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Posterior Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome: Medicine
Posterior Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome: Medicine
REVIEW ARTICLE
SUMMARY
Background: Posterior tarsal tunnel syndrome is an un-
C arpal and cubital tunnel syndromes are among
the more common peripheral nerve compression
syndromes. Posterior tarsal tunnel syndrome is relatively
common clinical entity which is sometimes misdiagnosed
uncommon, though the literature contains no precise
in patients with pain of the retromalleolar region and the
estimate of its prevalence. In our experience, it is diag-
plantar aspect of the foot. Surgical intervention is
nosed too often. Posterior tarsal tunnel syndrome involves
recommended for correctly diagnosed posterior tarsal
tunnel syndrome. damage to the tibial nerve where it lies under the flexor
retinaculum (laciniate ligament) on the medial side of
Methods: Selective literature review. the ankle. It is to be distinguished from anterior tarsal
Results: Surgical treatment is indicated in the presence of syndrome, in which the deep peroneal nerve is com-
dysesthesias refractory to conservative treatment or of pressed under the extensor retinaculum on the dorsum
neurological deficits. If a neural tumor or tarsal tunnel of the foot. Pollock and Davis described posttraumatic
ganglion is suspected, diagnostic imaging (MRI, neuro- compression of the tibial nerve as early as 1933 (1). In
sonography) should precede surgery. Division of the flexor 1960, Kopell and Thompson described the clinical
retinaculum (ligamentum laciniatum) in the tarsal tunnel manifestations of tarsal tunnel syndrome (2). Keck coined
must always include distal decompression of the end the expression "tarsal tunnel syndrome" in his case report
branches of the tibial nerve posterior to the fascia of the of 1962 (3). Keck thought that the condition was under-
abductor hallucis muscle. Only extensive exposure of the diagnosed and frequently misdiagnosed as plantar fasci-
nerve guarantees adequate release. itis.
Conclusion: Accurate diagnosis requires the evaluation of Keck and Lam independently recommended consid-
relevant clinical, neurological, and neurophysiological ering this type of compression syndrome in the differen-
findings along with the careful consideration of other tial diagnosis whenever a patient complains of pain and
possible diagnoses. High success rates of 44% to 91% are paresthesia in the sole of the foot (3, 4).
reported after operative treatment. The results are better in In this article, we will present the current state of the
idiopathic than in posttraumatic cases. If surgery fails, diagnostic assessment of posterior tarsal tunnel syndrome
re-operation is indicated only in patients with inadequate and its treatment on the basis of a selective review of the
release. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2008; 105(45): 776–81 literature and our own extensive experience.
DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2008.0776
Key words: compression syndrome, tibial nerve, diagnosis, Anatomy
treatment concept, nerve lesion At the level of the thigh, the tibial nerve is the medial
component of the sciatic nerve. The tibial nerve comes
to the surface at the level of the medial side of the ankle.
Together with the posterior tibial artery and vein, it enters
the tarsal tunnel between the medial malleolus and the
Achilles tendon.
This tunnel is an osteofibrous canal covered by the
flexor retinaculum, which extends like a fan from the
medial malleolus to the transverse septa of the crural
fascia. The distal portion of this ligament is stronger
than its proximal portion.
Usually, the tibial nerve divides within the tarsal tunnel
into its terminal branches, the medial and lateral plantar
nerves. These run below the fascia of the abductor hallucis
muscle into two further tunnels that are located on the
medial side of the foot.
These branches supply sensory innervation to the
Neurochirurgische Klinik der Universität Ulm, Bezirkskrankenhaus Günzburg:
Prof. Dr. med. Antoniadis plantar forefoot as far as the toes and motor innervation
Neurologische Klinik mit klinischer Neurophysiologie Klinikum Augsburg: Dr. to the muscles of the sole of the foot, particularly the toe
med. Scheglmann flexors.
Figure 1:
(a) A woman with BOX
type 2 neurofibro-
matosis and a plexi- Differential diagnosis
form neurofibroma
of the tibial nerve in
> Polyneuropathy
the posterior tarsal > L5 and S1 nerve root syndromes
tunnel. Partial
division of the flexor > Morton's metatarsalgia
ligament (arrow) > Compartment syndrome of the deep flexor compartment
(b) Tibial nerve
release by complete > Calcaneal spur, arthrosis, inflammatory changes of the
splitting of the fasciae and ligaments
flexor retinaculum
> Ischemia
(arrow) prior to a
tumor resection.
Pathogenesis
The cause of TTS is nerve compression in the tarsal tun-
nel. This can arise on an idiopathic or posttraumatic
b basis; it can also be produced by a mass lesion.
Patients often (17% to 43%) have a prior history of
trauma, e.g., fractures near the ankle or ankle sprains
Clinical features with medial ligamentous injuries. Arthrosis, tenosyno-
The initial and most characteristic manifestation of tarsal vitis, and rheumatoid arthritis are also said to cause as
tunnel syndrome (TTS) is irritation of the peripheral many as 10% of all cases. Tumors such as tibial nerve
nerve, i.e., paresthesia or burning sensation in the terri- schwannoma at the level of the tarsal tunnel (figures 1a
tory of the distal branches of the tibial nerve. These and 1b) are rare, as are ganglia (up to 8%); convoluted
medial and lateral plantar nerves, and also the calcaneal vessels have been described somewhat more frequently
branch, which supplies sensory innervation to the heel, (up to 17%) (8).
may be affected in isolation. If only one plantar nerve is Hypertrophic or accessory muscles (e.g., the abductor
affected, the problem is a so-called distal tarsal tunnel hallucis) and tendons (e.g., the flexor digitorum longus
syndrome. tendon) may impinge on the tarsal tunnel and compress
Protracted walking or standing often exacerbates the the nerve.
symptoms. Dysesthesia arising during the night can also Diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, gout, mucopoly-
disturb the patient's sleep. Pressure over the course of saccharidoses, and (very rarely) hyperlipidemia have also
the nerve on the medial side of the ankle is said to be been described as precipitating causes (5, 6, 8).
painful in 60% to 100% of the affected patients and to Acute tarsal tunnel syndrome is often encountered after
intensify the paresthesia. A Hoffmann-Tinel sign (elec- marathon races as an acute effect of unusual mechanical
trical paresthesia on percussion of the nerve) can be stress.
elicited in more than half of the affected patients. The In recent years, we have observed an increasing num-
symptoms can also be exacerbated by forced eversion ber of cases of nerve compression arising after surgical
and dorsiflexion of the foot. Rarely, the pain radiates into procedures because of local swelling, as well as iatrogenic
the thigh as well. If the clinical picture is dominated by injuries of the tibial nerve and its branches.
the pain of nerve irritation without any consistently
detectable neurological deficit, one may speak of the Differential diagnosis
"algetic form" of tarsal tunnel syndrome. Paresthesia of the forefoot is a very common symptom
With increasing degrees of damage to the nerve, con- that usually appears bilaterally as the result of polyneuro-
sistently detectable neurological deficits are produced pathy. The possibility of ischemia must also be consid-
beyond the subjective irritative phenomena. The ered. Proximally located nerve lesions, such as radiculo-
demonstrable sensory loss must be restricted to the terri- pathy or plexopathy, should also be included in the
tory of the affected nerves. Weakness is a late phenome- differential diagnosis, though they are usually easy to
non, appearing first in the toe abductors and afterward distinguish from peripheral nerve lesions on the basis of
Neurophysiological testing
The presence of an isolated tibial nerve lesion in the tarsal
tunnel is confirmed by measurement of the sensory and
motor nerve conduction velocity (NCV).
The most sensitive method, which is also the most
technically demanding, is measurement of the sensory
conduction velocity of the medial and lateral plantar
nerves. This is best done by recording from the tibial positive findings to be sought are prolonged distal motor
nerve just above the flexor retinaculum and stimulating latencies and low-amplitude summed motor potentials.
the nerves at the vault of the foot. When surface electrodes Sometimes a conduction block can be demonstrated
are used, the responses to stimulation are of low ampli- with stimulation proximal and distal to the flexor
tude and not always measurable in the presence of ankle retinaculum. Significant differences between the two
edema, sometimes not even on the healthy side. If sides should be sought in motor neurography, just as in
necessary, recordings can be performed through needle sensory neurography (figure 2).
electrodes. A number of authors advocate stimulating The important finding on electromyography (EMG)
the first and fifth toes with ring electrodes. Although this is the demonstration of axonal injury when the EMG is
is, theoretically, a very attractive method, it is difficult to recorded from the distal muscles supplied by the tibial
apply successfully in practice because the responses to nerve. Even in healthy individuals, however, fibrillations
stimulation are of even lower amplitude. Polyneuro- and positive waves are not uncommonly found in these
pathies are not uncommon in advanced age, and the muscles, as has been reported in the literature. It follows
progressively smaller nerve action potentials of old age that this finding, too, can only be considered positive
are difficult to assess with the use of inter-individual when there is a significant difference between the two
normed values; thus, recordings should, as a rule, be sides.
performed bilaterally so that the two sides can be com-
pared (9, 10). The determinative findings are: significant Conservative treatment
differences between the NCVs in the affected segment Conservative measures consist of putting the distal
on the two sides of the body, and significant differences part of the lower limb at rest. Local anesthetic or
in amplitude (i.e., a more than 50% difference between corticosteroid infiltrations are recommended mainly
the two sides) in measurements made with surface elec- to treat the "algetic form" of tarsal tunnel syndrome.
trodes. Additional measurements on unaffected nerves Injections of corticosteroids into the tarsal tunnel
should also be obtained and compared. should be performed with utmost caution, however,
Measurement of the motor NCV through recording of and the authors advise against multiple injections
the distal motor latency at the abductor hallucis brevis because of their increased risk and no more than
muscle is a much easier, but less sensitive method. The moderate chances of success.
Figure 3: from the lower third of the calf down to deep within the
Long incision distal medial portion of the foot (figure 3). The skin in-
behind the lateral cision is gently curved. The flexor retinaculum may be
medial malleolus of
very broad and must be split in its entire breadth (figure
the right foot
4). The calcaneal branches must be preserved; their sites
of origin are highly variable.
The medial and lateral plantar nerves must also be de-
of crutches to take the weight off the foot that has been
operated on. The sutures must remain in place for 10 to
12 days.
Complications
New neurological deficits can arise as a complication in
patients with any type of neuropathy, which makes the
nerves particularly vulnerable. Complex regional pain
syndrome (CRPS) is a rare sequela of surgery; lesions of
the calcaneal branches can produce causalgia in the
When there is an underlying condition, such as heel.
rheumatoid arthritis or hypothyroidism, treating this Postoperative complications include impaired wound
condition is, of course, an important component of healing, infection, and keloid formation (12).
therapy. If the patient's symptoms persist and the neurological
No evidence-based data on conservative treatment deficits remain unchanged, then the diagnosis may need
are yet available in the literature. to be re-evaluated neurologically, or else the possibility
Shoe inserts are often recommended, but these are that the tibial nerve and its branches have not been de-
said to worsen the symptoms in many cases. If there is compressed over a segment of sufficient length may
any deformity of the foot, orthopedic treatment is neces- need to be considered. Multiple operations can produce
sary. severe iatrogenic complications.
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Corresponding author
technique, and functional outcome. Foot Ankle Int 1998; 19: 65–72. Prof. Dr. med. Gregor Antoniadis
16. Pfeiffer WH, Gracchiolo A: Clinical results after tarsal tunnel decom- Neurochirurgische Klinik der Universität Ulm
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Ludwig-Heilmeyer-Str. 2
17. Takakura Y, Kitada C, Sugimoto K, Tanaka Y, Tamal S: Tarsal tunnel 89312 Günzburg, Germany
syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg 1991; 73B: 125–8. gregor.antoniadis@uni-ulm.de