New Research Designs and Field Techniques in The Palaeolithic Archaeology of India

World Archaeology
ISSN: 0043-8243 (Print) 1470-1375 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rwar20
New research designs and field techniques in the

palaeolithic archaeology of India
K. Paddayya
To cite this article: K. Paddayya (1978) New research designs and field techniques
in the palaeolithic archaeology of India, World Archaeology, 10:1, 94-110, DOI:
10.1080/00438243.1978.9979719
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00438243.1978.9979719
Published online: 15 Jul 2010.
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New research designs and field techniques in the
palaeolithic archaeology of India
K. Paddayya
In his review of the various problems encountered in Indian archaeology between 1945
Downloaded by [University of Alabama] at 11:12 19 June 2016
and 1965, and the techniques and methods employed for tackling them, Sankalia (1969)
has pointed out how Stone Age studies undertaken in different parts of the country have
helped, inter alia, in widening the geographical distribution of the handaxe-cleaver
culture and the recognition of the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic cultures. The present
paper is devoted to a closer examination of another aspect of prehistoric research referred
to by him, i.e. the importance of the study of primary sites. After a rapid survey of the
growth of Indian prehistory,1 attention will be drawn to the kind of results that could be
expected by shifting emphasis from the study of alluvial sites to the investigation of
primary sites and to new field techniques necessitated by the suggested reorientation of
research. Finally, the usefulness of the new approach will be illustrated with reference to
the writer's work on the Acheulian culture of the Hunsgi valley in Peninsular India.
1 Historical background
To Robert Bruce Foote, a geologist by profession, goes the credit of discovering the
first Palaeolithic implement in 1863 in a gravel pit at Pallavaram in Tamil Nadu.
Following upon this discovery similar implements were reported by other workers from
several parts of the country. But it was Foote who, in the course of his geological surveys
spread over four decades, made systematic collections of stone tools from a number of
places in the southern and western parts of the country. He also collected pottery and
stone tools belonging to the Neolithic period and the Iron Age. Basing himself on these
findings, he recognized the existence of four archaeological ages in India, viz. the
Palaeolithic, Neolithic, and the Early and Late Iron ages. Although a geologist, the
detailed account which he prepared about his discoveries contains several interesting
observations about the lifeways of prehistoric communities; these could be read
with profit even today (Foote 1916). As has been aptly summed up by Sankalia
(1974: 12), 'Foote combined in himself the work of Thomsen, Worsaae and Boucher
de Perthes.'
The reconstruction of a four-fold culture sequence on the south-east coast by
Cammiade and Burkitt (1930) and the work of the Yale-Cambridge Expedition (De
1
The Mesolithic phase is excluded from the purview of the present paper.
World Archaeology Volume 10 No. I Field techniques and research design
New research designs and field techniques in the palaeolithic archaeology of India 95
Terra and Paterson 1939) in the north-western region, leading to the establishment of an
elaborate culture sequence in relation to glacial chronology, are two other important
landmarks; these provided the much-needed stimulus to the growth of prehistoric
studies in the country. During the following three decades, area studies were undertaken
in different parts (for a complete account see: Sankalia 1974). The widening of the
geographical distribution of the Acheulian culture and the identification of the Middle
and Upper Palaeolithic cultures are the positive contributions made by these regional
studies. To these may be added the construction of relative chronologies on the basis of
alluvial stratigraphy and Zeuner's (1950) attempts to build a climatic history for Western
India from the study of river sediments. But an objective analysis will reveal that these
regional studies have a negative aspect also.
Their principal object was the discovery of Stone Age sites in areas hitherto un-
explored. Selection was often enough made of an administrative unit such as a district
or a group of districts. The presence of a major or through-flowing river was considered

to be an important factor, because it was presumed that in view of the perennial supply of
water Early Man lived only along the banks of major rivers and that he avoided interior
areas. The courses of these rivers were followed in search of cliff-sections consisting of
one or more cycles of gravels and silts. The occurrence of artefacts in such deposits was
regarded as a clear proof of their Pleistocene age. It was not infrequently that the
importance of a region was judged by the thickness of cliff-sections and the number of
gravel and silt layers making up these sections. The study of lithic industries was based
by and large on random artefactual collections obtained from these sediments. Thus an
essentially geological approach has been followed so far for studying Palaeolithic cultures
(Jacobson 1975: 280). But this approach has several limitations.
Limitations of the study of secondary sites

First, the association between artefactual material and river sediments is not the result of
human activity but due to the fluvial processes of erosion and deposition; hence the
context is purely of a secondary nature. In such cases the archaeological materials are
generally transported by rivers over considerable distances from their original places of
manufacture and/or use before being deposited as a component element of river sedi-
ments. This is especially true of major rivers like the Narmada, Godavari and Krishna,
which know no geographical or geological boundaries.
Secondly, there is the question of the temporal relationship between the formation of
river deposits and the cultural material found in them. Their contemporaneity cannot be
taken for granted in all cases.
Thirdly, one cannot be certain of the nature and importance of animal fossils and such
other data found along with the cultural material. Do they belong to the same age as the
cultural material? Is the association between these two categories of evidence only
fortuitous or has it any significance in terms of human activity?
Fourthly, great uncertainty surrounds climatic interpretations put forward from the
study of alluvial sediments. According to one view, the gravels were formed in a wet
phase and the silts in a dry phase (Sankalia 1964: 373-4). As opposed to this, other
archaeologists thought that the silts were laid down under wet climatic conditions and
96 K. Paddayya
the gravels under dry conditions (Soundara Rajan 1958: 56-8). As has been emphasized
by Flint (1957: 218) and others, the formation of river deposits is governed not only by
the amount and distribution of rainfall but also by other factors like the availability of
debris supply, the local topography, the steepness of slopes and the nature of vegetation
cover. It is therefore possible that gravel and silt deposits are formed simultaneously in
different sectors of the river course under the same climatic conditions. Such being the
complex nature of their formation, there is no justification for using them as indices of
uniform climatic patterns.
Fifthly, in view of their secondary context the artefactual collections from river
deposits do not give us a complete picture of the nature and composition of lithic
industries. Any elaborate statistical studies of such incomplete data can only lead to
dubious cultural inferences.
Finally, it is impossible to be certain that a gravel or silt deposit is the result of one
cycle of sedimentation; it may have undergone several stages of reworking. In such cases
there is immense scope for the admixture of materials belonging to different cultures.
The problem is rendered more complex in the case of tectonically unstable regions.
Hence it is not always possible to equate stratigraphical successions with cultural
sequences.
One of the best instances of the complex nature of alluvial stratigraphy is provided
by the site of Mahadeo Piparia on the Narmada river. The cliff-sections exposed here
measure about 35 m. in thickness and consist of several layers of gravel, silt and clay. On
the basis of surface observations and in situ collections this site was thought to provide
stratigraphical evidence for the development of the Acheulian culture from a pebble-tool
culture (Khatri 1966: 98). For testing this hypothesis Supekar (1968: 41-5) undertook
excavations at the site. These not only failed to yield any evidence of cultural evolution
but produced a mixed assemblage of tools belonging to the pebble-tool, Acheulian and
Middle Palaeolithic cultures from the basal boulder conglomerate level, thus leading to
the conclusion that the three cultures co-existed!
These shortcomings have given rise to a somewhat pessimistic attitude that nothing
can be known about the Indian Palaeolithic cultures beyond stratigraphy and tool-
typology. It is precisely this attitude which has led otherwise distinguished archaeologists
like Wheeler (i960: 34, 63) to adopt derisive titles like 'Stones' and 'More Stones' for
chapters dealing with Stone Age cultures. Viewed in a larger perspective, it is because
of the preoccupation with secondary sites that Indian prehistory has not been able
to win anything beyond passing references in works and talks dealing with world
prehistory.
A stage has therefore been reached when it is imperative to be clear about the ultimate
goals of our work. Stated in simple terms, prehistoric research is aimed at the recon-
struction of the lifeways of preliterate societies in the context of the then prevailing
environmental conditions. If that be our aim, a reorientation of our research programmes
appears to be necessary, which in turn entails a different set of techniques and methods.
In this connection it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the study of primary
sites and all kinds of phenomena associated with them. Primary sites are those sites in
which the evidence pertaining to Early Man's activities is preserved in its original or
undisturbed context. These may be open-air sites or located in caves and rockshelters.
Depending upon the nature of human activity, these may be classified into different
groups, such as living or occupation sites, kill sites, butchering sites, workshops for
making tools and weapons etc. (e.g. Speth and Johnson 1976: 50-3).
It would of course be quite wrong to say that no sites of this kind have been
investigated in the country so far. Joshi's (1964) excavation in the rockshelter at
Adamgarh has exposed several Acheulian, Middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic living
levels. Primary or semi-primary Acheulian sites have been found at Lalitpur (Singh
1956), Gangapur (Sankalia 1952; IAR 1965-6: 30-1) and Anagwadi (Pappu 1974).
Systematic excavations have been undertaken at the Acheulian site of Chirki-Nevasa
(Corvinus 1967, 1969, 1970, 1973; Ansari and Pappu 1975; Ansari, Murty and Pappu
1977) and also in the caves and rockshelters situated in the Kurnool district of Andhra
Pradesh (Murty 1974) and the Bhimbetka region of Madhya Pradesh (Wakankar 1973;
Misra 1974; Misra, Mathpal and Nagar 1977). Sali's excavation of an Upper Palaeolithic
site at Patne in Maharashtra is another important investigation of this kind (Sankalia

1974: 226-8). Noteworthy too is Jacobson's (1975) study of a group of open-air Acheulian
sites in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. It appears that the late Dr T. D. McCown
and his party from the University of California also tried to locate primary sites in the
Narmada valley in the course of their investigations during 1964-5 (Sankalia 1974: 115),
but unfortunately no details are available about their results. Considering the large size
of the country and the wealth of Palaeolithic sites, these studies can only be described
as stray attempts; one would have wished that this concern for primary sites had emerged
as the major research activity of Indian prehistorians.
2 The new approach: its scope and methodological implications

The research strategy being advocated here rests on the three premises that (i) primary
sites do exist in various parts of the country; (ii) they can be identified through patient
field studies; and (iii) planned explorations and excavation at these sites will yield
significant data for understanding the behavioural patterns of Palaeolithic communities.
Of the three or four kinds of primary sites mentioned above, the dwelling or living sites
are the most important, because by virtue of being home bases they may be expected to
yield vestiges of several forms of human activity.
Planned investigation of Palaeolithic occupation sites started with the excavation by
the late Dr L. S. B. Leakey and his wife Mary of a series of Acheulian living floors at
Olorgesailie (Kenya) in 1943 (Isaac 1972a: 171-2; 1972b). Largely inspired by this
pioneering work, several sites of this kind have been investigated in Africa, Europe and
the Middle East during the last three decades. It is the extraordinary results turned out
by these sites (human skeletal remains, dwelling structures, dietary habits etc.) which
have carved out for Africa the unique place it occupies today in world prehistory (for a
summary of the evidence see: Clark 1975a). Isaac (1972a: 175) has tabulated the various
categories of evidence that may be expected from primary sites and the type of inter-
pretations that may possibly be extracted from each category. In order to make the list
more comprehensive, a few more items have been added to it as follows:
98 K. Paddayya
Phenomena associated with Possible interpretations

primary sites
Location and density of sites and Aspects of demographic arrangement,
relicts land use and ecology
Site sizes and internal structure Estimates of community size and aspects of
organization
Structural remains Nature of dwellings
Seasonally and duration of Patterns of movement and aspects of
occupation economic strategy
Food refuse and faeces Aspects of diet and subsistence practices
Introduced materials Range of movement and contact
Artefact forms Aspects of role in economy/society

Level of complexity of material culture
rule systems (in part)
Propagation patterns of material culture
traditions (historical, geographical and
sociological implications)
Non-utilitarian data like colouring Aesthetic/religious aspects of life
substances
Human skeletal remains Racial affinities
Datable materials like Temporal aspect of the cultures
burnt stones and charcoal
The extraction of such varied information calls for certain new techniques and methods
at different levels of field investigation, i.e. initial selection of the area, surveys and
finally, excavations.
First, the selection of the area. Preferably, it should be small; it can be as small as a
taluk or even a part of it. It is not necessary for the limits of this area to correspond to
present-day administrative divisions. Secondly, selection should as far as possible be
made of areas which constitute definite geographical units (in respect of landforms,
vegetation, drainage system etc.), because such areas afford us better scope for studying
the interaction between archaeological cultures and environment. Thirdly, the area
should have already yielded archaeological material of considerable importance; more
important, its geographical position should be favourable to the preservation of primary
sites. In the past there has been a tendency to concentrate work along the courses of
major rivers, because it was presumed that these rivers alone provided a perennial
supply of water and hence that Stone Age man selected only such regions for habitation.
But it is important to realize that permanent waterholes in the form of springs or lakes
and ponds do exist even in interior regions drained by smaller streams, which themselves
carry water for several months during the year. Moreover, on account of the absence of
any major fluvial activity the chances of the preservation of primary sites are greater in
such areas. That Early Man favoured such regions for occupation is proved beyond
doubt by the occurrence of clusters of sites in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh,
the Hunsgi valley of Karnataka and several other parts of the country.
The second stage of work is concerned with the planning of intensive surveys. To
know the distribution and density of archaeological occurrences, it is necessary to
examine thoroughly each and every square kilometre of the area. In this connection
Jacobson's (1975) work in the Raisen district serves as an excellent example; he has
discovered about one hundred Acheulian localities in an area of 130 km.2. Further,
it is important to note the size of each occurrence, indicating the extent to which agencies
like stream flow, surface wash and agricultural activities might have caused dispersal of
the cultural material beyond the original limits of the site. Sample collections from one
or more spots would give a rough estimate of the total volume of evidence. This informa-
tion about the number and size of sites will be of great help in reconstructing demo-
graphic patterns. Apart from enabling us to distinguish primary sites from secondary
occurrences, the Iocational analysis of sites (their occurrence in relation to river courses,
hill- or plateau-tops and slopes, plain surfaces, zoogeographical and vegetation zones,
sources of raw material such as veins, and other features of local environment) and the
study of sediments associated with them will be useful in studying settlement patterns.
Eventually it is possible to arrive at a functional classification of sites - occupation sites,
workshops, alluvial sites, butchering sites etc. Trial pits can be dug when surface features
fail to give clear indications about the nature of a site.
Excavation is generally confined to primary sites suspected of containing a fair amount
of evidence in undisturbed condition. Because they contain evidence of several kinds of
human activity, camp or living sites are preferred for this work. The aim of excavation is
two-fold: (i) to recover as many categories of evidence as possible (artefactual remains,
structural features, animal bones etc.) and (ii) to ascertain whether any behaviour-
indicative patterns exist in the spatial distribution of the components making up each
category of evidence as well as between various categories of evidence.
This new approach is now being followed in the study of a group of Acheulian sites
found in a small area in South India.
3 Application of the new approach to the investigation of Acheulian sites of the

Hunsgi valley
Selection of the area and initial work
The Hunsgi valley, situated in the Gulbarga district of Karnataka, is an oval-shaped
basin with an altitude of 450 m. above sea level. It is enclosed by tablelands of shales,
limestones and Deccan Trap, which rise to a height of about 75 m. above the valley
floor. It measures about 15 km. north-south and 10 km. east-west, thus covering an
area of 150 km.2. Indeed, one could walk across the valley from one end to the other in
just four hours; from the plateau top one can have a view of the entire valley.
Several minor streams (1 to 2 m. deep) rise in the plateaux and cut across the valley in
an easterly direction. They join together close to the village of Hunsgi to form a bigger
stream called the Hunsgi nullah, which itself empties into the Krishna river after an
ioo K. Paddayya
easterly course of about 35 km. A noteworthy aspect of the drainage system of the valley
is that the streams are monsoonal in character and flow for only three or four months
during the year (from July to October). However, one of the streams draining the
northern sector of the valley has a few springs in its bed, which feed the Hunsgi nullah
with an ankle-deep channel of water even during times of drought.
The valley receives an average annual rainfall of about 70 cm. Its floor is covered
with 1 to 2 m. thick black soil which supports cotton, millet and groundnut crops.
The only remnants of natural vegetation are the few thickets found along the stream
courses.
The writer has elsewhere given the background to the selection of this area for inten-
sive study (Paddayya 1971a). In brief, his attempts to find so-called stratified Stone Age
sites on the Krishna brought to light only sections made up of sub-Recent deposits.
But this work led the writer to the study of a distinct type of fluviatile deposits known as
the high-level gravels. These consist of thin (about 50 cm. thick) horizontal spreads
covering an area of 3 to 4 km.2; they lie 3 to 10 km. away from the courses of the Krishna
and Bhima rivers. Earlier workers (Foote 1876: 237; Mukherjee 1941: 40-1) believed
that they were laid down by the major rivers themselves as high flood accumulations,
caused by the existence of rock barriers. But on the basis of his own field data the writer
concluded that these gravels were deposited as floor fillings by laterally derived sheet-
floods and not by the Krishna and Bhima rivers. It was this interpretation which made the
writer realize that the investigation of sediments resulting from lateral geomorphic
processes in regions away from the courses of major rivers might ultimately lead to the
discovery of primary sites.
With this aim in view, the Hunsgi valley was selected for intensive study. Preliminary
explorations brought to light many Palaeolithic and Mesolithic workshops and gravel
occurrences in the valley proper as well as along the entire course of the Hunsgi nullah.
Frankly speaking, no Acheulian sites were expected to be found in the valley because it is
lacking in raw materials like quartzite extensively used in other parts of the country. For
this very reason the few limestone artefacts which Foote (1876: 247) reported from the
valley a century ago were dismissed as stray pieces having no cultural significance. The
turning point came in 1969 when a typical Acheulian assemblage consisting of fine
handaxes, cleavers and other artefacts of limestone was found in a fluviatile deposit of
limestone at a place called Gulbal, lying in the southern part of the valley. Two things
became clear with the discovery of this site. First, that the Acheulian culture does
exist in the valley and more sites could be expected. Secondly, the fan-like character of
the tool-bearing deposit and the fact that the artefacts showed only slight traces of
transportation by water made it clear that they were derived from a nearby primary site.
Thus the hope was raised that primary sites might be found in the valley through careful
investigations.
Intensive surveys during the last six or seven years have fulfilled this hope. Now a
dozen more occurrences are known from the valley; excavation carried out for two
seasons at one of the localities near Hunsgi has laid bare a complete occupation horizon
(Paddayya 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977a and b). The various techniques of survey and
excavation being adopted in the study of these sites and the results obtained so far are
briefly reviewed below.
Plate I Stratified deposits in machair sand at the Udal (North), N. Uist. Dark (anaerobic) Viking and
pre-Viking (in trench) levels underlying pale Late Medieval and sand blow strata with black sixteenth/
seventeenth-century capping in the background. Deep sterile sand blow (eighteenth/nineteenth century),
still present in the background, sealed the whole site before excavation. Note the plough 'corrugations' in
the foreground
Plate 2 Roman marching

camp near Xanten in the
Rhineland. Original picture,
unretouched Archive Nr.
HF25
Plate 3 Window enlarge-

ment, portion of plate 2, no
processing, output via film
writer, 512 x 512 picture
elements
Histogram modifica-
tion for contrast enhancement
with polygon area dependent
transformation
• 'I Plate 5 Window enlarge-

' * ment, portion of plate 2, no
_! ,,, processing
Plate 6 Window enlarge-

ment of plate s after
enhancement by convolution
filtering and local contrast
correction. Mini-max filter
3 x 3 elements, peripheral
^yrs'S'SSKf41" coefficient
s - 1, central
asESM^bSwftll coefficient 12, correction';8/i2
Plate 7 X-ray of Frankish

belt buckle, window from
original, output via film
writer 512 x 512 elements,
unprocessed
Plate 8 X-ray of Frankish

belt buckle after local
variance and brightness
correction, window 40 x 40
picture elements Watkins
algorithm
Plate 9 X-ray unit being used on a find (skull with

remains of attached silver braids. Braids untreated). In
the background a 'fixed' and in the foreground a 'mobile'
X-ray unit. Photo RAGU
Plate 10 Enlargement of untreated silver braid.

Left: conventional photograph, right: X-ray photograph.
Note the possibility of a detailed study of the plaiting
technique. Length of the braid 44 mm. Photo RAGU
RiKSANtJKVARllAMBETEts"
GOTLANDSUNDERSOKNINGAR
TEl. 0493/'] 90 05
Plate II Illustration of recording technique and attempted reconstruction using advanced X-ray
photography. A. Artefact in situ in matrix. B. Mounted X-ray photographs, taken at different angles.
C. Drawings of artefact: actual appearance and reconstruction\
It is possible to record and reconstruct an artefact for scientific analysis, and even publish and
exhibit it, without removing it from its matrix or treating it. Pending improved excavation and
conservation techniques the intact discovery can be stored indefinitely in an ice-box or refrigerated
cupboard
The advantages of this method lie in being able to postpone for as long as possible the inevitable
destruction associated with all excavation, however painstakingly undertaken, of, in research terms,
sensitive materials. Even from a financial point of view the method is preferable as this phase of
treatment is often the most costly. Photo. RAGU
f\
Plates 12 and 13 Knife treated according to method described in plate 11. Only an example of the
differently exposed X-ray photographs taken to illustrate the decoration, are shown. Photo
RAGU
Plate 14 Three pictures illustrating method
of reconstructing a damaged artefact with
relief decoration. From the left:
(a) conventional photograph lit from upper
left-hand corner
(b) drawing on copy of previous photograph
filled in on the basis of a detailed study in
different lightings of the artefact itself and
other pictorial records
(c) final reconstruction drawing
Clasp, probably of tenth century date,
found in 1971 in the foundations of a
medieval house at Ostertull, inside
Osterport, Visby (probably from a destroyed
cremation burial). Length 73 mm. Possibly
a pendant depicting Thor. Photo and
drawing RAGU
3 cm
Plate J5 Photogrammetric recording of

small finds. Photographic stand for such
recording constructed at the Central
Office of National Antiquities and
RAGU. Stereoscopic plotter. Contour
plan of a prehistoric artefact produced
using the above. Photo RAGU
Plate 16 Three photographs of a fixed X-ray unit fitted with supplementary grid-scales for
photogrammetric measurement. Photo RAGU
Plate 17 An experiment using the apparatus in plate 16. An artefact is extrapolated from its
archaeological matrix without excavation. Photo RAGU
(a) The block of material as brought in from site - the hip section of an inhumation burial from the
Viking period
(b) Conventional X-ray photograph of the small finds in the block
Plate iy (cont.)
(c) Separation of part of the block - bronze clasp in earth matrix
(d) The block of earth placed in position with measuring rods
fci
•-***:«
J7 (cont.)
(e) One pair of two stereoscopic X-ray photograph pairs, taken from opposite sides, for
photogrammetric measurement
(f) Contour plan of the clasp. The actual artefact left in situ in its matrix
(g) A replica of the clasp. Length 36 mm. Photo RAGU
Surveys
An interesting feature revealed by the surveys is that the Acheulian sites are strictly
confined to the valley; no sites have been found so far outside the limits of the valley
and the plateaux surrounding it. The nearest group of sites is found around Bagalkot in
the neighbouring Bijapur district, lying about 150 km. to the west of the valley. Thus the
valley supplies one of the best instances in Indian prehistory of the correspondence of
culture areas with natural areas, thereby affording us a fuller scope for understanding the
relationship between culture and environment.
Since the present research scheme is aimed at a study of the Acheulian culture of the
valley as a whole and not confined to any one site, various sectors of the valley have been
explored as intensively as possible. So far a total of thirteen localities have been dis-
covered, of which eleven are situated in the valley itself and the remaining two on the
outer margin of the plateau flanking the valley on the northern side. An important
locational aspect of these sites is that all of them are confined to the valley floor; no sites
have been found as yet on the tops or shoulders of tablelands. Although they must have
been exploited for both food resources and raw material, these elevated land surfaces
appear to have been avoided by Acheulian groups for occupation because of the absence
of a perennial supply of water.
An equally interesting feature about their locations concerns their closeness to the
courses of streams. Six of these localities occur as an agglomeration near the village of
Hunsgi, extending for a length of 1 km. on either bank of the nullah. This concentration
seems to be related to the perennial supply of water because, as stated previously, the
springs in the bed of one of the feeders of this nullah contribute a perennial water
channel. There are indications, such as their origin along a fault zone and the occurrence
of thick gruss deposits, that these springs were active in earlier times also. It is therefore
not surprising that the area around this place witnessed repeated human occupation. In
this connection it is worth observing that the majority of present-day village settlements
of the valley are also situated along stream courses.
The locational analysis of sites and the study of sediments associated with them have
made it possible to determine the nature of the sites. Of the thirteen localities, three are
factory sites, four are associated with fluviatile gravels and the remaining six are occupa-
tion localities. The factory sites are situated in the foothill region of plateaux; they are
associated with kankar conglomerates made up of angular limestone blocks which served
as an ideal raw material for the Acheulian groups. In the second group of sites, the
artefacts occur in fluviatile gravels which appear to have been laid down as fan deposits
by sheetflows or broad channels ancestral to the present-day streams. At the occupation
localities the artefacts occur in a fresh condition and are associated with gruss deposits
resulting from in situ weathering of granite. It is this sedimentological feature which
suggested that undisturbed archaeological levels might be expected in these localities.
Detailed surveys have helped in another way also. A granitic inlier consisting of
several hills and hillocks occurs at a place called Salvadgi, on the inner edge of the lime-
stone plateaux skirting the valley on the western side. Owing to the mural jointing of
granite blocks, a number of rockshelters and even cave-like hollows have been formed in
these hills. Trial excavations have failed to produce evidence of any regular archaeological
levels. However, a large quantity of artefactual material belonging to different cultures
HWA
102 K. Paddayya
has been found in these hollows and also on bare hill-surfaces (Paddayya 1974). Among
these collections are a few artefacts (cleavers, picks etc.) undoubtedly belonging to the
Acheulian culture. Their occurrence on these hills definitely suggests that Acheulian
bands made use of the rockshelters and caves for temporary retreats in exigencies like
rain and cold; alternately, these pieces might have been left behind by man in the course
of hunting expeditions to the hills.
Palaeoenvironmental studies (S. N. Rajaguru and M. D. Kajale)

An interdisciplinary attempt is being made to study the present environments of the
valley and also the relevant data from archaeological sites for reconstructing the
environmental background of the culture.
A close study is being made of the geomorphological features of the valley. As
mentioned previously, the tablelands encircling the valley rise to a height of 75 m. above
the valley floor. As determined by the general direction of the drainage system, the valley
floor gently slopes down from west to east. In the west it has an elevation of 490 m. above
sea level and drops down to 430 m. at Hunsgi in the east, where the drainage of the entire
valley is flushed out by the Hunsgi nullah. With the help of one-metre interval contour
maps, efforts are being made to understand if any relationship exists between the main
levels of the valley floor and the location of sites. This geomorphological study has
already helped us in ascertaining the nature and extent of the tool-bearing deposits and
other sediments. More important, it has enabled us to infer the considerations which
must have influenced the Acheulian bands in selecting this valley as their habitat.
While the plateaux surrounding it must have provided protection from outside groups
and thus fostered a spirit of territoriality, the flat form of the valley resulting from the
bedded character of shales and limestones must have facilitated the much-needed
movement of the human groups in pursuit of food resources.
A thorough study is being made of the various rock formations occurring in the valley
for ascertaining the sources of raw material exploited by the Acheulian groups. Granite,
shales and limestones, and the Deccan Trap are the chief geological formations of the
valley. Limestone is by far the most common raw material of the culture under study.
The silicified variety, occurring in the form of kankar conglomerates, seems to have
been greatly preferred; the three known factory sites are situated close to these deposits.
The occupation localities at Hunsgi have also yielded limestone blocks which appear to
have been procured from the plateaux. Further, the study of geological formations has
helped in explaining the absence of sites in the north-western part of the valley; this
sector is mostly occupied by the Deccan Trap which is most unsuitable for tool-making
purposes. Finally, detailed knowledge of local geology has enabled us to infer that
rocks like phyllite and schist, used for a few artefacts on the Hunsgi group of sites, were
brought by man from places outside the valley. The nearest outcrops of Dharwar
formations containing these rocks lie 8 to 15 km. east of the valley.
Detailed investigations are being made of the drainage system with the help of contour
maps and aerial photographs. Although the general direction was the same as that of
today, the original drainage system appears to have consisted of shallow and braided
sheets of water, thereby explaining the wide areal extent of the fluviatile deposits. The
present system of streams with definite channels came into existence at a much later
date; these had cut into the fluviatile deposits. The Hunsgi nullah itself was flowing at a
higher level and consisted of several braided channels rather than one single channel.
Acheulian man established his home bases on the banks of these channels and also on the
bar islands formed between them.
In the biological aspect, systematic study is being made of the present-day flora for
obtaining clues about past vegetation. As governed by the semi-arid climate, the valley
supports a thorn scrub type of vegetation. It can be divided into three microzones, i.e.
the stream courses, the valley floor between the streams and plateaux, and the plateaux.
The stream banks are characterized by thickets or gallery forests comprising species like
the Phoenix sylvestris Roxb., Acacia sps., Cassia auriculata Linn., Vitex negundo Linn.,
Cryptostegia grandiflora Roxb., Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. and Tamarindus indica Linn.
Owing to agricultural activities, the valley floor has almost completely lost its cover of
natural vegetation. Typical xerophytic vegetation characteristic of semi-arid tracts is

found in this belt; it is dominated by weeds and Acacia catechu Willd., Acacia arabica
Willd., Cassia auriculata Linn., Capparis aphylla Roth, and Balanites roxburghii Planch.
The plateaux are covered with a more or less similar type of vegetation, with the
important difference that it is very sparsely distributed. This sparsity is due to the bedded
nature of limestone and shale formations, which does not afford very favourable condi-
tions for soil development. The recognition of these three vegetation zones has archaeo-
logical relevance inasmuch as the Acheulian sites are generally located close to the river
courses. Apart from the year-round supply of water, the thickets of vegetation must have
supported quantities of vegetable foods and also served as the habitat of game animals -
important economic considerations which cannot be overlooked by any hunting-
gathering society. This phenomenon characterizes the Acheulian sites of the Middle
East and East Africa also (Clark 1975b: 647).
It is of course difficult to say whether and to what extent this picture of the present
vegetation can be projected into the Pleistocene. From whatever little knowledge we
have of the Pleistocene climatic record in Peninsular India and the fact that the vegetation
of the area has suffered tremendous destruction due to activities like wood-cutting and
grazing by herds of domestic animals right from the inception of the Neolithic way of life
around 2500 B.C., it seems reasonable to infer that at the time of Neolithic occupation the
valley supported a thicker cover of vegetation similar in composition to that obtaining
today. That this was indeed so is corroborated by W. van Zeist's (pers. comm.) palyno-
logical studies of soil samples from the occupation horizon excavated at Hunsgi. These
samples contain pollen of more than twenty plant species. Although van Zeist is not
fully convinced of the Acheulian age of the samples, it is interesting to observe that they
are dominated by the pollen of Graminae (52% to 64%) and Tubuliflorae compositae
(18% to 26%) with Acacia, Artemesia, Rhamnaceae and Sparganium forming some of
the subsidiary species, the whole assemblage suggesting an open grassland type of
vegetation.
Data are also being obtained about the wild plant foods available in the valley and still
being used by the local population. A preliminary survey undertaken in the dry month of
March has revealed the presence of several plant species such as the Hibiscus cannabis
Linn., Lactuca runcenata Brynopsis sp., Celosia argentea Linn., Capparis aphylla
104 K- Paddayya
Roth., Physalis sp. and Cordia myxa Roxb. Some of these species yield edible fruits,
while leaves form the edible organs in the other species. A more comprehensive
collection is expected to be made through a botanical survey of the valley during the
wet season.
Apart from the plant species mentioned above, attention must be drawn to the plentiful
supply of fruits of three other plants, viz. the Zizyphus jujuba Lam., Phoenix sylvestris
Roxb., and Tamarindus indica Linn. Groves of these trees occur especially along the
streams. These trees yield rich seasonal crops. For instance, a Zizyphus tree of medium
height (5 m.) can give a fruit-yield of about 25 kg. in a season (author's personal
observation). The fruits of this and the other two plants are still being used extensively
by the local population. In fact, there are historical records mentioning that during the
great 1877-8 famine in the Deccan the Zizyphus fruits were used for preparing a main
meal called Berchuni (Watt 1893: 367-9). So far as the archaeological record is concerned,
carbonized seeds of this fruit have been found at the Neolithic site of Kodekal, lying
about 15 km. south-west of the Hunsgi valley. So one can safely infer that the wild
plant foods of the area were being exploited by the prehistoric populations.
Likewise, efforts are under way to reconstruct the faunal world. Unfortunately, no
bone material has been found at any of the sites so far. Secondly, with the probable
exception of the gazelle, no large wild mammals survive in the valley today, though the
valley is rich in small mammals, birds, reptiles and aquatic fauna. We are therefore forced
to extrapolate the evidence from Stone Age sites outside the valley. The Middle
Palaeolithic site of Hagargundi on the Bhima river, lying about 80 km. north-east of the
Hunsgi valley, has yielded fossilized bones of Bos sp. (jaw, shoulder girdle etc.) and a
horn fragment of a cervid (Paddayya 1971b). The faunal assemblage from the Neolithic
site at Kodekal contains the bones of six wild species belonging to the classes of Pisces,
Reptilia and Mammalia, viz. the gazelle, the spotted deer, the Barasingha, the common
rat, the monitor lizard and the bony fish. If these data serve as any guide, a rich and
varied fauna must have been available to Acheulian man.
From the foregoing it is clear that the valley possessed both wild plant foods and game
animals which could support a non-agricultural population throughout the year, without
forcing it to seek food resources outside the valley in any season of the year. Thus the
area appears to have formed a base for what may be termed 'broad-spectrum' hunting-
gathering activity in which the human groups exploited not one particular but several
food resources depending upon their seasonal availability.
Excavation techniques
Two seasons of excavation at one of the localities at Hunsgi have uncovered a complete
occupation level covering an area of 63 m.2. In summary, this site consists of an oval-
shaped open area enclosed on its western and eastern sides by natural accumulations of
granite boulders; on the north it is defined by what appears to be an artificially arranged
row of granite boulders. There are indications that several such occupation horizons
occur at this and other localities at Hunsgi. The chief procedures being adopted in their
excavation are as follows:
1 After marking the probable limits of the site, as indicated by the surface distribution
of tools, nature of sediments and other such features, the area is divided by means of a
grid into square metres. Once the overlying deposit has been cleared and the cultural
level reached, excavation is carried out square by square. This is a slow and laborious
process in which one can use only light digging equipment such as small hammers,
knives, chisels, dentist's tools and brushes. This is a task to be done by the investigator
himself with the help of students and trained workers.
2 It is impossible to overemphasize the importance of exposing the whole area of
the occupation horizon; it is only through such total excavations that one can arrive
at an understanding of the size-range of sites. This in turn helps us to reconstruct
the material culture in its totality, the population units and the nature of social
organization.
In this connection attention should be drawn to the fact that a Palaeolithic occupation
locality may contain several living levels. (Such in fact is the case with Hunsgi and several
Acheulian sites in East Africa.) These levels may be situated somewhat apart or close to
one another; they may be contemporaneous or widely separated in time. As has been
emphasized by Bordes et al. (1972: 16-19; *975)> a n awareness of these aspects is neces-
sary on the part of the excavator. This is particularly true of cave sites in which the floor
area is generally limited in extent, hence there is every likelihood of occupation levels
overlapping with one another. An unwary excavator may treat materials belonging to
two or more temporally and culturally discrete horizons as components of one single
level.
3 It is necessary to leave all evidence (both natural and humanly modified, ranging
from large boulders to the smallest chips and flakelets) in situ until a sizable portion or the
whole of the floor has been exposed. It is only after a detailed on-the-spot study of their
distribution has been made and plotted that the finds are lifted from their original
positions. One may thus expect to recover valuable information about structural remains,
stone-working, treatment of vegetable and animal foods, and other aspects of daily life.
Apart from visual observations, one may also employ certain statistical methods like
dimensional analysis and nearest neighbour analysis for ascertaining whether any
patterns exist in the spatial distribution of the components of various categories of
evidence (Whallon 1973: 115-30).
4 Various procedures are being followed for understanding the origin of the matrix
material (gruss) as well as the natural rock pieces forming part of the occupation levels.
From weight analysis it has been found that, unlike the overlying gravel deposit in
which the rock fragments and secondarily derived gruss material occur in more or less
equal proportions, the Acheulian floor consists essentially of gruss with rock fragments
and artefacts forming only subsidiary components. Moreover, in the course of excavating
the floor it has been observed that a number of granite blocks occur not as hard masses
but in a disaggregated condition giving rise to only powdery matter. This feature and
also the angular character of the quartz grains making up the deposit have revealed that
this gruss formation resulted from in situ weathering of granite.
A detailed record is being kept of the various rock components found in the floor -
their petrology, size-ranges and morphometric characters. This study has enabled us to
infer that slabs and water-worn pieces of limestone as well as dolerite and quartzite
nodules were brought by man to the site for use as raw material for tool-making. These
106 K. Paddayya
are available within a radius of 3 to 4 km. from the site. As noted earlier, even foreign
rocks like schist and phyllite were introduced from outside the valley.
A record is also being maintained of the orientation of the long axes of artefacts as well
as natural rock pieces, because any preferred orientation will help us in detecting whether
the components of the floor were subjected to any disturbance by agencies like river or
surface flow and slope wash. Open-air sites like the ones at Hunsgi are particularly
susceptible to disturbances of this kind.
5 The original positions of artefacts, especially heavy-duty tools like handaxes, cleavers
and chopping tools are noted - whether they are found lying on one of their flat surfaces
or in vertical positions thereby exposing one of their edges to the top. For, based on their
study of vertically placed handaxes and cleavers found at Isimila and Olorgesailie,
Kleindienst and Keller (1976) conclude that these implements were probably used as
'fixed tools, in the manner of direct anvils by manipulating objects directly against the
edge'. Such vertical or slightly oblique positions have also been observed in the case of
certain artefacts at Hunsgi, although it is necessary to take into account the role of
agencies like water flow and slope wash also in explaining such attitudes.
Ethnoarchaeological studies
Reference has already been made to the fact that the concentration of Acheulian sites
along the stream courses is exactly paralleled by the location of present-day villages.
Indeed, a detailed study of the human geography of the valley seems to be helpful in
several ways.
The area supports a population of over 15,000 dispersed in the form of fifteen villages/
hamlets. Half of this population consists of landless agricultural labourers who find it
extremely difficult to find a livelihood during the period from the close of the harvesting
season till the next monsoon (February to July). There are many aspects of their life
(dwelling structures, food habits, domestic equipment etc.) which can be of great help
in interpreting archaeological phenomena. The following remarks about the structure of
their dwellings will serve to underline the necessity of documenting the ethnographical
evidence.
These dwellings are most humble and impermanent structures consisting of frame-
works of wooden posts and sticks covered with grasses and branches. An analysis of
the floor area and number of individuals may be helpful in our study of Stone Age
demographic patterns. Such attempts have already been made by Naroll (1962) and
others. Secondly, the utilization of open spaces enclosed by boulders of rock for raising
temporary shelters is still a living phenomenon in the valley. Such huts are constructed
when people have to stay out of the villages for a period of two or three months in
connection with toddy-tapping and crop protection.
Conclusion
We are no longer justified in believing that Indian Palaeolithic archaeology merely
consists of the discovery of river sections and the building up of stratigraphical-cultural
sequences based upon them. Little can be accomplished by way of hopping from one
region to another; rather there appears to be a clear need for selecting smaller areas and
working these up systematically in a sustained manner. The principal object of such
studies ought to be investigation of primary sites, which alone can help us in resuscitating
Stone Age man's behavioural patterns. Obviously, there is immense scope for inter-
disciplinary work in these investigations, but it is well to realize that interdisciplinarity is
not an end in itself - a sort of beautifying mechanism, but only a means towards the
realization of culture-historical goals. As a matter of fact, it is this confusion of the means
with the ends which has prevented the layman and the fellow-archaeologist alike in
India from regarding Palaeolithic archaeology as a serious and worthwhile academic
discipline.
Acknowledgements
The writer is grateful to Dr S. N. Rajaguru and Mr M. D. Kajale for contributing a note
on palaeoenvironmental studies. Professors H. D. Sankalia and S. B. Deo read an earlier
draft of the paper and made certain helpful suggestions.
5.x..1977 Deccan College

Poona
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no K. Paddayya
Abstract
Paddayya, K.
New research designs and field techniques in the palaeolithic archaeology of
India
The paper gives a short review of the growth of Indian Palaeolithic archaeology, pointing out
the limitations of studying secondary sites associated with alluvial sediments. Attention is then
drawn to the varied information that could be expected from primary sites for understanding
the behavioural patterns of Stone Age societies. The usefulness of the new approach and the
various field techniques and methods it entails is illustrated with reference to the multidisci-
plinary work on the Acheulian culture of the Hunsgi valley in Peninsular India.

New Research Designs and Field Techniques in The Palaeolithic Archaeology of India

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World Archaeology

ISSN: 0043-8243 (Print) 1470-1375 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rwar20

New research designs and field techniques in the

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or a group of districts. The presence of a major or through-flowing river was considered

Limitations of the study of secondary sites

site at Patne in Maharashtra is another important investigation of this kind (Sankalia

2 The new approach: its scope and methodological implications

Phenomena associated with Possible interpretations

Artefact forms Aspects of role in economy/society

3 Application of the new approach to the investigation of Acheulian sites of the

Plate 2 Roman marching

Plate 3 Window enlarge-

• 'I Plate 5 Window enlarge-

Plate 6 Window enlarge-

Plate 7 X-ray of Frankish

Plate 8 X-ray of Frankish

Plate 9 X-ray unit being used on a find (skull with

Plate 10 Enlargement of untreated silver braid.

Plate J5 Photogrammetric recording of

Palaeoenvironmental studies (S. N. Rajaguru and M. D. Kajale)

natural vegetation. Typical xerophytic vegetation characteristic of semi-arid tracts is

5.x..1977 Deccan College

Corvinus, G. 1969. Stratigraphy and geological background of an Acheulian site at Chirki on

India. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 121: 383-406.

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