a
sense of superiority of European civilization and
that coloured their approach to people of other National women’s commission
cultures and religious faiths. The missions and It is said that the best way to know about society,
colonial administrators asserted that Hinduism a civilization and a culture, try to know as much
would die away soon and the whole nation could possible about the women. In India, women have
be civilized and Christianised. English education come a long way from the rare women scholars

and sages of the Vedic age to the women in Women as a class neither belong to a minority
different sectors of society and civilization today, group nor are they regarded as a backward class.
such as the armed forces, arts, information India has traditionally been a patriarchal society
technology, politics and a number of similar and therefore women have always suffered from
sectors which have traditionally been male social handicaps and disabilities. It thus became
dominated, while simultaneously balancing the necessary to take certain ameliorative steps in
roles of wife, mother and daughter. While Indian order to improve the condition of women in the
women have fought against the patriarchal Indian traditionally male dominated society.The
society and triumphed at many levels, cases of Constitution does not contain any provision
rape, dowry deaths, female infanticide, sexual specifically made to favor women as such. Though
harassment at workplaces, female illiteracy, and Art. 15 (3), Art. 21 and Art. 14 are in favor of
similar problems are still rampant in Indian women; they are more general in nature and
society. It was in this backdrop that the provide for making any special provisions for
Committee on the Status of Women in India women, while they are not in themselves such
(CSWI) the establishment of the National provisions. The Supreme Court through
Commission for Women to fulfill the surveillance interpretive processes has tried to extend some
functions and to facilitate redressal of grievances safeguards to women. Through judgments in cases
and to accelerate the socio-economic such as Bodhisattwa Gautam v. Subra Chakraborty
development of women. . and the Chairman Rly Board v. Chandrima Das
case, where rape was declared a heinous crime, as
The National Commission for Women was set up
well as the landmark judgment in Visakha v. State
as statutory body in January 1992 under the
of Rajasthan. the courts have tried to improve the
National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act
social conditions of Indian women. But these have
No. 20 of 1990 of Govt.of India) to review the
hardly sufficed to improve the position of women
Constitutional and legal safeguards for women;
in India. Thus, in light of these conditions, the
recommend remedial legislative measures,
Committee on the Status of Woman (India) as well
facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the
as a number of NGOs, social workers and experts,
Government on all policy matters affecting
who were consulted by the Government in 1990,
women.
recommended the establishment of a apex body
Importance of The Commission for woman.
The Mandate of the Commission

Broadly speaking the Commission’s mandate can was set up in order to deal with these functions.
be divided under four heads: The activities of this cell can be divided into three
categories: (a) legal amendments proposed (b)
 safeguard of rights of women granted by
new laws and bills proposed and (c) court
the constitution and laws,
interventions.
 study problems faced by women in the
current day and make recommendations to Research Functions: The research cell of the
eradicate these problems, Commission is that organ of the Commission that
 evaluating the status of Indian women looks into the emerging problems of Indian
from time to time and women due to discrimination and gender bias.
 funding and fighting cases related to This cell is also responsible for educating women
women’s rights violations. about their rights through a variety of seminars,
workshops, conferences and public hearings. This
Functions of commission
cell has also organized various special studies and
Complaint And Counseling Functions: The “core” set up expert committees to look into and suggest
unit of the Commission is considered to be the remedies for problems, which have evolved
Complaint and Counseling Cell and it processes recently. Currently the cell is dealing with issues
the complaints received oral, written or suo moto related to Gender and Law Enforcement, Impact
under Section 10 of the NCW Act. The complaints of Displacement of Women, Sexual Harassment at
received relate to domestic violence, harassment, Workplace, Issues concerning Prostitution and
dowry, torture, desertion, bigamy, rape and Political Empowerment of Women.
refusal to register FIR, cruelty by husband,
derivation, gender discrimination and sexual
harassment at work place. During 1999, the Controversies: Critical analysis
Commission received 4329 complaints related to Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code
the above types of crimes against women.
In December 2006 and January 2007, the NCW
Legal functions: A large part of the Commission’s found itself at the center of a minor controversy
mandate is related to legal research for safeguards over its insistence that Section 497 of the Indian
of women, legal interventions, recommendations Penal Code not be changed to make adulterous
on bills and similar matters relating to the legal wives equally prosecutable by their husbands. But
system of India. The legal cell of the Commission the grounds on which Chairperson of commission

resists the logic of making this a criminal offence protected themselves. Venkatesh said, "If the girls
— particularly for women, as often recommended feel they were not doing anything wrong why are
— are not as encouraging. She is averse to holding they afraid to come forward and give a
the adulterous woman equally culpable as the statement?" On 6 February, the NCW said they
adulterous man because women, she believes, are decided not to accept Venkatesh's report but
never offenders. They are always the victims. The would not be sending a new team to Mangalore.
NCW has demanded that women should not be On 27 February, the Prime Minister's Office
punished for adultery, as a woman is "the victim approved the removal of Nirmala Venkatesh on
and not an offender" in such cases. They have also disciplinary grounds.
advocated the amendment of Section 198 of the
CrPC to allow women to file complaints against
unfaithful husbands and prosecute them for their Non Alignment Movement
promiscuous behaviour. This was in response to One of the basic tenets of our foreign policy has
"loopholes" in the Indian Penal Code that allowed been non-alignment. As an element of foreign
policy non-alignment m e a n s i n d e p e n d e n t
men to file adultery charges against other men
o f b l o c s , peaceful coexistence, global peace,
who have engaged in illicit relations but did not disarmament, struggle against all manifestations
allow women to file charges against their of injustices like imperialism, colonialism,
apartheid etc.
husbands.
After India's adoption of non-alignment as the
core element of its foreign policy, it also became a
model for other newly independent countries.
Mangalore pub attack controversy
Most of them adopted it as an instrument for
independence in international relations. Soon
The NCW came under sharp criticism for their
non-alignment, in addition to a significant
response to the attack by forty male members of perspective of foreign policy, became a movement
the Hindu right-wing Sri Ram Sena on eight of solidarity and cooperation among the newly
liberated countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
women in a bar in Mangalore in late January 2009.
America. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was thus
Video from the attack shows the women were founded as a solidarity movement for giving voice
punched, pulled by their hair, and thrown out of to Third World Countries.
the pub. NCW member Smt Nirmala Venkatesh Its essential purpose was to maintain equidistance
was sent to assess the situation, and said in an in cold War rivalries and advocate principles for
interview that the pub did not have adequate the promotion of world peace and cooperation. In
due course of time, NAM became the largest
security and that the women should have

membership movement as also the largest peace they evolved a coherent outlook and position on
movement in the history of humanity. In both, in Non-Alignment.
its founding and later consolidation and
These leaders were largely instrumental in
development, India played a significant role. In
channelling the emerging changes towards the
fact, in many ways India has been considered as a
liberation of the people of the world and towards
non-formal leader of the NAM.
evolving a new vision of the world order. They
ORIGIN OF NAM AND INDIA'S ROLE rejected outright the notion that East- West
relations alone constituted international affairs
Though as a formal organised movement NAM
and asserted their own role in shaping these
started with the holding of the Belgrade Summit
affairs. On the initiative of these leaders the
of Non- Aligned countries in 1961, its seeds were
conference of Afro-Asian Nations was held in
sown by India, particularly by Jawaharlal Nehru
Bandung (Indonesia) in April 1955.
even before attainment of India's independence. It
is quite clear that Nehru was articulating the ideas The participants from 23 Asian and 6 African
of decolonisation, national independence, non- States represented mainly the people of young
bloc politics, peaceful coexistence, eradication of States which had been setup as a result of the new
racialism and the need for the developing balance of forces of democracy and freedom on
countries to play an active role in international the one hand and of colonialism and oppression
affairs. It was at the initiative of Jawaharlal Nehru on the others. The states participating in the
that India became the venue of the first forum of conference did not belong to any military or
the liberated nations, when representatives of 28 political blocs, arid they had taken clear and
countries met in New Delhi in March 1947 (before definite positions the problems facing mankind.
formal declaration of independence of India) at Despite their different perspectives, the countries
the Conference on Regional Cooperation among represented at the Bandung Conference arrived at
the Asian Countries known as Asian Relations a common position in the larger interest of world
Conference. peace. One of the most important achievements
of the Bandung Conference was the Declaration
The Asian Relation Conference thus can truly be
on World Peace and Cooperation. This declaration
called the foundation stone for NAM.
embodied the principles of Panchsheel which
BANDUNG CONFERENCE were first stated in the Preamble to the
agreement between India and China in April 1954.
Along with Nehru some other leaders in the world
were also projecting these perceptions of newly INDIA’S PIVOTAL ROLE AT NAM
independent countries. President Josip Broz Tito
It is quite clear that in the founding of NAM India
of Yugoslavia, President Gamel Abdul Nasser of
not only played an active role as one of the
Egypt (then called United Arab Republic),
founders but in many ways it was the initiator of
President Kwarne Nkrumah of Ghana and
the Movement. As we have already seen non-
President Ahmed Soekarno of Indonesia were
alignment as a concept of global politics, as a
prominent among these. Together with Nehru
foreign policy premise and as a perspective of
maximising national interest of the newly

liberated countries was a vision Indian national system of international economic and political
leadership had developed during its freedom relations. From its founding India has remained
struggle itself. one of the most active members of NAM and has
played a pivotal role in its various activities and
The vision became the core element of India's
developments.
foreign policy after independence rand of other
countries which attained independence from that Printing press in india during british rule
period onwards.
The press as we know it today was, however,
The non-aligned movement, thus, emerged from brought to India in the wake of British rule. Under
India's initiative for formulating an independent
the rule of the East India Company, there was the
foreign policy. This independent foreign policy was
based on a solid moral and sound political possibility of interesting news and some
foundation. It was a non-partisan foreign policy. enterprising journalists set up printing presses in
India's moral approach to international politics
India to expose the misdeeds of the Company. No
was further projected through the Panchsheel in
1954. newspaper was published until 1780 because the
Company’s establishments in India were a close
Within three years, eighteen countries had
endorsed the Panchsheel principles in joint preserve, and the Company’s servants by common
communiqués with Indian leaders. These consent wished to withhold the evils and
principles were practically incorporated in the Ten
malpractices arising from “private trading” in
Principles declared at Bandung. In addition during
its initial years of independence itself, India played which all of them, almost without exception,
a very active role in peaceful resolution of some illegally indulged. The first newspapers were
complex international issues and persistently
started by disgruntled ex-employees of the
lobbied in United Nations for disarmament.
Company. They were aided and abetted by
All these made the idea of non-alignment, the
servants of the Company who used these
initial basic tenet in India's foreign policy, a
mechanism providing link between the newspapers for furtherance of their personal
coordinated actions of the anti- imperialist and rivalries and jealousies.
anti-colonial forces, as an assertion of
independence in foreign affairs, as a process of It is significant to mention that even though the
weakening of power blocs, as a symbol of defiance first printing press set up in the third quarter of
against big power domination and as a diplomatic
the 16th century, publication of a newspaper was
innovation in the phase of politics of confrontation
and cold war. delayed by more than two centuries. The absence
of a newspaper must have created a vacuum in
Over decades of its existence the NAM has been
developing a comprehensive political philosophy, the field of communication. However, this
a programme of action, and a new and positive deficiency could overcome when James Augustus

Hicky, who may rightly be called the father of Another aspect of journalism in India during this
Indian journalism, published, printed and edited period was that it contained material exclusively
the first newspaper of India in Calcutta, bearing of interest to and relating to the activities of the
the title The Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta European population in India. The early
General Advertiser. Bengal Gazette was intended newspapers were thus started by ex-servants of
to operate as an organ for the local British settler the Company who had incurred its displeasure and
population. The circulation of the printed interests their columns were devoted to the exposure of
and views of the British Indian population would the evils and malpractices of the time.
come to represent a public opinion that countered
The first two decades of the 19th century saw the
the absolute rule of the colonial authorities. Much
imposition of rigid control on the press by the
like the growing power of the British press, the
Marquess of Wellesley. This attitude to the press
English press in India came to be associated with a
was the result of personality and values of this
liberal, reform-minded agenda that challenged the
governor general. The press regulations required a
authorities both to justify their own actions and to
newspaper to carry in imprint the name of the
respond to public demands. For the very reason,
printer, the editor and proprietor, to declare
the authorities treated the press with distrust and
themselves to the Secretary to the Government
imposed stringent licensing and registration laws
and to submit all material published in the paper
for the publication of newspapers.
to his prior scrutiny. Publication on Sunday was
The turn of the 18th century marked the end of a prohibited. The prescribed punishment for breach
phase in journalism in India. It was a period of of these rules was immediate deportation. The
control on the press. If the person intending to Secretary was vested with the powers of a censor.
start a paper was already persona non grata with By a separate set of rules he was required to
the government or with influential officials, he exclude from newspapers information in regard to
was deported forthwith. the movement of ships or the embarkation of
troops, stores or specie, all speculation in regard
If a newspaper offended and was unrepentant, it
to relations between the Company and any of the
was first denied postal privileges; and if it
Indian kingdoms, the information likely to be of
persisted in causing displeasure to the
use to the enemy and comments likely to excite
government, it was required to submit part of or
alarm or commotion within the Company’s
the entire newspaper to pre-censorship; if the
territories. In addition, he was to exclude all
editor was found “incorrigible”, he was deported.
comments on the state of public credit, or

revenues, or the finances of the Company, or on to affect the British power or reputation in
the conduct of Government offices, as also private India.
scandal or libels on individuals. He was also  Private scandals and personal remarks on
required not to permit the publication of extracts individuals, tending to excite dissension in
from European newspapers which were likely to society. These regulations were hailed in
constitute a breach of the above restrictions. India and the newspaper press once again
breathed free air. People again got busy
Censorship was abolished in 1818, but the
starting new journals, when a few days ago
Directors in England didn’t like it. So to appease
none dared to do such a thing. These new
them Lord Hastings had to promulgate the
regulations opened the way to a free press.
following rules: -“The editors of newspapers
Later on the same regulations were
prohibited from publishing any matter coming
promulgated in Bombay also.
under the following heads:
The new Governor General Lord Metcalf, the
 Animadversions on the measures and
successor of Bentink came to power in 1835. Like
proceedings of the Hon’ble Court of
Bentink, he was a liberal and held strong views in
Directors, or other public authorities in
favour of freedom of the press. When appointed,
England connected with Government of
he invited Lord Macaulay, the renowned liberal
India, or disquisitions on political
scholar, historian and politician, who was then the
transactions of the local administration; or
legislative member of the Supreme Council, to
offensive remarks leveled at the public
draft a Press Act presumably to be incorporated
conduct of the Members of Council, of the
into the code which was being drafted by the Law
judges of the Supreme Court, or of the
Commission. Macaulay, who favoured the new
Lord Bishop of Calcutta.
act, pointed out that the existing licensing
 Discussions having a tendency to create
regulations were wrong and the press in India
alarm or suspicion among the native
should be free. The proposed Act, was intended to
population or any interested interference
establish a perfect uniformity in the laws
with their religious opinions or
regarding the press throughout the Indian Empire.
observances.
Every person who chooses will be at liberty to set
 The republications, from English or other
up a newspaper without applying for a previous
newspapers, of passages coming under any
permission. But no person will be able to print or
of the above heads or otherwise calculated
publish sedition or calumny without eminent risk

of punishment. Macaulay’s new Act found favour in India, permitted the “Gagging Act” to expire on
with Metcalfe. On August 3, 1835, Metcalfe the June 13, 1858.
successor of Bentink with the unanimous support
Convinced that the vernacular newspapers were
of the Council passed the Press Act of 1835- the
spreading national consciousness, Lord Lytton on
most liberal Press Act in Indian history. The new
March 1, 1878 passed the Vernacular Press Act, an
law was made applicable to the entire territories
Act for more stringent control of publications in
of the East India Company. The law favoured the
vernacular languages. One of the most
growth of the Indian press.
comprehensive and rigorous acts, this act
Lord Auckland succeeded Metcalfe, holding the furnished the Government with more effective
position of Governor General until 1842. Auckland means to punish and repress seditious writings
is remembered by the Indian press as favouring calculated to cause disaffection with the
freedom of the press and supporting Metcalfe’s Government among the ignorant population. It
liberal legislation. During his regime, cordial empowered any Magistrate of a district, or a
relations existed between him and the editors of Commissioner or Police in a Presidency town to
various Calcutta newspapers. force the printer and publisher of a newspaper to
agree not to publish certain kinds of material, to
A revolt known as the Mutiny broke out in 1857
demand security, deeming it forfeited at their
against British rule. It was the last armed attempt
discretion, and to confiscate any printed matter it
to throw out the British by force. As soon as the
deemed to be objectionable in accordance with
revolt broke out, the Government gagged the
this Act. No printer or publisher against whom
press with an ordinance akin to the press laws of
such action had been taken could have recourse to
Adam’s in 1823. This was the notorious Gagging
a court of law.
Act by Lord Canning, who was the then Governor
General, under which restrictions were imposed The Vernacular Press Act excluded English-
on the newspapers and periodicals. A permit was language publications. It elicited strong and
necessary for launching any paper or periodical sustained protests from a wide spectrum of the
and the Government observed utmost discretion vernacular newspapers. In the year 1880, it was
in granting such a permit. The ordinance was noticed that some improvement had taken place
equally applied to the Indian and the Anglo-Indian in the style and language of the vernacular
papers. The censorship was limited for one year. newspapers since the introduction of the
Lord Canning, wanting to improve his reputation Vernacular Press Act. The Act was accordingly

repealed by Act III of 1882 which retained power improvements which he thought were necessary
to the Post Office authorities to search for and without considering public opinion. The Official
seize any vernacular publications of a seditious Secrets Act of 1903 was passed. It was nothing but
nature, the importation of which had been an additional fetter to curb the liberty of the
prohibited under the Sea Customs Act, 1878. press. It was a grave peril to the independence of
journalism. The Anglo-Indian press joined the
The press played a vital role in the building of
Indian press in condemning this measure.
Indian nationalism. The national movement
emerged from the fact that leaders like Raja Ram Another measure taken by Lord Curzon without
Mohan Roy to Keshab Chandra Sen, Gokhale, considering public opinion and on the pretext of
Tilak, Pherozshah Mehta, Subash Chandra Bose, improving the administration of a large province
C.R. Das, Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath like Bengal was the partition of that province in
Banerjee, C.Y. Chintamani, Moti Lal Nehru, Madan 1905. There was a massive agitation in Bengal
Mohan Malaviya, M.K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal against its partition because it was considered to
Nehru used it as a medium for arousing and be a measure designed to weaken the national
mobilizing nationalist public opinion. consciousness of which Bengal was the centre. It
was during this movement against the Bengal
The dawn of a new century resulted in increased
partition that the repressive measures of the
number of newspapers, particularly vernacular
British led to the rise of the revolutionaries and
newspapers which supported the growing national
their journalism. Barindra Kumar Ghose, younger
consciousness. The Anglo-Indian papers always
brother of Aurobindo Ghose, founded Yugantar in
supported Government measures and policies.
1906 as the journal of the revolutionaries. Lajpat
This strengthened the distinction between the
Rai in Punjab started a newspaper called Bande
Indian and the Anglo-Indian press with the former
Mataram, the rallying cry of the movement
favouring Indian nationalism and the latter
against Bengal’s partition. Aurobindo Gose
favouring the government. The Government was
attracted the adverse notice of the authorities for
also showing favouritism to the Anglo-Indian
his writings in Bande Mataram.
papers and opposing the Indian papers.
When Lord Minto succeeded Lord Curzon, he
There was also a swing to control of the press and
inherited a turbulent situation and tried to meet it
imposition of restrictions at the dawn of the new
by widening the scope of the Press Act. A number
century. Lord Curzon took office in 1899 as
of ordinances and circulars abridging the right of
Viceroy of India. He immediately began to make

free speech and free criticism were issued. Lord Irwin-Gandhi Pact in which Gandhi agreed to
Minto passed the Newspapers (Incitements to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Offences) Act of June 1908, which empowered the
In April, 1931, Lord Willington became the Viceroy
authorities to take judicial action against the
of India. Unsympathetic to the Nationalist
editor of any newspaper which published matter
Movement, he declared the Indian Nationalist
which, in the view of the Government, amounted
Congress illegal and took measures to suppress
to incitement to rebellion. Simultaneously, the
the Civil Disobedience Movement. The first of the
Governor of Bombay made a declaration in the
repressive measures was the passage of the Indian
Legislative Council at Poona, that the Government
Press (Emergency Powers) Act of 1931.
was determined to put down seditious agitation in
the province. Similar to the 1908, 1910 and 1930 legislation, this
act empowered local magistrates at their
The six-year of administration of Lord Irwin (1925-
discretion to require publishers and printers to
1931) was a turbulent period. The Indian leaders
deposit security of up to 1000 rupees. The local
were dissatisfied with Lord Irwin’s proclamation to
Government was empowered to take action
give dominion status to India and declared at the
against any publisher or printer suspected of
Lahore Session that the goal of the Indian National
printing or publishing material which may be
Congress was complete national independence.
constructed as incitement to commit crime. The
Soon after that, in April 1930, Gandhi began his
local Governments were empowered to declare
Civil Disobedience Movement with the march to
securities for forfeit and demand additional
Dandi to break the salt law. The movement spread
security, and to direct a Magistrate to issue a
throughout the country, creating turmoil. Thus,
warrant to search property where copies of
this period is marked by a greater government
newspapers and books declared forfeit were
control and restrictions on the press. The 1930
suspected of being stored for distribution. This
Indian Press Ordinance, one of the six Ordinances
was an act which gave wide ranging powers to
aimed to better control of the press similar to the
local Governments, the effect of which was to
1910 Press Act, was passed by the British
prohibit the printing of names or portraits of well-
Government. On March 6, 1931, the Government
known leaders of the Nationalist Movement as
withdrew the Indian Press Ordinance of 1930
well as notices and advertisements of meetings of
along with other ordinances passed that year
the Congress Party or any political events.
because Irwin met with Gandhi and signed the

With the beginning of World War II, the proclamation declared the future policy of the
Government found it necessary to pass Defence of British Rule in India.
India Act, bolstering the authority of the Central
The Queen's Proclamation of 1858 assured the
Government to deal with seditious material.
Indian Princes that their territories will not be
Censorship machinery with a Chief Censor, a
annexed by the British Governments and they
Director of Public Information, and other censors
shall be given the right to adoption. A Durbar was
and advisory committees in each province, began
held by Lord Canning at Allahabad on 1st
to operate. Printed material came under the
November, 1858 to declare the assumption of the
scrutiny of the Government. On October 25, 1940,
Government of India by the Crown. On that
the Government of India issued an order which
occasion Lord Canning also had read out the
prohibited “the printing or publishing by any
Queen's proclamation to the princes and people of
printer, publisher or editor in British India of any
India.
matter calculated, directly or indirectly, to foment
opposition to the prosecution of the war to a The British Government ordered its servants in
successful conclusion, or of any matter relating to India not to interfere in the religious affairs of the
the holding of meetings or the making of speeches Indians. In framing and administering law in India,
for the purpose, directly or indirectly, of due regard was to be shown to the customs,
fomenting such opposition as aforesaid: provided ancient rites and usages of the Indians. Indian
that nothing in this order shall be deemed to apply subjects of Her Majesty were declared equal with
to any matter communicated by the Central the British subjects in other parts of the Empire.
Government or a provincial government to the Equal rights and opportunities were guaranteed to
press for publication. the Indians along with other British subjects.
Pardon and amnesty were offered to all those
Indians who were still in arms against the British
Queen Victoria Proclamation Government and who were not guilty of murder of
British subjects. The treaties of the English East
India Company were declared to be in force. The
On November 1, 1858, a grand Darbar was held at
proclamation contained the following declaration
Allahabad. Here Lord Canning sent forth the royal
about the Indians: "In their prosperity will be our
proclamation which announced that the queen
strength, in their contentment our security and in
had assumed the government of India. This
their gratitude our best reward".

The proclamation of 1858 was a great landmark in often than not the women did not volunteer for
the Constitutional History of India. This such brutality and had to be forced or even
declaration of policy remained the basis of Indian drugged to comply.
Administration up to 1917 when a new declaration
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was abhorred by this cruel
was made by the British Government with regard
practice and he raised his voice against it. He
to India. The declaration tried to remove the fears
spoke freely and took his views to the higher ups
of Indian princes by guaranteeing to them their
in the East India Company. His passionate
position. It also gave an assurance to the Indians
reasoning and calm perseverance filtered through
that the Englishmen will not interfere in their
the ranks and ultimately reached the Governor
religious affairs.
General Lord William Bentinck. Lord Bentinck
sympathised with Roy’s sentiments and intentions
and amid much outcry from the orthodox religious
Raja ram mohan roy
community, the Bengal Sati Regulation or
During the late 18th century (what was known as
Regulation XVII, A. D. 1829 of the Bengal Code was
the Dark Age), the society in Bengal was burdened
passed. The act prohibited the practice of Sati
with a host of evil customs and regulations.
Daha in Bengal Province, and any individual caught
Elaborate rituals and strict moral codes were
practicing it would face prosecution. Raja Ram
enforced which were largely modified, and badly
Mohan Roy’s name is thus etched forever as a true
interpreted ancient traditions. Practices like child
benefactor of women not just for helping abolish
marriage (Gouridaan), polygamy and Sati were
the custom of Sati, but also raising his voice
prevalent that affected women in the society. The
against child marriage and polygamy, while
most brutal among these customs was the Sati
demanding equal inheritance rights for women.
Pratha. The custom involved self-immolation of
He was also a great opponent of the rigid caste
widows at their husband’s funeral pyre. While the
divisions of his time.
custom in its original form gave choice to the
women to do so, it gradually evolved to be a Ram Mohan Roy vehemently opposed the
mandatory custom especially for Brahmin and unnecessary ceremonialism and the idolatry
higher caste families. Young girls were married to advocate by priests. He had studied religious
much older men, in return for dowry, so that scriptures of different religions and advocated the
these men could have the supposed karmic fact that Hindu Scriptures like Upanishads upheld
benefits from their wives’ sacrifice as Sati. More the concept of monotheism. This began his quest

for a religious revolution to introduce the Tagore and Bankim Chandra also followed the
doctrines of ancient Vedic scriptures true to their footsteps of Ram Mohan Roy.
essence. He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1928,
Swami vivekanand
and the first meeting of this new-found religion as
held on August 20 that year. The Atmiya Sabha The most famous disciple of Ramakrishna was
reorganised itself into the Brahma Sabha, a Nerendranath Dutta. Who became renowned as
precursor organisation of the Brahmo Samaj. The Swami Vivekananda. After the death of
primary facets of this new movement were Ramakrishna in 1866 Vivekananda came forward
monotheism, independence from the scriptures to fulfil his mission. Vivekananda was born in
and renouncing the caste system. Brahmo Calcutta in 1863 in a Kayasta family. He was well
religious practices were stripped bare of the Hindu educated in school and college. First he was
ceremonialism and were set up following the attracted towards Brahmo Samaj and then drank
Christian or Islamic prayer practices. With time, deeply into the philosophy of John Stuart Mill,
the Brahma Samaj became a strong progressive Hume and Herbert Spencer. Then he was
force to drive social reforms in Bengal, especially persuaded to visit Ramakrishna.
women education.
Vivekananda realized the value of Western
Ram Mohan viewed education as a medium to materialism. The scientific achievements and the
implement social reforms so he came to Calcutta material happiness of the West impressed him
in 1815 and the very next year, started an English deeply. He desired for the combination of Indian
College by putting his own savings. He wanted the spiritualism and Western materialism for a
students to learn the English language and happier life of a man. He then made it a mission of
scientific subjects and criticized the government's his life to awaken the Indians from the slumber to
policy of opening only Sanskrit schools. According a new life. He believed that man had divinity and
to him, Indians would lag behind if they do not get the spark of spirituality in him. Every individual
to study modern subjects like Mathematics, therefore should give up fear and rise from
Geography and Latin. Government accepted this degradation and be a noble man. By preaching
idea of Ram Mohan and also implemented it but about spiritual unity he advocated for a sense of
not before his death. Ram Mohan was also the national unity which attracted millions of Indians
first to give importance to the development of the to his side. To organize social service and to infuse
mother tongue. His 'Gaudiya Byakaran' in Bengali a sense of unity among men he founded an order
is the best of his prose works. Rabindranath

to the Sanyasis or monks called Rammakrishna “Our religion is in the kitchen, our God is in the
Mission in 1897. cooking-pot, our religion is: do not touch me, I am
holy”. He narrated that superstitions had
Vivekananda condemned blind beliefs. He wanted
destroyed much of Hindu spirituality. By
to see every Indian as a modern man with a
reminding those of their spiritual value
modern and rational outlook. He therefore said
Vivekananda generated the spark of self-
that I would rather see every one of your rank
confidence among the Indians which indirectly
atheists than superstitious fool, for atheist is alive
infused a sense of democratic consciousness as
and you can make something of him. But if
democracy rested on self-respect and individuality
superstition enters, the brain is gone, the brain is
of every man.
softening, and degradation has seized upon the
life. Vivekananda drew the attention of Indians
towards the values of Western ways of life. He
Vivekananda told his countrymen to be tolerant
opened the link between Indian minds and
towards each other. “We reject none, neither
external things. The West appeared to him as the
theist, nor pantheist, monist, polytheist, agnostic,
land of material civilization. The spirit of that
nor atheist, the only condition of being a disciple is
civilization to him was essential for Indian
modelling a character at once the broadest and
progress. Therefore he declared “From the great
the most intense”, he said. He further said, “I shall
dynamo of Europe, the electric flow of that
enter to the mosque of the Mohammedan; I shall
tremendous power vivifying the whole world, we
enter the Christian’s church and kneel before the
want that energy, that love of independence, that
crucifix; I shall enter the Buddhist temple where I
spirit of self-reliance, that immovable fortitude,
shall take refuse in Buddha and his law, I shall go
that dexterity in action, that bond of unity of
into the forest land sit down in meditation with
purpose that thirst for improvement”.
the Hindu who is trying to see the light which
enlightens the heart of everyone. Not only shall I Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
do these but I shall keep my heart open for all that Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel handled effectively the
may come in the future.” integration of the princely states with his
Through these words he could impress upon every diplomatic skills and foresightedness. The problem
Indian a sense of brotherhood that resulted in of amalgamating 562 independent states with a
strengthening the unity of Indians. Vivekananda democratic self-governing India was difficult and
condemned the Indian orthodox in harsh terms delicate. But it was essential to save India from

balkanization, once the Paramountcy of British for the emancipation of backward communities
crown would lapse. Sardar Patel took charge of and women and bring about Hindu- Muslim unity
the states department in July 1947. He sensed the through the Gandhian constructive programme
urgent and imperative need of the integration of and skillfully utilised the higher castes for social
princely states. He followed an iron handed policy. integration and political mobilisation. Thus, he
He made it clear that he did not recognize the strengthened the plural basis of the nation-state
right of any state to remain independent and in by bringing electoral participation as effective
isolation, within India. political mobilisation. He saw a nation as
‘democratic in structure, nationalistic in
Sardar vallabhbhai Patel always raised his voice on
foundation and welfarist in spirit and function’.
several issues against exploitation and criticized
the high-handedness of authority, the exploitative The process of the integration of the various
revenue policy of the Government and states and the part played by Sardar in it, we
maladministration in the Princely states. He not realize the important role that Sardar had in the
only criticized the arbitrary policies of confiscation integration of the country. The states included
of movable and immovable properties, but also Saurastra (including Junagadh) Hyderabad,
insisted on guarded regulations on land reforms Travancore, Cochin, Kashmir and other small
and nationalization of key industries. His efforts to states. Sardar’s role in each of these states was
reform the Hindu religion and protect the people vital. The continuation of a divided and weak
of other faiths reflected his longing for the right to central government would in Patel's mind, result
religion. He encouraged the duly elected authority in the wider fragmentation of India by
to bring restrictions through various legislative encouraging more than 600 princely states
measures to freedom for all. Thus, his political towards independence. Between the months of
value system was a fine synthesis of liberalism, December 1946 and January 1947, Patel worked
conservatism and welfarism. with civil servant V.P. Menon on the latter's
suggestion for a separate dominion of Pakistan
His vision of State was in tune with the pattern of
created out of Muslim-majority provinces.
his political values. In his concept, the State was
Communal violence in Bengal and Punjab in
founded and held together by a high sense of
January and March 1947 further convinced Patel
nationalism and patriotism. Individual liberty was
of the soundness of partition. Patel, a fierce critic
to be in conformity with the provisions of the
of Jinnah's demand that the Hindu-majority areas
Constitution, to create a Nation-State, he pressed
of Punjab and Bengal be included in a Muslim

state, obtained the partition of those provinces, principles and cult are counterproductive as far as
thus blocking any possibility of their inclusion in true devotion is concerned as all these things
Pakistan. By August 15, 1947 all except breed dogmatism and fanaticism, which ultimately
Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir acceded to do not allow humankind to see the truth as it is.
India. He thereafter carried three fold processes of That is why, probably, many of his poems appear
assimilation, centralization and unification of to urge to discard creeds and beliefs that embrace
states. The states were amalgamated to form a without any rational thinking.
union and that union was merged with the Union
Besides, Kabir appears to talk of the God that does
of India. He handled the Junagarh and Hyderabad
not live at a holy shrine or a temple but within
crisis as a seasoned statesman. Nawab of Junagarh
man. However, Kabir seems to say that ironically
wanted to accede to Pakistan.The integration of
that is why people cannot notice God and
the princely states thus acted as a synchronizing
oblivious of their real self they keep thronging at
phenomenon and established a State of balance
Kashi and Kaba:
between chaos and segmentation and solidarity of
the newly born Indian Union. How funny!
In the midst of water,
Kabir A fish thirsts for water,
Scholars differ about Kabir’s parentage, his family, The thing lies at home,
the place of his birth, the time and place of his
But searching for it,
death etc. Instead of concentrating on various
beliefs about Kabir’s life, the scholar deems it In the woods, they roam.
appropriate to side with the beliefs that are widely Without self knowledge,
accepted. Scholars agree with the fact that Kabir
belonged to the time of Sikandar Lodi and was a The world is false,
disciple of Swami Ramanand. Apropos this fact, Be it Mathura or Kashi.

most scholars believe that Kabir was born in 1455
Here, Kabir seems to believe that as a fish lives in
and died in 1575.
water and is surrounded by water, human beings
At a very early stage, Kabir seems to have realised live in God and are surrounded by God but they
the fact that any kind of tenets, dogmas, precepts,

are still away from God because in vain they seek bitching about others, he will alienate a lot of
Him outside. people and lose his friends. As a result, a person
will be left alone and the loneliness will tear him
Kabir’s devotion looks to be not a blind devotion
asunder. Thus, being polite in our speech is very
born of an impulse. Rather it seems to be an
much essential for social solidarity.
application of his belief in logic and evidence. The
researcher holds that Kabir scoffs at the prevalent Social and Economic conditions under colonial
ritual of chanting God’s name on beads, despite period with special reference to social practices
the fact that in Hindu and Muslim religions of Beth, Begar and Reet
chanting God’s name is believed to liberate one
Social conditions
from suffering of this life.
Indian society underwent many changes after the
This kind of egalitarianism, seems to be a need of
British came to India. In the 19th century, certain
the time when Kabir lived, as society was
social practices like female infanticide, child
presumably divided into various strata of
marriage, sati, polygamy and a rigid caste system
hierarchy and those belonging to the lower strata
became more prevalent. These practices were
were believed to bear the brunt of inhumane
against human dignity and values. Women were
discrimination, ostracism and untouchability.
discriminated against at all stages of life and were
Thus, Kabir might have opposed differentiation
the disadvantaged section of the society. They did
made on the basis of castes not because he is a
not have access to any development opportunities
social reformer but because he is a rationalist in
to improve their status. Education was limited to a
his thinking and a humanist at heart.
handful of men belonging to the upper castes.
Kabir seems to believe that a person has to be Brahmins had access to the Vedas which were
careful of what he speaks and ensure that his written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and
words do not hurt anybody. It is observed that practices after birth or death were outlined by the
though means of communication have increased, priestly class.
communication between two people has
When the British came to India, they brought new
decreased because people unnecessarily indulge
ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and
in grumbling about and criticising others.
human rights from the Renaissance, the
Consequently nobody is ready to listen. If a person
Reformation Movement and the various
speaks words imbued with love, other people will
revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas
love to hear him. On the other hand, if he keeps

appealed to some sections of our society and led The British had come to India with the idea of
to several reform movements in different parts of making immense profits. This meant buying of raw
the country. At the forefront of these movements materials at very cheap rates and selling finished
were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan goods at much higher prices. The British wanted
Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and the Indians to be educated and modern enough to
Pandita Ramabai. These movements looked for consume their goods but not to the extent that it
social unity and strived towards liberty, equality proved detrimental to British interests.
and fraternity. Many legal measures were
Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas
introduced to improve the status of women. For
were modern and superior, while Indian ideas
example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829
were old and inferior. This was, of course, not
by Lord Bentinck, the then Governor General.
true. Indians had a rich traditional learning that
Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed
was still relevant. By this time in England there
in 1856. A law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-
was a group of Radicals who had a humanistic
caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda Act
ideology towards Indians. They wanted India to be
was passed in 1929 preventing child marriage. The
a part of the modern, progressive world of
act provided that it was illegal to marry a girl
science. But the British government was cautious
below 14 and a boy below 18 years. All the
in undertaking rapid modernisation of India. They
movements severely criticized the caste system
feared a reaction among the people if too much
and especially the practice of untouchability.
interference took place with their religious beliefs
The impact of the efforts made by these numerous and social customs. The English wanted
individuals, reform societies, and religious perpetuation of their rule in India and not a
organisations was felt all over and was most reaction among the people. Hence, though they
evident in the national movement. Women talked about introducing reforms, in reality very
started getting better education opportunities and few measures were taken and these were also
took up professions and public employment half-hearted.
outside their homes. The role of women like
Economic conditions
Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army
(INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali The Industrial revolution has helped the English
and many others were extremely important in the merchants accumulate a lot of capital from the
freedom struggle. countries of Asia, Africa and America. They now
wanted to invest this wealth in setting up

industries and trade with India. The mass to increase threat for the handicraft industries as
production of goods through machines that we the British goods were sold at a much cheaper
witness today was pioneered through the price.
Industrial Revolution which occurred first in
The British succeeded in selling their goods at a
England during the late 18th and the early 19th
cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry
century. This led to a massive increase in the
in India without paying any duty. On the other
output of finished products. The East India
hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when
Company helped in financing and expanding their
they were sent out of the country. Besides, under
industrial base. During this time there was a class
the pressure of its industrialists, British
of manufacturers in England who benefited more
government often imposed a protective tariff on
from manufacturing than trading. They were
the British succeeded in selling their goods at a
interested in having more raw materials from
cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry
India as well as sending their finished goods back.
in India without paying any duty. On the other
Between 1793 and 1813, these British
hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when
manufacturers launched a campaign against the
they were sent out of the country. Besides, under
company, its trade monopoly and the privileges it
the pressure of its industrialists, British
enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing
government often imposed a protective tariff on
the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian
Indian textiles. Therefore, within a few years, India
trade. With this India became an economic colony
from being an exporter of clothes became an
of Industrial England.
exporter of raw cotton and an importer of British
Earlier, Indian handloom had a big market in clothes. This reversal made a huge impact on the
Europe. Indian textiles such as cotton, linen, silk Indian handloom weaving industry leading to its
and woolen goods already had markets in Asia and virtual collapse. It also created unemployment for
Africa. With the coming of industrialisation in a large community of weavers. Many of them
England, the textile industry there made migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as
important headway. There was now a reverse of agricultural laborers. This in turn put increased
the direction of textile trade between Britain and pressure on the rural economy and livelihood. This
India. There was a massive import of machine process of uneven competition faced by the Indian
made clothes from English factories to Indian handloom industry was later dubbed by the Indian
markets. This import of large amount of products nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation.
manufactured by mechanical looms in England led

Beth in their internal matters. Begar was the only

exaction of the colonial state from most of them in
Unfree labour was central to agricultural
the absence of any proper tribute.
production in pre-colonial India. Under colonial
impact, these forms of unfree labour, while There has been almost no attempt to study the
retaining their outward form, were radically agrarian economies, social structures and political
changed in content. In medieval times, the institutions of the Western Himalayas except in
subjects of the king were never `free’ as in the the few ecology centered works on the region.
modern sense and all social classes and groups Beth ( or other forms of the labour of the lowest
were linked to each other vertically and castes ) has never been considered worthy of even
horizontally in ties of bondage, dependence and the most preliminary study, though there have
patronage. Under colonialism these ties got been one or two exceptions. Before we begin any
removed from their socio – economic context of discussion of unfree labour in the specificities of
origin and existence, and functioned differently in the Simla Hill States, it would be useful to place it
the new environment. It would be an attempt of in the wider context of unfree labour in colonial
this paper to see how and what changes were situations.
brought about in the institution of `Beth‘ – forced
Begar
labour of unfree lower castes – in the Simla Hills
under the impact of British rule. Begar a form of social labour without payment. Its
origin goes back to the pre-money era when
Beth and its cousin category of Begar were forms
labour was viewed as an important item of
of unfree labour of the agricultural castes. While
exchange. The land of the king and his men and
the latter was given by practically every State
priests were cultivated by peasants in exchange of
subject for community and administrative works,
some tenurial rights in land granted by the king.
the former was only given by the lowest castes to
When the state became a more elaborate and
the higher castes and it usually took the form of
complex affair in later period, the demesne lands
semi-serf agricultural labour. When the British
of the ruling classes, particularly of the landlords,
gained physical control of the Cis-Sutlej hills in
were worked by their prajas or subjects gratis. This
1815, they gave Sanads to the petty States of the
was considered to be a pious act to give free
region confirming their formal independence
labour to the priestly classes. Village people
under British Paramountcy. These States, eighteen
always gave free labour in working temple lands
in all, were given almost complete independence
also. Such a free labour system is not to be

confused with the use of slave and bonded Begar was recognised by the British authorities
labours. Free labour was given either in exchange right from 1815, and all the Sanads granted to
of some rights obtained in land or some invisible these Hill States recorded in detail the types,
merit obtained from rulers or from priests. It was quantities and other requirements of the labour to
a social arrangement made possible under the be provided by the hill people to the British
pre-monetised modes of production and social authority. British records of this period have no
relations. mention of the term Beth, or other forms of
unfree labour, in the Western Himalaya.
Begar was the labour which all subjects had to
provide the state for fixed periods during the year. Reet
It was unfree because there was no choice about
In the Shimla Hill States and many adjoining
wanting to give labour or not. Since agriculture
countries such as Mandi, Kullu and Kangra, an
was backward and most areas were not
obnoxious custom namely Reet was prevalent
monetised, only a small part of the surplus could
since time immemorial. It is difficult to give any
be appropriated through cash or kind. It was for
precise definition of Reet.To some it was a form of
this reason that direct labour services were the
marriage but to others, it was the payment usually
predominant form of surplus appropriation by the
made on the occasion. Therefore, Reet may be
Hill States. There were basically two types of begar
defined as a form of marriage without any ritual or
taken by the State; one, the regular labour
ceremony and was contracted by paying a price.
extracted throughout the year and two, the
Under this custom, girls and young women were
contributions in labour and kind made during
allowed to go for sums usually ranging from
special occasions like birth, death and marriage in
Rs.lOO to Rs.500 but sometimes going up to
the Chief’s family. These types of labour had to be
Rs.2,000 by the parents or other guardians in the
provided by all peasant proprietors and other
case of unmarried girls and by husbands in the
agriculturalists, exceptions being made for
case of married ones. Thus, the amount paid was
members of the royal family, certain Bramhin and
known as "Reet' money. After the payment of this
Rajput families and most of the village devtas and
money, the first marriage was, ipso facto annulled
divinities. This labour service was taken by the
and concubinage with the second man became a
State through its officers and the members of the
marriage. There was no limit to the number of
royal family.
women, that one might get under Reet nor any
restriction as to leaving any of them again, and in

this they might change hands any number of racial advancement were disastrous. Since
times. Therefore, the marriage under "Reet' could marriage is purely mechanical, being based on
be dissolved as easily as it was contracted. From money bargain, it is not regarded as a sacred
this it is clear that woman was treated as a chattel, human relationship with the result that the
a commodity to be brought and sold time and conditions which obtain there are hardly
again. distinguishable from general promiscuity. Divorce
is not obtained on some rational grounds such as
The Reet was prevalent among the Kolis, Chanals,
cruelty or vice or insanity of a mate or even an
Chamars and other tribes which formed the
irreconcilable incompatibility of temperament
lowest rung in social stratification. In most of the
between the couple, but simply on that of lust
Hill States, if not at all, it was also prevalent
backed by economic means. The result is the
among the Kanets. However, Reet was not
degradation of the status of women, which, after
observed among the high caste Brahmans and
all a the test of morality and steady racial
Rajputs.
degeneration among the hill tribes.
There were many evil results of "Reet" custom;
Social Reforms Movements in Muslim
domestic ties became loose and marriage came to
Community: Wahabi Movement & Aligarh
have very insignificant position in the stability of Movement
society. Indiscriminate relations of a woman with
many men often resulted in her catching syphilla
The Muslims reformers in India launched many
and in return, she transmitted the disease to many
religious movements. Some tried to revive the
persons. Perhaps that is why these contagious religion and other tried to reform the religion.
diseases became widespread in the hill states. During the 19th century religion reforms
movement were on the peak. Movements like
Further, the institution of "Reet' also resulted in
Deoband Movement, Ahamadiya movement,
the laxity of sexual relations and the total Aligarh Movement; Wahabi Movement has
disregard of the laws of chastity. The girls were influenced the masses and made them think about
their religion and their status.
often used for immoral purposes and this led to a
notorious traffic in them, which finally swelled the In this article, we will discuss about Wahabi
movement and Aligarh Movement.
ranks of prostitutes. While highlighting the bad
results of the custom, the "Bombay Chronicle'
commented: The effects of such lax relationship, Wahabi Movement
whether on the character of sex-relationship or on

Timings of movement: Wahabi revolted against British in 1860s but

British understood the upcmong danger. They
Wahabi movement expands from 1820 to 1870.
suppress the movement after attacking Wahabi
Foundation of movement: bases in Sathana, Bihar.
Saiyad Ahmad was the leader of movement in Effect of movement:

India who was influenced by the teaching of Abdul
Wahabi Movement spread the word of religion in
Wahab of Arab and saint shah Waliullah.
Islam and it accepted Islam as the most important
Objective of movement: religion in the world. The British in 1870
altogether suppressed the movement.
Wahabi movement was a reformist movement,
which tried to do away with un-Islamic practices in
Islam. It was a Islamic purifying movement.
However, later the movement turned against Sikh
and British Imperials.
Important events of movement:
Saiyad Ahmad led a countrywide movement to

spread his movement. He wanted to make India
from Dar-ul-Hurb to Dar-ul-Islam. Dar-ul-Hurb
means land of Kafirs.
Syed Ahmed criticized all changes and innovations

in Islam and encouraged a return to the pure Islam
and society of Arabia of the Prophet’s times.
For the achievement of the desired objectives,

Syed Ahmad looked for
(i) the correct leader,

(ii) a proper association and
(iii) a safe territory from where he wanted Aligarh Movement
to launch his Jihad.
At first, he revolted against the Sikh kingdom ruler

Foundation of movement:
Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1830 they captrured
Peshawar but they lost it to Sikhs in 1831 after the Sir Syed Ahmad Khan launched the Aligarh
battle of Balakot. movement. He started the Mohammedan Anglo-
Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875, which was
After the inclusion of Punjab in 1849 in East India
later, become center of Aligarh Movement.
Company British was the target of Wahabi
Movement. Objective of movement:

Unlike Wahabi movement Aligarh movement was Aligarh Movement gave political representation to
a revivalist movement; which sought change in Muslims and improved their social condition.
religion as the need of the hour. Aligarh
movement saw western education necessary for
the development of individual.
Important events of movement:

The Aligarh Movement was the drive for modern
Muslim education.
It played an important role to Indian Muslims by
its political foresightedness.
From the early stages, the movement was political
in nature. In 1886 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded
the All India Muhammadan Educational
Conference i to promote more broadly the
educational aims of Aligarh Movement.
New trend in Urdu literature was due to Aligarh
Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his Spread of education by missionary and voluntary
association accepted and promoted simple style,
which helped Muslims to understand the main bodies in modern India
purpose of the movement. It discarded the old
writing style of Urdu, which was not for the Role of Christian Missionary Education in India
common people.
during British Colonial period
The Aligarh Movement promoted adoption of a
historical and moral attitude, which influenced the  Education in India was a privilege of elite
life of the Indian Muslim. upper classes. It was limited to gurukuls
It helped scholars to leave the romantic style of where upper caste young boys would go to
prose and poetry.
study under the tutorship of a guru. Even
Urdu Defense Association considered as derivative
of the Aligarh Movement. women from the upper caste families were
The Deoband School was opposed to the not provided opportunity to learn.
movement as Aligarh Movement. They considered
Common people were aliens to this elite
it as supporters of the British
education system.
Effect of movement:  When missionaries arrived they began to

start schools for common people, generally
The Wahabi movement and other movements
before 1857 saw Muslims anti- British. After the in the vernacular language. Moni Bagchee
revolt, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan thought to have writes critically about "Christian
support of British in the development of Islam and Missionaries in Bengal".
Muslims in India.

 Though, written with the negative attitude,  The tribal people in Northeast India and in
the author acknowledges the contribution Chotanagpur region are prosperous and
of missionaries in Bengal to the cause of progressive. S.K. Barpujari, University of
mass education. Missionaries educated Gauhati writes the teaching of Christ
children in local language, raised the changed the evil practices of Nagas like
standard of education, trained teachers practices of head-hunting and bloody
and improved methods of teaching. warfare.
 Missionaries were ahead of their times.
Missionaries in Bihar: Educational Activity
Women empowerment would be possible
only when women are educated. So, they  Ever since the passing of the Charter Act of
began to open schools for girls. Upper 1813 the Christian Missionaries had stared
caste men used to ridicule missionaries participating actively in the field of Indian
requesting them to educate their cows education. In Bihar, the Christian

instead of girls. Missionaries opened a school for the
 Some times missionaries had to pay children of Indian converts at Bettiah in the
incentives to families for sending their girls year 1816.
to school. Modern Indian women have  The children were taught to read and write
entered in almost all fields in the nation and commit to memory selections from the
should be grateful to missionaries who Gospel translated into Hindustani by the
created opportunities for their Catholic clergy. The school was under the
empowerment. supervision of a Christian lay teacher, and
 Education that was window to the world, it had twenty students on its rolls. The
key to knowledge, wheels for progress was Missionaries also opened one such school
made available widely for all children at Digha, Patna, in 1819.
irrespective of their caste or economic  Around the year 1832 Rev. W. Start, a
status or sex. clergyman of the Church of England who
 Today, India aspires for a superpower had settled at Patna, founded a mission
status in the globalized world for which and brought to India, a considerable
missionaries sowed the seed more than number of men from Germany.
two hundred years ago.  Gradually these assistants of Rev. Start

moved to Gaya, Arrah, Hajipur, Chhapra

and Muzaffarpur in connection with separated from Agra Vicariate and

missionary work. There were a number of constituted into new Patna Visceral.
missions which came from time to time
CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIAN INSTITUTIONS TO
and made remarkable contributions in the
EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST REGION OF
field of education in Bihar.
INDIA
 These were: The Roman Catholic Mission,
Baptist Missionaries, The Gassner  The Northeast accounts for 7.7 % of the total
Evangelical Lutheran Mission (later Church) geographical area, and 3.88% of the
in Chotanagpur, Anglican Mission in population of India. It is a home to over 400
Chotanagpur, The Santal Mission of scheduled tribes. There are few places in the
Northern Churches, Roman Catholic world where such a variety of peoples live in
Mission in Chotanagpur, The Santa] close proximity to each other as in Northeast
Mission of the United Free Church of India. The tribals constitute 80% of the
Scotland in Bihar, The Methodist Church in population of Northeast India.
Bihar, the Dublin University Mission in  The earliest known Christian presence in
Chotanagpur, the Catholic Mission in the Northeast India goes back to 17th century. We
Bhagalpur District and adjacent Santal area have the three Tibet bound Portuguese Jesuit
in Bihar, The Fellowship of Christian missionaries, Stephen Cacella and John Cabral,
Assemblies Mission 11 Bihar, The Seventh and Fontabona from Italy who reached Hajo
Day Adventist Mission in Bihar, The Zenana and Pandu near Guwahati, Asom, on
Bible and Medical Mission in Bihar, British September 26, 1626. They visited parts of
Churches of Christ Mission in Palamau, The Goalpara and Kamrup districts on their way to
Brethren in Christ Mission in Bihar, The Tibet.
Assembly of God (A.G.) Mission in Bihar,  The Chronicles of the Augustinian monks at
The Catholic Mission to the Santali land of Bandel, near Hoogly, in West Bengal provide
the districts of Pumea and Santal Parganas. detailed information about the visit of Francis
 These Missionaries continued their work Laynez, the Jesuit bishop of Mylapore, to
throughout the State. But it was from 1846 Rangamati, in the kingdom of Cooch Behar in
onwards that their work started more 1714, a large Christian Community of 7000
vigorously, when the Patna-Bettiah sector people live there. A small Portuguese Catholic
of the Mission in North India was community at Bondashil in the Cachar district

of Assam, the remnants of another Mughal Soon Alexander Lish, opened schools at
Army, and a similar community at Cherrapunji, Mawsmai and Mawmluh and
Mariamnagar in Agartala which was in made a beginning in the development of Khasi
existence since the eighteenth century goes to literature.
show the significant presence of Christians.  In 1836, the two American Baptist missionary
 The earliest nineteenth century missionary couples came to Sadiya, but soon would move
interest in the Northeast was shown by the to the hills.
Baptists of Serampore from 1816-1837.  Since its establishment in 1834, the whole of
 In 1811 an Assamese pundit, Atmaram Sarma Northeast India was under the jurisdiction of
of Kaliabari in the Nagaon district was the Vicar Apostolic of Calcutta. Fathers Huc
employed by the mission to translate the and Gabet, French Lazarists visited Mangaldai
Christian scriptures into Assamese and an on their way to Tibet in 1846. From 1850 the
Assamese New Testament was published in Foreign Missionaries of Paris ministered to the
1819. scattered Catholic Communities in the Asom
 In 1813 Krishna Chandra Pal, the first convert Valley.
of the Serampore mission spent eight months  Asom became part of the prefecture of Bengal
at Pandua, under the Syiemship of Cherapunji . in 1870 under the care of the Foreign
As far as Garos are concerned the first contact Missionaries of Milan (PIME).
with education came in 1824, when David  In 1890 the whole Asom was entrusted to the
Scott sends three Garo boys to Serampore to care of the then newly founded German
study. Society of Catholic Education known as the
 The whole of Northeast India had other Society of the Divine Saviour, or German
associations with Christianity prior to the Salvatorians.
Treaty of Yandabu and the British annexation  The JesuitMissionaries looked after the
of Asom in 1826. This would mean that mission from 1915 to 1922. From 1922 the
Northeast India had Christian presence even Salesians of Don Bosco (S.D.B.) or the Don
before the Ahom Raja, Rudra Singh. Bosco Fathers and brothers and later on the
Encouraged by David Scott, and Major Jenkins, diocesan Clergy and members of other
the Serampore mission opened a school at religious congregations and committed laity
Guwahati in 1829; just three years after Asom made their contribution to development of
had come under the control of the British. education.

Education of Women India. This same commitment and

dedication through their educational
 A century ago education of women was
institutions is visible every where they
practically unknown, especially in the
work.
plains of Asom. The Adivasi tribal women
 The government of Asom sought the help
were illiterate. Among the Assamese
of missionaries in this effort. As Becker
women too education was totally
says, “The real problem was to arouse
neglected.
interest among the local women for the
 The first attempt towards the education of
education of girls”.
women in Northeast India were made at
 The beginning of education of women was
the turn of the century with the beginning
a major breakthrough in the
of St. Mary’s School, and college, by the
transformation of society in the region.
Sisters of the Queen of the Missions
 Today it is taken for granted that girls too
(RNDM) for the education of girls and
should be educated. Though it is
women has rendered yeomen service in
heartening to note that women in general
this field.
enjoy better status in the Northeast
 The Salesian Sisters (FMA) began their
compared to the rest of the country, much
work in Asom with the education and
more can be done to promote their dignity
empowerment of poor Adivasi tribal girls.
and self worth especially through
 Their example of commitment to this cause
education.
was followed by the Missionary Sisters of
Mary Help of Christians (MSMHC) whom Professional and Technical Education
they formed at the initial stages of the
 Training schools and colleges for the
congregation.
preparation of teachers were also set up by
 The visitation sisters of Don Bosco (VSDB)
the Christian Churches. Technical schools
founded by late Archbishop Hubert
were first introduced by the Church,
D’Rosario, SDB, in 1983 are doing great
particularly by the Catholic Church.
amount of work among the village and
 This has been a specific contribution of the
rural women.
Salesian religious brothers through Don
 The qualitative and quantitative growth of
Bosco Technical Schools and now the
the congregations has brought greater
Montfort religious brothers and others.
vitality to the tribal churches of Northeast

 Thousands of tribal youth have been auxiliary nurses from among the tribal
introduced and trained in shoe making, population.
book binding, tailoring, furniture making,  Homes for the orphans and the aged
general mechanics, motor mechanics, established by the Churches have totally
welding, composing and printing, changed the situation of the poor and
computer, typing, shorthand, photography, marginalized elements of society. Care of
and embroidery making. the differently abled has made many tribal
 This movement has radically changed the families aware that there are new areas of
tribal way of life and served as a catalyst life that need attention. Often corrective
for others to enter into similar pursuits. treatment, surgery, physiotherapy can do
much to make life normal or at least
Theological Education
tolerable to the differently abled especially
 Theological and pastoral education children and youth.
introduced and developed by the various  The schools for the differently abled in
churches in Northeast India has also Tura, Shillong, Umiam Khwan and Agartala
quietly brought about major changes in the bear witness to this side of Christian
region. education that has transformed the tribal
 There are many philosophical colleges and society.
theological colleges that impart  What I want to stress here is the fact that
ecclesiastical education to future church the real achievement of Christian
leaders in the Northeast India. They are the Education in these hills in the early years is
primary agent of social change in many not necessarily the setting up of medical
areas of life. institutions but the impact of mere
education on the health consciousness of
Medical Education
the people, thus making them healthier
 Promotion of Medical students through individuals
scholarship has brought about a great
Choice of Roman Script for Tribal Languages
change in tribal society. As a result today
there are hundreds of doctors, nurses,
laboratory assistants, technicians and
 The use of tribal language in education
necessitates its development as an

educational tool. The first step in its important decision taken after much
development is developing a writing discussion. This step had far reaching
system for it. One aspect of developing a benefits.
writing system is the choice of a script.  First the tribals learned the art of reading
 In the Indian context the choice of script and writing. Naturally, the missionary had
may be 1) the script of the official language the intention that their people should be
of the State in which the tribal language is able to read the sacred scripture. Language
spoken; 2) Devanagiri; 3) Roman and 4) played a very important meeting point
invented script. between the missionary and the people.
 Each has advantage and disadvantages  The Assamese people irrespective of their
from cultural, social, political, economic religious affiliation and historians of all
and technological points of view. The hues credit the American Baptist mission
generally favoured view in India is the for having helped to preserve the
script of the state language with necessary autonomy of the Assamese language. So
modification to suit the needs of the tribal too, many other tribes.
culture.  Language and literature enabled the tribals
 The second aspect of the writing system is towards breaking out of isolationism. It
devising an alphabet – a set of symbols- to opened up new vistas of cross cultural
represent the meaning of differentiating communication and enabled the people to
sounds of the tribal language. cope up with the new socio-economic and
 Here also cultural and political political situation in which they found
considerations intervene with purely themselves.
linguistic considerations. The aspect of the
Role of voluntary bodies in modern India
writing system is spelling of words
identification of word boundaries and "The diversity of NGOs strains any simple
punctuation marks. The last aspect is definition. They include many groups and
technological applications like printing, institutions that are entirely or largely
computer key board. independent of government and that have
 The Choice of the Roman script to reduce primarily humanitarian or cooperative rather than
the languages of the tribals to writing with commercial objectives. They are private agencies
the exception of Assamese was an in industrial countries that support international

development; indigenous groups organized (education, health, independence and

regionally or nationally; and member-groups in culture).
villages. NGOs include charitable and religious  The work of RVKP spread in 27 CD blocks of
associations that mobilize private funds for eight tribal districts namely Udaipur,
development, distribute food and family planning Dungarpur, Bhilwara, Banswara,
services and promote community organization. Chittoregarh, Sirohi, Pali, Baran. Major
They also include independent cooperatives, programmes of this organisation are health
community associations, water-user societies, centers, educational institutions, sports
women's groups and pastoral associations. Citizen center, hostels, Satsang Kendra and
Groups that raise awareness and influence policy Sanskar Kendra.
are also NGOs" ~ World Bank  Tuberculosis control programme is most
important and popular initiative taken by
Some Famous organization and Their role in
this organisation started in 1992 from
Complete Development of tribal or other social
Jhadol and Kotra Block of Udaipur district.
groups including Education
Till 1999 it benefited 1053 and 555
Rajasthan Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad (RVKP) patients respectively in Jhadol and Kotra
tehsil alone. Health care programmes also
 Tribal development is central objectives in
include permanent health center and
their constitution as well as function. It is
mobile van for interior tribal villages.
established as a regional center of Akhil
Bhartiya Vanvasi Kalyan Parisad (1952) but Vidya Bhawan Society
it has also separate and local identity like
 Vidya Bhawan Society is the initial
locally registered rather a branch office,
voluntary effort which continues even
local leadership, local resources and local
today. This was established in 1931 with
tribal concerns.
dedicated efforts of Dr Mohan Singh
 It is inspired by Hindu ideology and
Mehta and a group of like minded people.
indigenous culture. Its emergence is, as
 The thrust of this organisation was to
leader’s claims, to protect local tribal
educate the rural masses of that region
culture from external forces through
where the percentage literacy rate was
developmental programmes- siksha,
only 4.9.
swasthya, swablamban aur sanskar

 It started with a middle school and today  Besides these, Lok Sishan Sansthan (a unit
twelve different institutes are running of RVK) started in 1939 and continue even
under this society and all are concerned to today for rural development of South
rural development with professional Rajasthan.
expertise.  Community development is the core
 These institutes not only comprises formal objective of this unit through adult
education but also entrepreneurial education and extension programmes
training, professional courses suited to the among tribes. The constitution of this
local needs. organisation clearly mentions the tribal
 For instance, Anganwadi Workers interest as core issue and their
Prasikshan Kendra, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, development through educational
Cellulose Waste Recycling Education, programmes.
teachers training etc all focussed to local  Now, RVK is a registered society (1992) and
requirement. The people’s commitment also executes various governmental
reflects through Dr. Mehta writes about projects, like child schools in two villages
the social condition ofVBS. along with 29 local NGOs.
Rajasthan Vidyapith Kul (RVK) Rajasthan Bal Kalyan Samiti (RBKS)
 This is one of oldest voluntary institution  This is also a voluntary organisation

which has now partly changed to deemed registered in 1983 and managmg several
university with numerous institutions. It educational institutions of Udaipur district.
started in 1937 by a local social reformer This has established by a local resident of
Pandit Janardanray Nagar and like minded Jhadol tehsil who is by profession a
people of Mewar144 primary school teacher.
 Rajasthan Vidyapith is the initial steps in  Unlike the other NGOs it is completely
tribal education by establishing the schools village based and totally devoted for tribal
in tribal pockets before independence such development. RBKS is located in Jhadol
as Jhadol, Davok, Pratapnagar. tehsil, a scheduled tribe area, and later on
 Other institutions of Rajasthan Vidyapith spread to other areas such as Gogunda,
have also given priority and privileges to Kotra and Girwa.
tribal students in that region.

 It provides the formal education through steps like, consciousness, Mobilization.

school and college education with special Organization and Control.
focus to tribal masses. Jhadol tehsil has  The consciousness refers to knowledge and
very few high schools and not a single awareness about group identity and
college for further education except one interests.
college recently established by RBKS.  The distinction between a conscious group
 It also provides hostel facilities for and a passive group is the same distinction
exclusively tribal boys and girls separately what Kal Marx finds between a class in
with minimal charges because they receive itself and a class for itself.
the grant from Ministry of Tribal Affairs  The mobilization means generating a
(Govt. of India) and other sources. Tribal desire and willingness to come forward to
girl education is the major thrust ofthis attain an objective. The organization refers
organisation. to pooling human and material resources
within a structural framework for making
Struggle for emancipation of Dalits and their
collective and sustained efforts to achieve
empowerment
a common goal. The control means
Dalit empowerment acquiring the power and capacity to be
able to decide and determine those
 Dalit empowerment may be defined as a
matters which affect one’s life conditions.
process of gaining control by Dalits as a
community over self, ideology, material Dalit Aspect
and knowledge resources, which
 The term Dalit is a Marathi term which
determine power relationship in a society.
means ground or broken to pieces. The
 As a political process, Dalit empowerment
word Dalit comes from Sanskrit (Ancient
challenges the prevailing power structure
Indian language) word Dal which means to
of subordination and involves three crucial
crack or to split.
elements- access to information,
 Though the use of the term Dalit in public
opportunity for participation and inclusion
discourse is of relatively recent origin, it is
in political process and organizing capacity
supposed to have been used first by
to influence and gain power.
Jotirao Phule(1827-1890), leading social
 In outcome oriented paradigm, the process
reformer of Maharashtra , in his attempt to
of empowerment involves four successive

champion the cause of upliftment of the Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Vision of Dalit Emancipation
downtrodden sections of society. through Social Justice
 While Ambedkar also popularize the term
 In his quest for human equality in India,
Dalit, his philosophy has remained a key
Ambedkar mainly used agitation as a
source of inspiration for Dalit
modus operandi. His first ever agitation
empowerment. Ambedkar was the first
was to open a water tank for public, which
Dalit leader who demanded political
was reserved only for the upper castes.
empowerment of the Dalits in 1930s.
 He edited and deployed newspapers as a
 Marathi literary figures and neo-Buddhists
medium of communication with his
began to use the word in their writings and
followers.
contributed to the literary initiatives in
 Through newspapers such
replacing Harijan (Gandhi‟s term for them
as MookNayak and Bahishkrit Bharath, he
, means children of God) and achchuta(
managed to reach a substantial number of
Vedic term for them , means untouchable)
audiences and garner their support. He
with Dalit in the 1970s.
used his education and skill to reclaim the
 This term was highly popularized by Dalit
rights of the oppressed.
Panthers in 1970s in Maharashtra, to refer
 One of his notable achievements was to
to the scheduled caste (constitutional term
carve out a separate electorate for the
for them) population.
untouchables in a predominantly upper-
 However there are some who assign a
caste political landscape.
broad meaning to the term to denote to
any oppressed group of people. Yet the Towards social justice
term has become synonymous with the
 In response to the highly discriminatory
schedule caste people. This section of
caste-ridden social system that utterly
Indian society is called Dalit because they
devalued human dignity of Sudras and
are placed at the lowest layer of social
untouchables, Ambedkar stood
structure and suffers from various forms of
determined to eradicate social,
deprivation and social, economic, cultural
educational, and cultural disparities of the
and political marginalization. The worst
lower castes.
form of their marginalization is the scourge
 He was of the view that as long as there
of the untouchably
was a caste system, there would be

outcastes too. He mobilized them with the devoid of any mobility, either horizontal or
motto: “educate, agitate and unite.” vertical.
 He inculcated in their minds the values of  For Ambedkar, economic equality must be
self-respect, dignity, and an urge to fight sought in tandem with social equality and
for their rights. Hinduism, the predominant this could be achieved only with
religion in India, never taught the virtues of constitutional safeguard
liberty, equality and fraternity and,
Social Mobilization and Struggle
consequently, it could never unite the
entire Hindu society.  He started newspapers like the
 Ambedkar’s first ever public struggle led Mooknayak, Bahiskrit Bharat and Janata
him to drink water from a public tank to raise their awareness and propagate his
named, Choudar-Talab, which was out of views. He was exhorted Dalits to leave
bounds for the untouchables. their traditional and demeaning
 This was an effective agitation because it occupation, move away from villages as
helped to disrupt the brutal everyday „they were sink of localism, den of
inequality that the untouchables had to ignorance, narrow mindedness and
suffer as they were not allowed to drink communalism‟.
water even from a public tank reserved for  Similarly for the mobilization of Dalits, he
the upper castes. organized many social struggles like Mahad
Tank satyagrah in 1926 and temple entry
Against the structures of economic injustice
movement in 1930.
 The traditional caste-based economic  He also founded some social organizations
structure of Indian society contained no like Bahiskrit Hikarini Sabha and the All
provision for investing money to earn more India Depressed Classes Association in
value based on the means of production 1930 with the same objective.
available.  These efforts eventually resulted in social
 Hereditary division of labour on which mobilization of Dalits and strengthened the
Indian castiesm rests proved to be an agenda of social justice
impediment to economic justice for the Political organization of Dalits

depressed sections of society. Such a social
order created a stagnant economic state

 Ambedkar made serious efforts for the champions of social justice in

political organization of Dalits. He founded contemporary India.
the independent Labor Party in 1937 and  First, his sterling contribution in this field
replaced it with another party, the All India was to advance and steer the course of
Scheduled Caste Federation founded in Dalit empowerment and to impart to it a
1942. He also laid the foundation of distinct political character, which is the
another political party, Republican Party of core of the very notion of empowerment.
India which was founded in 1957, after his Without this political core, the idea of Dalit
death by his followers, which advanced the empowerment will not be without real
agenda of Dalit empowerment in the 1950s substance and spirit.
and 1960s.  Second, unlike other Dalit social reformers
 Even, the formation of Dalit Panther Party before and after his times, he advanced his
in 1970 and the Bahujan Samaj Party in mission with a sound and viable ideological
1984 owe their ideological genesis to framework coupled with equally strong
Ambedkar. action framework. He was not only a great
 The BSP, founded by Kasi Ram and now led theoretician but also restless activist of
by Kumari Mayawati was able to gain Dalit cause. In this respect he stands apart
political power in Uttar Pradesh, along with and much ahead from others.
substantial presence in some other parts of  His life and mission was a perfect and
the country. The roots of all these facets of unique blend of theory and action.
the ongoing empowerment of Dalits in  His ideas are leading light and sustain the
India are found in the ideas and practice of ongoing process of Dalit empowerment
Ambedkar. even today. Without his ideological
foundation, the edifice of the
Conclusion
contemporary Dalit empowerment in India
 Dr Ambedkar was not the first person to will go bankrupt and lose its identity,
initiate the process of Dalit empowerment direction and spirit.
in India, nor was he the last person to
Nawab Saadat Khan (1722-1739)
ensure its completion.
 However, his Dalit mission has two distinct
The power of the shaikhzadas remained
characteristics, not shared by other paramount and unchallenged until Saadat Khan

stepped into Lucknow. Being appointed Subedar in 1775. Safdarjang was a restless, ambitious and
1722 Saadat Khan laid the foundation of Awadh impulsive ruler who was engaged in violent
dynasty of the Shia Nawabs of Iranian lineage disturbances which brought momentous
based first at Faizabad and later at Lucknow. He vicissitudes for his reign ( 1754 – 1775 ). Shuja-Ud-
died in 1739 A.D. in Delhi. Although he died a Daula died early in January 1775 and was laid at
natural death due to the chronic pain in his leg his mausoleum at Gulab-Bari, Faizabad.
caused by a tumor, which was probably cancerous,
yet his sudden death gave rise to the calumny that
he committed suicide by consuming poison Nawab Asaf ud-Daula (1775-1798)
because of loss of credibility both with the victor
and the vanquished during the invasion of India by The accession of Asaf-Ud-Daula, the fourth
Nadir Shah. Nawab, brought a great change in Awadh politics.
He moved the court of Awadh from Faizabad to
Lucknow in 1775. When the court moved to
Nawab Safdar Jang (1739 – 1754) Lucknow, the kernel of the court, as if, shed its old
husk and acquired a new one and the city largely
Saadat Khan was succeeded by his son-in-law, grew in and around the existing town to
Safdar Jung who set up his military head-quarters accommodate the influx of the people. There
at Faizabad. His rule of fifteen years (1739 – emerged a powerful Shia culture, in constant
1754)saw no peace as he was constantly engaged interaction with Shia heart lands of Iran and Iraq.
in struggle against the Bangash Nawabs of The increasing number of Shia emigrants from
Farrukhabad. Safdar Jung had to leave the Delhi Iranian cities veritably transformed Lucknow into a
court due to conspiracies. He returned to Awadh great intellectual center.
in 1753, but died within a year at Rupar ghat, near
The Nawab constructed Daulat Khana, the large
Sultanpur in 1754. His mausoleum, which is one of
palace – garden complex as residence for himself,
the finest pieces of the architecture of the period,
the major mosques like Asfi Masjid, enlarged the
is in New Delhi.
Chowk and set up dozen major markets to form
the core of royal quarter of the city. He built the
gateway, Rumi Darwaza and Bara Imambara to
Nawab Shuja ud-Daula (1754-1775)
provide succor to the victims of famine of 1784.
Safdar Jung was succeeded by his son, Shuja – Ud The arched roof of Imambara, built without a
– Daula, who stayed mostly at Faizabad but was single beam or pillar for support, is one of the
always eager to extend his dominion up to Bihar. largest of its kind in the World. The Bhul Bhulaiya
He made several efforts to this end, by supporting at Imambara is a unique labyrinth of intricate
Shah Alam II, and subsequently Mir Kasim but was balconies and passages, with 489 identical
defeated in the battle by the English at Buxar in doorways, which make one feel being lost. Asaf-
1764. The defeat compelled him to enter into a Ud-Daula also built Bibiyapur Kothi and Chinhut
treaty with the East India Company. The Kothi. Overwhelmed by the design of Constantia
agreement not only paved the way for British built by Claude Martin he purchased it, offering to
advent on the soils of Awadh but also their give ten lakhs of gold coins. However, before the
gradual ascendancy to real power. The Nawab first transaction could be completed, the Nawab died
gave up the fort of Chunar, and then ceded the in 1798 and was laid to rest in the magnificent
Banaras region and the revenues of Ghazipur in Imambara built by him. The British absorbed

Allahabad and the adjoining region in the same Ghazi-ud-din Haider became Nawab in 1814. He
year. broke the frayed ties between the defunct Mughal
empire and Awadh and declared it an independent
state in 1819. He was now called King, but for all
Nawab Wazir Ali (1798) formal and ceremonial purposes, the Resident was
deemed his equal. The Resident even had an edge
Wazir Ali became the Nawab of Awadh after the over the king; he could threaten and bully while
death of Asaf – Ud – Daula. His succession was the King could only sulk and occasionally protest.
disputed on his being an illegitimate son of Asaf-
ud-Daula, whose brother Sadat Ali Khan made He built two houses in Moti Mahal complex,
overtures to the British who finally deposed and Mubarak Manzil and Shah Manzil. He got built for
imprisoned Wazir Ali at Vellore as the latter did his European wife a house named Vilayati Bagh in
not toe their lines and revolted against the British. European style. Near it was constructed Qadam
Rasul which supposedly bears the foot prints of
Muhammed on black stone. Owing to his religious
fervency, he also constructed a holy mausoleum,
Nawab Saadat Ali Khan (1798-1814)
Najaf, the replica of Ali’s burial place at Najaf in
Sadat Ali Khan was made Nawab on 21st January Iraq. He was buried there on his death in 1827.
1798 at a grand darbar held at Bibiyapur kothi. As Later, his three begums were also buried at Shah
a mark of gratitude, the Nawab formally ceded Najaf Imambara.
lower Doab, Gorakhpur and Rohilkhand. While
Awadh shrank half in size, the powers of British
Resident grew in inverse proportion. The resident Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider (1827-1837)
gradually arrogated to himself the right to hold a
darbar or court and assumed the de-facto Ghazi-ud-din Haider’s son, Nasir-ud-din Haider
guardianship of wasiqadars or pensioners against ascended the throne in 1827. The administration
the Nawab himself. of the kingdom was left to hands of wazir Hakim
Mahdi and later to Raushan-ud-Daula. The king
Sadat Ali Khan, though a miser, was nevertheless kept himself busy in debaucheries and inventing
an enthusiastic builder and he commissioned religious rites. He lived mostly in womens quarters
many palaces, including Dilkusha, Hayat Baksh and even dressed like a woman. He had a colourful
Kothi, Farhat Baksh Kothi as well as Lal Baradari. court and led a very lavish life.
He also constructed, Chhatar Manzil, Kothi Dil
Aram, Munawar Baksh, Khursid Manzil and the His strong belief in astrology and astronomy led
Chaupar Stables abandoning the Mughal style by him to set up an observatory at Lucknow —
adopting European Innovations in architecture. Tarawali Kothi. He added Darshan Vilas, a
European style Kothi to the Farhat Baksh complex
In 1814, Sadat Ali Khan died and was buried with in 1832 and reproduced a Karbala at Iradatnagar
his wife Khursheed Zadi in the twin tombs of for his place of burial.
Qaiserbagh adjoining the Begum Hazrat Mahal
Park. In 1837, he was poisoned to death by his own
friends and favourites. Nasiruddin Haider had died
without any offspring and his queen Badshah
Begum put forward Munna Jan as a claimant to
Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider (1814-1827)
the throne though both Ghaziuddin Haider and

Nasir uddin Haider had refused to acknowledge affairs of the kingdom. The situation progressively
him as belonging to royal lineage. Badshah Begum sapped the authority of the king.
forcibly enthroned Munna Jan at the Lal Baradari.
Amjad Ali Shah died in 1848 due to cancer and
The British intervened and exploited the situation
was buried at the Imambara Sibtainabad in
to their advantage. They arrested Munna Jan and
western part of Hazratganj, a quarter which he
Badshah Begum and arranged for the accession of
had himself established.
Nasir-ud Din Haider, the son of late Nawab Sadat
Ali Khan, who promised to pay a large sum of
money to the British for this.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856)
Wajid Ali Shah, the eldest son of Amjad Ali Shah,

Nawab Mohammad Ali Shah (1837-1842) became the king of Awadh in 1847. Wajid Ali Shah
Muhammad Ali Shah was 63 years of age when he was himself a great theatre genius and had set up
ascended the throne. He was an experienced man a Pari Khana for training artists. He was also a
and had seen the glorious days of his father. He great patron of artists, singers and musicians. He
started to economise and set right the lived in an atmosphere of gaiety and merriment.
administrative machinery. He built the Husainabad Wajid Ali Shah was completely given to pleasure in
(Chhota) Imambara in 1838 and created the closing years of his reign. He was devoted to
Hooseinabad Endowment Fund to support it. his large harem, his boon companions, his
columbary, and his large and impressive
Muhammad Ali Shah had resolved to make menagerie.
Lucknow into veritable Babylon. He started
building in the neighbourhood of the present Wajid Ali Shah was greatly interested in
Clock Tower, an edifice similar to Babylon’s architecture. He started building the Qaiser Bagh
minaret or floating garden and named it palace complex as soon as he came to power. The
Satkhanda, but it reached only its fifth storey in inner court yard of Qaiser Bagh, with its lawns was
1842 when Muhammad Ali Shah died. called Jilo Khana. In the center was a Baradari
flanked by two mermaid gates (Lakhigate) on
eastern and western ends. On the right end was
Chandwali Baradari, which was paved with silver
Nawab Amjad Ali Shah (1842-1847)
and the Khas Muqam and Badshah Manzil, which
After Muhammad Ali Shah, his son Amjad Ali Shah used to be special residence of the king. The
ascended the throne. He had received an excellent buildings at Qaiser Bagh quadrangle were
education which made him a devout Muslim but occupied mainly by the ladies of his seraglio. To
fell short of making him a capable ruler. He the left of western Lakhi Gate was Roshan-ud
became a deeply religious, circumspect and Daula Kothi built by the Wazir of Nasiruddin
abstinent ruler of Awadh. As a result, the system Haider. Wajid Ali Shah confiscated it and named it
of administration toned up by Muhammad Ali Qaiser Pasand, where one of his wife Mushuq
Shah became completely disorganised while the Mahal used to live. He purchased Chaulakhi Kothi
vicious officers had their day. His ability to rule from Azimulla Khan. During the first war of
was considerably undermined by the competing independence, Begum Hazrat Mahal held her
power structure created by the East India court from this Kothi.
Company and its large scale interference in the

The British were looking for an opportunity to life according the majestic teachings of
annex Awadh. About Wajid Ali Shah, Lord Islam.
Dalhousie once wrote: “The king of Oudh seems
disposed to bumptious. I wish he would be. To  And this concept was merely adequate in
swallow him before I go, would give me giving rise to two different political
satisfaction”. He referred to Awadh as the
thinking which were responsible in
“luscious cherry” that will drop into their mouth
one day especially if the British continued shaking partition of Sub-Continent.
the tree to help it down.
TWO NATION THEORY AND SIR SYED AHMED
They found an opportunity. Hindu – Muslim
rupture over Hanuman Garhi at Ayodhya created KHAN:
so much tumult for the secular-minded king that
the British got an excuse to annex Awadh on the  Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a great Muslim
self – righteous ground that “British Government
leader and a great philosopher. Every time,
would be guilty in the sight of God and man, if it
were any longer to aid in sustaining by its Muslims was forced by Sir Syed to get
countenance an administration with evil to modern education. Sir Syed was a first man
millions.” The British annexed Awadh on 11th
February 1856 deposing Wajid Ali Shah. in Sub-Continent history to introduce a
word "TWO NATION" for Muslims and
Hindus and introduced an idea to become
“Two-Nation” theory and Islamic revivalism
a pioneer of Two Nation Theory.
“Two-Nation” theory  Syed Ahmed Khan tried his level best for
the Muslims comprehend their differences
 Two Nation Theory's phenomenon
with the Hindus with many expects
basically sprigged up with the advent of
including religion, social, language, and
Islam in the Sub-Continent.
international identity and for this reason
 The sense was very unique about
he diverted attention of the Muslims
Pakistan's creation that it was generally
towards Two Nation Theory.
based on ideological commitments in the
 The possibly main reason for which Sir
light of Islam.
Syed introduced this theory is the downfall
 The basic concept behind Two Nation
of Muslims, Muslims Hindus controversy,
Theory was Muslims and Hindus was two
language problem, and the hatred by
separate nations from every expects, So It
Hindus and British upon Muslims of South
was the right of Muslim to had their own
Asia.
homeland in the Muslims majority areas of
Sub-Continent, where they can live their

 Due to Hindu Muslims non acceptance  The entire freedom movement revolves
behavior, Syed Ahmed Khan realize that around the Two Nation Theory which
the both Nations cannot live together any became the basis for the demand of
more. During the Hindu Urdu Controversy, Pakistan.
he came forward with Two Nation Concept  It means that the Muslims of the Sub-
and declared that Muslims were a separate Continent were a separate nation with
Nation. their distinct culture, civilization, literature,
 He said: “I am convinced now that Hindus history, religion and social values.
and Muslims could never become one  Islam the religion of Muslims was based on
nation as their religion and way of life was the concept of Tauheed and therefore
quite distinct from each other.” could not be merged in any other system
of religion.
ROLE OF TWO NATION THEORY IN DEMANDING
 It means Islam gives us a concept of Two
OF PAKISTAN:
Nation Theory. Muslims of India would
 The Two Nation Theory had played a vital ultimately have a separate homeland, as
and sole role in demanding of Pakistan. they could not live with the Hindus in Sub-
Every Muslim leader took advantage of this Continent.
theory.  The demanding and achieving of Pakistan
 Many events had been occurred with the was only based on the Two Nation Theory
role of Two Nation Theory and every and completely revolving around this
Muslim leader, who was the supporter of theory.
an independent Muslim state, did
dependent on Two Nation Theory.
 The whole period of Independence from Islamic revivalism
1857-1947 was just relied on Two Nation
 Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, in
Theory. After the Hindi-Urdu Controversy,
a trend that had begun at the 18th, many
Muslim felt that they were a separate
thinkers in the Muslim world felt that Islam
nation from Hindus and they started to
was going through a period of social
demand for a separate homeland.
decline, political weakness and economic
IMPORTANCE OF TWO NATION THEORY disintegration, expressing itself in different
regions where reform movements and

schools, while taking into account spiritual group of Muslim intellectuals, in different
and environmental differences of each parts of the world, rigorously examined the
region, showed an essentially similar fundamentals of Islamic jurisprudence.
character.  The central theological problems at the
 This pushed those thinkers to propose core of these examinations focused on the
projects of deep reform in beliefs, ideas validity of the knowledge derived from
and practices based on them. sources external to the Qur’an and the
 These reformers were convinced that their methodology of traditional sources of
opinions, policies and programmes were jurisprudence: the Qur’an, the hadith
fundamentally similar to those of early (traditions of the Prophet Muhammad),
Islam, and among the reformist ijma (consensus of the Muslim
phenomena there were clear differences community), and qiyas (analogical
as to the main theme: some insisted more reasoning).
on purification than others, some were  The epistemological step adopted was to
more proactive; and their forms also varied reinterpret the first two, the Qur’an and
according to local differences and different the hadith, and to transform the last two,
religious historical experiences. ijma and qiyas, in the light of scientific
 However, the general view presented a rationalism.
clearly defined character: an invitation to  Among those who had a strong impact
return to primitive Islam, the end of moral were al-Afghani (1838-1897), Sayyid
and social abuses, the general Ahmad Khan (1817-1898), Muhammad
deterioration which the umma (the global ‘Abduh (1849-1905) and Amir ‘Ali
Muslim community) had undergone over (1849-1928), who presented Islam in a way
the centuries, since the fall of Baghdad in that was consistent with modern ideas and
1258 at the hands of the Mongols, and, as rational sciences.
a proposed solution to these problems, the  They were fascinated with what the West
adoption of an attitude of moral and had achieved in technological and scientific
religious positivism. progress: the Newtonian conception of the
 The second half of the 19th century was a Universe, Spencer’s sociology, Darwinian
period of great richness in the history of ideas and even Western style of life.
the modern Islamic movement, when a
Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Aligarh movement

 He said that religion should be adaptable  Therefore, he opposed political activity by

with time or else it would become the Muslims. Unfortunately, in his
fossilised, and that religious tenets were enthusiasm to promote the educational
not immutable. and employment interests of the Muslims,
 He advocated a critical approach and he allowed himself to be used by the
freedom of thought and no dependence on colonial government in its obnoxious policy
tradition or custom. of divide and rule and, in later years,
 He was also a zealous educationist—as an started propagating divergence of interests
official, he opened schools in towns, got of Hindus and Muslims.
books translated into Urdu and started the  The Aligarh Movement emerged as a
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at liberal, modern trend among the Muslim
Aligarh in 1875. intelligentsia based in Mohammedan
 He also struggled to bring about an Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh.
improvement in the position of women  It aimed at spreading
through better education by opposing 1. Modern education among Indian
purdah and polygamy, advocating easy Muslims without weakening their
divorce, and condemning the system of piri allegiance to Islam;
and muridi. 2. Social reforms among Muslims
 He believed in the fundamental underlying relating to purdah, polygamy, widow
unity of religions or ‘practical morality’. He remarriage, women’s education,
also preached the basic commonality of slavery, divorce, etc.
Hindu and Muslim interests.  The ideology of the followers of the
 He argued that Muslims should first movement was based on a liberal
concentrate on education and jobs and interpretation of the Quran and they
tries to catch up with their Hindu sought to harmonise Islam with modern
counterparts who had gained the liberal culture.
advantage of an early start.  They wanted to impart a distinct socio-
 Active participation in politics at that point, cultural identity to Muslims on modern
he felt, would invite hostility of the lines. Soon, Aligarh became the centre of
Government towards the Muslim masses. religious and cultural revival of the Muslim
community.

Urban Indian economy after 1858 economic resources of Bengal, could claim
During this period, the Indian economy essentially confidently that the demand for Indian textiles
remained stagnant, growing at the same rate could never reduce, since no other nation could
(1.2%) as the population. India also experienced equal or rival it in quality. However, by the
deindustrialization during this period. Compared beginning of the nineteenth century, a beginning
to the Mughal era, India during the British colonial of a long history of decline of textile exports is
era had a lower per-capita income, a large decline observed .
in the secondary sector, and lower levels of A commonly cited legend is that in the early 19th
urbanization. India's share of the world economy century, the East India Company (EIC), had cut off
and share of global industrial output declined the hands of hundreds of weavers in Bengal in
significantly during British rule. order to destroy the indigenous weaving industry
Some of the important features of Indian urban in favour of British textile imports (some anecdotal
economy during this period are as follows: accounts say the thumbs of the weavers of Dacca
were removed). However this is generally
Deindustrialization
considered to be a myth, originating from William
In the seventeenth century, India was a relatively Bolts' 1772 account where he alleges that several
urbanised and commercialised nation with a weavers had cut off their own thumbs in protest
buoyant export trade, devoted largely to cotton at poor working conditions. Several historians
textiles, but also including silk, spices, and rice. have suggested that that the lack of
India was the world's main producer of cotton industrialization was because India was still a
textiles and had a substantial export trade to largely agricultural nation with low wages levels,
Britain, as well as many other European countries, arguing that wages were high in Britain so cotton
via the East India Company. Yet as the British producers had the incentive to invent and
cotton industry underwent a technological purchase expensive new labour-saving
revolution during the late 18th to early 19th technologies, and that wages levels were low in
centuries, the Indian industry stagnated and India so producers preferred to increase output by
deindustrialized. India also underwent a period of hiring more workers rather than investing in
deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th technology. Several economic historians have
century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of criticized this argument, such as Prasannan
the Mughal Empire. Even as late as 1772, Henry Parthasarathi who pointed to earnings data that
Patullo, in the course of his comments on the show real wages in 18th-century Bengal and

Mysore were higher than in Britain. Workers in the material such as cotton. India served as both a
textile industry, for example, earned more in significant supplier of raw goods to British
Bengal and Mysore than they did in Britain, while manufacturers and a large captive market for
agricultural labour in Britain had to work longer British manufactured goods.
hours to earn the same amount as in Mysore.
Decrease in the share of world GDP
According to evidence cited by the economic
historians Immanuel Wallerstein, Irfan Habib, India's share of the world economy went from
Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP)
agricultural output and standards of consumption per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire
in 17th-century Mughal India was higher than in and began to decline prior to the onset of British
17th-century Europe and early 20th-century rule.India's share of global industrial output also
British India. declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At
the same time, the United Kingdom's share of the
British control of trade, and exports of cheap
world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9%
Manchester cotton are cited as significant factors,
in 1870,and Britain replaced India as the world's
though Indian textiles had still maintained a
largest textile manufacturer in the 19th century.
competitive price advantage compared to British
Mughal India also had a higher per-capita income
textiles up until the 19th century. Several
in the late 16th century than British India had in
historians point to the colonization of India as a
the early 20th century, and the secondary sector
major factor in both India's deindustrialization and
contributed a higher percentage to the Mughal
Britain's Industrial Revolution. British colonization
economy (18.2%) than it did to the economy of
forced open the large Indian market to British
early 20th-century British India (11.2%). In terms
goods, which could be sold in India without any
of urbanization, Mughal India also had a higher
tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian
percentage of its population (15%) living in urban
producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain
centers in 1600 than British India did in the 19th
protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs
century.
were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from
being sold there, whereas raw cotton was number of modern economic historians have
imported from India without tariffs to British blamed the colonial rule for the dismal state of
factories which manufactured textiles from Indian India's economy, with investment in Indian
cotton. British economic policies gave them a industries limited since it was a colony. Under
monopoly over India's large market and raw British rule, India experienced deindustrialization,

the decline of India's native manufacturing 1830s and 1840s but they did not interconnect
industries. The economic policies of the British Raj and were used for freight transport only. The East
caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and India Company (and later the colonial
handloom sectors, with reduced demand and government) encouraged new railway companies
dipping employment; the yarn output of the backed by private investors under a scheme that
handloom industry, for example, declined from would provide land and guarantee an annual
419 million pounds in 1850 down to 240 million return of up to five percent during the initial years
pounds in 1900. Due to the colonial policies of the of operation. The companies were to build and
British, the result was a significant transfer of operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the
capital from India to England, which led to a government having the option to buy them
massive drain of revenue rather than any earlier. In 1854 Governor-General Lord Dalhousie
systematic effort at modernisation of the formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk
domestic economy. lines connecting the principal regions of India.
Encouraged by the government guarantees,
Development of Railway
investment flowed in and a series of new rail
British investors built a modern railway system in companies were established, leading to rapid
the late 19th century—it became the then fourth expansion of the rail system in India.
largest in the world and was renowned for quality
In 1853, the first passenger train service was
of construction and service. The government was
inaugurated between Bori Bunder in Bombay and
supportive, realising its value for military use, as
Thane, covering a distance of 34 km. The route
well as its value for economic growth. All the
mileage of this network increased from 1,349 km
funding and management came from private
in 1860 to 25,495 km. in 1880 – mostly radiating
British companies. The railways at first were
inland from the three major port cities of Bombay,
privately owned and operated, and run by British
Madras, and Calcutta. Most of the railway
administrators, engineers and skilled craftsmen. At
construction was done by Indian companies
first, only the unskilled workers were Indians. A
supervised by British engineers. The system was
plan for a rail system in India was first put forward
heavily built, in terms of sturdy tracks and strong
in 1832. The first train in India ran from Red Hills
bridges. Soon several large princely states built
to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was
their own rail systems and the network spread to
called Red Hill Railway. It was used for freight
almost all the regions in India. By 1900 India had a
transport only. Few more short lines were built in
full range of rail services with diverse ownership

and management, operating on broad, metre and  The participation of women in National
narrow gauge networks. Movement legitimised the Indian National
Congress. The British understood that the
method of Satyagraha had a special appeal
Depression
for women.
The Great Depression The worldwide Great  The participation of women in the freedom
movement also influenced the movement
Depression of 1929 had a small direct impact on for Women’s rights. It legitimised their
India, with relatively little impact on the modern claim to a place in the governance of India.
 However, there were regional differences
secondary sector. The government did little to
in the number of women who joined the
alleviate distress, and was focused mostly on national movement and synthesized
shipping gold to Britain. The worst consequences women’s interest with nationalist issues.
 The best organised, the most independent
involved deflation, which increased the burden of and fielded the largest demonstrations
the debt on villagers while lowering the cost of were Bombay women. They articulated a
clearly feminist nationalism.
living. In terms of volume of total economic
 Bengal women were known for their
output, there was no decline between 1929 and militancy. Marching alongside men in the
1934. Falling prices for jute (and also wheat) hurt Congress parade and later joining
revolutionary activities, they were subjects
larger growers. The worst hit sector was jute,
of folksongs and legends. These women
based in Bengal, which was an important element espoused a feminist ideology but put aside
in overseas trade; it had prospered in the 1920s in favour of a larger struggle.
 However, in Madras fewer women joined
but was hard hit in the 1930s. In terms of the movement. In North India, Nehru and
employment, there was some decline, while Zutshi families provided strong women
leaders.. They put nationalist agenda first
agriculture and small-scale industry also exhibited
and believed that it was not possible to
gains.The most successful new industry was sugar, raise women’s consciousness about both
which had meteoric growth in the 1930s. politics and women’s rights at the same
time.
 The revolutionary women presented a
different aspect in Indian National
CHAPTER 3 – WOMEN IN INDIAN NATIONAL movement. They described themselves as
MOVEMENT sacrificing all the things a women wants
like marriage, children etc. No one
including the revolutionary women
considered revolutionaries as
ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIAN NATINAL representatives of Indian womanhood.
MOVEMENT  Rural women unless they were widows
protested with their families.

 From Swadeshi movement onwards  Purdah

women’s role in National movement can  Dowry
be seen conspicuously. Under Gandhian  Polyandry
leadership their role become more  Polygamy
conspicuous in non-cooperation  Female infanticide
movement, civil disobedience movement
and Quit India movement.
 From Non Cooperation movement they got WOMEN IN MODERN INDIA- ISSUE OF SUFFRAGE
associated with specific programme that as AND COUNCIL ENTRY
dharna on liquor shop. Sarojini naidu,
 An Irish – Margaret Couisins was the first
Urmila devi etc. played an important role
to raise issue of women’s suffrage. She
during non-cooperation movement.
send a memorandum to Viceroy through a
 From 1920’s onwards, the male leaders in
delegation under Anie Besant in 1917.
the movement cemented a relationship
 Sarojni Naidu raised this issue at special
with peasants, workers and women’s
session of Indian national Congress at
association with the intention of gaining
Bombay (August 1918)
mass support from the people.
 Act of 1919 did not recognise women
 During 1933 all revolutionary women like
suffrage but a provision in this act added
Urmila devi, Santhi Das and Protibha devi
women to the list of registered voters in
(Nari sayagraha samiti) etc. were all in jail.
provincial legislative councils.
 During Quit India movement they got
 BOMBAY AND MADRAS were the first to
involved in underground movement.
extend franchise to women in 1921
Example Aruna asaf ali and Usha Mehta
 MUTHULAKSHMI REDDY was the first
(she started congress radio)
women legislator appointed to MADRAS
legislative council in 1927.
 Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women
organisation in SECOND ROUND TABLE
CONFERENCE IN 1931
DRAWBACKS OF WOMENS PARTICIPATION
 Only women from upper and middle class ORGANISATION REALTED TO WOMEN
Hindu women participated and their
participation was never large.  Bharat Stri Mahamandal ---1910---
 Only few Muslim women followed Gandhi. Allahabad ----founded by Sarladevi
Rest found it difficult to accept Hindu ideas  ALL INDIA MUSLIM LADIES CONFERENCE---
or were ignore by congress leaders. -1914
 Lady Hardinge Medical College ---1916
 National Council Of Indian Women ---1925-
ISSUES RAISED BY WOMENS ASSOCIATIONS --By Mehribai Tata
 All India Women’s Conference –at poona—
 Women’s education 1926-27----By Margaret Couisins
 Child Marriage
 Devadasi system

 Women’s Indian Association –1915 –by

Dorothy Jina Rja Dasa----Anie Besant was
World War and boundary settlements after the
its first President
First and Second World War
 Desh Sevika Sangh ---1930--- a women
wing of RSS
First World War
The war fought between July 28, 1914, and

OTHER FACTS RELATED TO WOMEN
November 11, 1918, was known at the time as the
 Ten women took part in INC session in1889 Great War, the War to End War, and (in the United
 Kadambini Ganguly -----First Indian Women States) the European War. Only when the world
Graduate. She was a medical student who went to war again in the 1930s and ’40s did the
failed in her final exam but was given earlier conflict become known as the First World
diploma of graduation in Medicine by the War. Its casualty totals were unprecedented,
Principal to continue private practice. soaring into the millions. World War I is known for
Other graduate of this college was the extensive system of trenches from which men
Chandramukhi. of both sides fought. Lethal new technologies
 Annie Besant---launched home rule, were unleashed, and for the first time a major war
became president of INC in 1917. was fought not only on land and on sea but below
 Gandhiji played an important role in the sea and in the skies as well. The two sides
integrating women in National movement were known as the Allies or Entente—consisting
I. He used sacred legends from primarily of France, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and
Ramayana like branded British as Ravan
later the United States—and the Central Powers,
who abducted Sita
primarily comprised of Austria-Hungary (the
II. He made an appeal that rule of Rama
Habsburg Empire), Germany, and the Ottoman
would be founded when women like
Empire (Turkey). A number of smaller nations
Sita joined nationalistic movement.
aligned themselves with one side or the other. In
the Pacific Japan, seeing a chance to seize German
 Rashtriya stree Sangh –founded by Sarjoni colonies, threw in with the Allies. The Allies were
Naidu with goal of swaraj the victors, as the entry of the United States into
 Indian National Congress set a women’s the war in 1917 added an additional weight of
department in 1940 ---Sucheta Mazumdar men and materiel the Central Powers could not
Kriplani was chosen to organise this hope to match.
department
 Women also played role in INA movement- The war resulted in a dramatically changed geo-
Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan was Head of political landscape, including the destruction of
Department of Women’s Affairs under three empires: Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and
provisional INA government . She took Russian. New borders were drawn at its
charge of Rani of Jhansi regiment. conclusion and resentments, especially on the part
of Germany, left festering in Europe. Ironically,
decisions made after the fighting ceased led the

War to End War to be a significant cause of the Britain (and its Commonwealth nations), the
Second World War. Soviet Union, and the United States. Seven days
after the suicide of Adolf Hitler, Germany
Consequences of World War 1:
unconditionally surrendered on May 7, 1945. The
The outcome of World War I saw extreme Japanese would go on to fight for nearly four more
political, cultural, and social revolution across months until their surrender on September 2,
Europe, Asia, Africa, and even in areas outside which was brought on by the U.S. dropping atomic
those that were directly involved. Four territories bombs on the Japanese towns of Nagasaki and
malformed due to the war, old countries were Hiroshima. Despite winning the war, Britain largely
abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries lost much of its empire, which was outlined in the
were redrawn, international organizations were basis of the Atlantic Charter. The war
established, and many new and old ideologies precipitated the revival of the U.S. economy, and
took a firm hold in people's minds. World War I by the war’s end, the nation would have a gross
also had the effect of bringing political change to national product that was nearly greater than all
Germany and the United Kingdom by bringing the Allied and Axis powers combined. The USA and
near-universal suffrage to these two European USSR emerged from World War II as global
powers, turning them into mass electoral superpowers. The fundamentally disparate, one-
democracies for the first time in history time allies became engaged in what was to be
called the Cold War, which dominated world
Results politics for the latter half of the 20th century.
End of Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman & Russian Casualties in World War II
empires
Harsh surrender terms forced on Germany major The most destructive war in all of history, its exact
cause of WWII cost in human lives is unknown, but casualties in
Redrawing of borders in Europe & Mideast World War II may have totaled over 60 million
service personnel and civilians killed. Nations
suffering the highest losses, military and civilian, in
descending order, are:
USSR: 42,000,000
Second World War Germany: 9,000,000
China: 4,000,000
The carnage of World War II was unpreceented
Japan: 3,000,000
and brought the world closest to the term “total
warfare.” On average 27,000 people were killed It was simply a continuation of the First World
each day between September 1, 1939, until the War that had theoretically ended in 1918. Others
formal surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945. point to 1931, when Japan seized Manchuria from
Western technological advances had turned upon China. Others to Italy’s invasion and defeat of
itself, bringing about the most destructive war in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, Adolf Hitler’s re-
human history. The primary combatants were the militarization of Germany’s Rhineland in 1936, the
Axis nations of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and Germany’s
Imperial Japan, and the Allied nations, Great occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938 are

sometimes cited. The two dates most often and Poland was rebuilt from former Russian,
mentioned as “the beginning of World War II” are German and Austro-Hungarian territories.
July 7, 1937, when the “Marco Polo Bridge
Boundary settlements after the Second World
Incident” led to a prolonged war between Japan
War
and China, and September 1, 1939, when
Germany invaded Poland, which led Britain and During the course of WWII political maps
France to declare war on Hitler’s Nazi state in continuously changed. Poland being the most
retaliation. From the invasion of Poland until the noticeable change. The borders of Poland shifted
war ended with Japan’s surrender in completely. Poland's borders were redrawn
September 1945, most nations around the following the decisions made at the Potsdam
world were engaged in armed combat. Conference of 1945. Germany divided into two
seperate countries. Poland Germany split in two!
Results
Comunist East! Germanys east portion was
End of German Third Reich controlled by the soviet union. Soviet union being
United States and Russia become global communist made the eastern half of former
superpowers Germany into a communist state. In 1949
Founding of the United Nations Germany was split into a communist east and a
non-communist west. Non-Communist West!
Boundary settlements after the First World War
West Germany, also known as the Federal
A century ago at the beginning of the First World Republic of Germany, remained a republic during
War, the maps of Europe, Asia and Africa looked the time of the split. At the end of WWII, the Allies
much different than they do today. On July 28th invaded Germany. The Soviets came from the
1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, East, and invaded up to the Oder-Neisse Line. The
starting a slaughter that would leave millions Americans, French, and British gained up to the
dead. War redrew borders and reshaped same point from the west. After the War, this
economies, too. Europe’s debt-financed splurge Western part of Germany went to the Americans,
on munitions prompted a manufacturing boom in French, and British. They divided up their share of
America, boosting exports and transforming it Germany into their own sections... As tensions
from global debtor to global creditor. Germany’s between the U.S. and the Soviets grew, Berlin was
industry was hammered. Its economy only also split, as both sides wanted it as the capital for
returned to the size it had been in 1913 over a its share of Germany (even though Berlin lay deep
decade later. in the heart of East Germany). Eventually, West
and East Berlin came into existence.
The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 was one of several East Berlin, of course, fell into the hands of the
to carve new countries from what remained of the Soviets. ...however, when West Germany was
pre-war empires. The Baltic states, given to formed, these regions united to form one state. It
Germany the previous year under the Treaty of was strictly communist controlled by the Soviet
Brest-Litovsk, which had taken Russia out of the Union.
war, became independent. Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia were created; Romania was enlarged;


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UPPSC Mains Paper I Updated-Part 2 2019

Integration of Princely States

Formation of Linguistic States:–

State Reorganization Commission

Factory production arrived as new mode of production as community or home workshop

Faster means of communication, commoditification of labor with introduction of wage System,

Industrial Revolution in Britain

Salient Features of Industrial Revolution

Impact of Industrial Revolution

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial Revolution and Capitalism

First World War

It was a result of growing inter-imperialist rivalries, growing chauvinism, antagonism and

Impact of First Wold War

ÿ Another significant outcome was the birth of the League of Nation.

The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland,

Major failures of the league were –

II. It played a role in rehabilitation of refugees after the war.

Second World War

Most shameful incidence of appeasement came when Czechoslovakia‘s Western allies –

Boundary settlements after the First World War

Boundary settlements after the Second World War

Fascist Ideology and its global implications

shared some fascist thoughts.

Fascism usually involves in the following elements:

 Nationalism (based on the cultural, racial and/or religious attributes of a region).

Socialist approach and Total Revolution

 In simple language socialism can be regarded as a movement against the inequality

Nehru and Socialism

Marxian Approach and Socialism

Fundamental Transformation & SOCIALISM

 SOCIALISM, after all, involves a fundamental transformation of the society and a

Role of Women and Women's Organization

Role of Women in Prehistoric Time

The Age of the Upanishads

In The Age 600 BC to 320 AD

Period of 320 to 750 A D

Women in Early medieval Period

Women in medieval India

Women in the Bhakti Movement

Women in Modern India

Status of women in India during the British period:

Women's organization in India

1. The Women's India Association (WIA).

Currently there are many women organizations of India:

1. All India Federation of Women Lawyers

1. Women's Empowerment Through:

Population and associated issues

The intent of National Population Policy-NPP-2000 is to eliminate unmet contraceptive needs by

 Converge service delivery at village level

 Child health and survival

Poverty and developmental issuesThe World Bank defines poverty in

Problems with measurement of poverty in India

Non-income dimensions of poverty: Multi-dimensional poverty index

Poverty Alleviation Schemes

 Poverty alleviation programmes can be in form of employment generation programmes or social

History of poverty alleviation/employment generation programmes

Poverty and Inclusive Growth

 Direct relationship between aggregate poverty and average consumption

Urbanization- problems and remedies

In Census of India, 2001 two types of town were identified (R.G,2001):