Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING-I
HWRE3171
NATNAEL SITOTA
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
Chapter three
3. Classification and Types of Hydropower
Development
2
Chapter three
3. Classification and Types Of Hydropower Development
Instructional objectives
On completion of this lesson, the students shall learn about:
3.1. Layouts Of Hydropower Plant
3.2. Classification Of Hydropower Development
3.3. Reservoir and Plant Capacity Determination
3.4. Hydropower Development Cycles
3
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
Principal components: of hydropower To provide these functions, the following
components are used:
scheme: A dam/diversion weir
Reservoir
The three basic elements are necessary in
order to generate power from water: An intake mouth
Means of creating head Headrace (tunnel/canal)
A conduit to convey water A forebay/surge chamber
A silt basin
A power stations
A penstock or pressure shaft
Control equipment’s (regulating structures)
(gates, valves)
Power house (turbine and generator)
Draft tube
A channel/tunnel (tailrace)
Channel crossings
Penstock supports and anchors
Switch yard
4
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
Dam: to create head.
Water intake: to take water and convert it to the penstock.
Penstock: to take water with a high velocity to rotate turbines. Water-hummer problem in the
penstock.
Surge tank: to absorb water-hummer pressure.
Powerhouse
Substructure: electrical and mechanical instruments.
Superstructure: the structural elements to protect and house the operating equipment.
Tailrace: the channel at the downstream of the powerhouse, which receives water from the
turbines.
Transformers and transmission lines: to transmit electricity to consumers.
5
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
6
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
7
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
Powerhouse
Anchor
Penstock
Penstock
Support
8
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
Low head (run of the river only) Medium head (stored only)
9
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
Although the above components are common for all hydropower development schemes; the
general arrangement are slightly different
The arrangement of high and medium head power plants is more or less similar.
The low head power plants, which are usually of run-of power type schemes, have a slightly
different arrangement
Various possibilities exist for the general layout of hydro scheme.
The layout of hydropower scheme should be done in order to have optimum layout and which
also gives minimum cost for implementation, maintenance and operation.
A decision must be made with regards to the relative lengths of the penstock and
channel/tunnel, and how to route them.
10
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
In High and medium head development, usually, there could be two types of power scheme
layout:
Concentrated fall schemes
Diversion schemes
In the concentrated fall type projects, the powerhouse would be built at the toe of a concrete
gravity dam.
The water is conveyed to the turbines via penstocks laid under, or bypassing, the
dam.
It consists of a long system of water conduits.
In the diversion type of layout, the diversion could be using a canal and a penstock or a tunnel
and a penstock. The former is usually called the Open Flow Diversion System and the latter
Pressure Diversion System.
11
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
System Layout: channel and penstock option
12
3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
Mid length penstock Long Penstock following river
13
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Hydropower plants exhibits a great deal of variety. Almost every hydropower project has some
special features uncommon with other projects of the same type
Hydropower plants could be classified on the basis of:
The hydraulic features of the plant
Purpose of development
Operation in meeting the demand(operating features)
Based on storage and pondage
Location & topographical features
Plant Capacity
Operating head
Construction Features(layout)
A complete understanding of the type requires information under all such categories. All the
above classification basis are not mutually exclusive.
14
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on hydraulic features: The basic hydraulic principles governs the type
Conventional Hydro-plants
Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the river.
Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
Pumped storage plants
Use the concept of recycling the same water.
Water is pumped back into the reservoir when there are periods of low power demand.
Normally used with areas with a shortage of water
It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is pumped back for future use.
A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a system which increases the load factor
and provides additional capacity to meet the peak load.
It has a function of indirect energy storage
15
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Unconventional Hydro-plants
Tidal power plant
Use the tidal energy of the sea water.
Very few have been constructed due to structural
complication.
Essentially work on the principle that there is
arise in sea water during high tide period and a
fall during the ebb period
Wave power plant
16
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on purpose
Single-purpose developments: The water is used only for the purpose of producing electricity.
Multipurpose developments: Hydropower production is just one of many purposes for which the
water resources are used. Other uses might include, for example, irrigation, flood control, navigation,
municipal, and industrial water supply.
Classification based on actual operation in meeting demand ( Basis of operation)
Isolated plant (Off-grid) (SCS): operating independently
Mini and small hydropower scheme serving small community
Interconnected in to grids (ICS): Plant operating as part of the interconnected grid system.
In this system, a power station may be distinguished as a base load plant or peak load plant.
Hydropower plants are best suited as peak load plants, because
hydropower plants can start relatively quickly and can thus accept load quickly.
17
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on basis of use
Uses to meet the demand for electrical power
Base-load developments: When the energy from a hydropower plant is used to meet all or part
of The sustained and essentially constant portion of the electrical load or firm power
requirements, it is called a base-load plant. Energy available essentially at all times is referred to
as firm power.
Peak-load development: Peak demands for electric power occur daily, weekly, and seasonally.
Plants in which the electrical production capacity is relatively high and the volume of water
discharged through the units can be changed readily are used to meet peak demands. Storage of
the water supply is necessary .
18
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on basis of use
19
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on storage and pondage
Storage becomes necessary when the flow is uneven over a year.
Construction of a dam usually implies a much more efficient and controlled use of the available
water.
Without storage, the plant uses only the natural flow as best as it can.
In such cases, only a mini-reservoir or a Pondage which takes care of day-to-day fluctuations
may be necessary.
20
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on location and topography
Normally plants in hilly areas are always associated with dams;
Whereas plants in plain areas may have only weirs for the main structure.
For plants situated far in the interior and away from load centers the transmission costs are
relatively more.
Thus the knowledge about the location and topography of a plant helps us to appreciate these
points.
21
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on plant capacity
Classification based on plant capacity changes with time and according to standards and codes of a
country.
According to Mossonyi Classify hydropower plants according to
◦ Midget (Micro) plant up to 100 KW mossonyi and present day classification.
◦ Low (Mini) capacity < 1000KW
◦ Medium capacity < 10,000KW
◦ High capacity > 10,000KW
According to Present day classification (literatures)
◦ Micro hydropower < 5 MW
◦ Medium plant 5 to 100 MW
◦ High Capacity 101 to 1,000 MW
◦ Super plant above 1,000 MW
What is the types of Ethiopia’s Hydropower?
22
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on operating head
While any of the above classifications cold be used to describe a power plant the most popular &
convenient classification is the one based on head operating on the turbine.
On this basis:
Low head plants < 15m
Medium head plants 15-50m
High head plants 50-250m
Very high head plants > 250m
23
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
In this category hydropower development could be classified based on the dominant construction
features of the plant
Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
Valley dam plants (Medium to high head plants)
Diversion Canal Plants
High head plants
Pumped storage plants
24
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
The normal flow of the river is not materially distributed due to the construction of the plant
They have small ponds to provide the necessary pondage in order to balance day-to-day
fluctuation (there is no storage)
Such plants neither have a significant storage nor do they have a diversion of the water away
from the main channel
A weir or barrage is built across a river & the low head created is used to generate power.
It also acts as a control spilling device (Spillway).
The power house is normally in the main course of the river
Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high discharge, flat slope, little sediment and
stable reach of a river.
25
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
26
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
Water enters the power house through an intake structure incorporating some or all of the
following.
Entrance flume separated by piers and walls for each machine unit.
The appurtenances of the entrance structure are the sill, fine rack or screen and gate
Turbine chamber: scroll case with turbine
Concrete or steel draft tube
Power house building
Additional structures:
Deflector or skimmer walls, Fore bay, service bridge, river training walls, Sediment trap and
flushing sluices, where necessary
27
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
Depending on different arrangements, mosonyi proposed the following groupings of the run-of-
river plants:
These groupings are mainly on the basis of constructional arrangements of the power house with
the weir.
Block power plants
Twin power plant
Pier-head power plant
submersible power plants
a) Block power plant b) Twin block plant c)Island plant d) pier head plant e) Submersible
plant
28
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Valley dam plants (low to medium head plants)
The dominant feature is the dam which creates the required storage (to balance seasonal fluctuation)
and necessary head for the power house.
Water stored during high-flow periods to augment the water available during the low-flow periods, thus
supplying the demand for energy in a more efficient manner.
Water flows through the penstock embedded in the dam & diverted into a cannel/tunnel system to
deliver flow enters to the power house.
29
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Valley dam plants (low to medium head plants)
Sometimes the power house is not immediately at the toe of the dam but at some distance downstream
( eg. the Koka power plant).
This arrangement is more expensive than the more general dam-and power house together arrangement (due
to longer conveyance with consequent losses) and is used only when it offers some special advantages such as
extra head due to advantageous topographical conditions.
Like achieving extra head(eg. melka wakena HP)
The arrangement however, needs longer conveyances system with consequent losses.
There are different arrangements of the power house location vis-a-visa spillway location. If the spillway is in
the central portion of the dam, then the power house may be located on one of the banks or as twin power
house, one on each bank.
30
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Valley dam plants (low to medium head plants)
The dam with its appurtenance structures like spillway, energy dissipation arrangements etc.
The penstock conveying water to the turbine with inlet valve & anchorage.
31
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Valley dam plants (low to medium head plants)
32
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Valley dam plants (low to medium head plants)
33
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Valley dam plants (low to medium head plants)
34
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development
The distinguishing feature is the presence of power canal or tunnel that diverts the water from the
main stream channel.
The power house is provided at suitable location along the stretch of the canal
35
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development
The water often flowing through the turbine is brought back to the main stream very shortly through
tailrace tunnel or channel.
Diversion canal plants are generally low head or medium head plants.
They don't have storage reservoir.
Short pondage requirement is met through a pool called forebay located just u/s of the power house, in
the case of diversion canals and by means of a surge tank in case of diversion tunnel
36
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development
37
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: Ways of developing head
The head may be made available due to the flatter bed slopes of power canal(as compared with the
river)
Beside, due to the river meanders the length of the river between two points may be much greater
as compared to that of the relatively straight reach of the channel.
If the river has a natural fall, diverting the water from u/s side of the fall & locating the power
house at the d/s side of the fall provide the required head (e.g. Tis Abay-II HP).
In inter-basin diversion, water may be diverted from a higher level river to a lower river through a
diversion canal to the power house located at the lower river.
The above discussions make it clear that diversion power plants are most suitable on rivers either
of steep slopes or meandering reaches.
Further, due to economic considerations discharges of such plants have to be moderate.
Run-of-river plants almost invariability, would be more economical for large discharge
development.
38
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: Main Structures
Diversion weir with its appurtenant structures.
Diversion canal intake with its ancillary works such as sill, trash rack, skimmer wall sluices, settling
basin. De-silting canal and silt exclusion arrangement is needed in some sediment laden streams
Bridges and culverts of the canal.
Forebay & its appurtenant structures
39
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant
The features of such a plant is development of high head resulting from the diversion of water,
which could be achieved by:
Diverting the river water through a systems of canals and tunnels to a downstream point of
the same river.
Diverting the water through canals and tunnels to a point on another river which is at much
lower level.
There may be two options concerning storage situation
A diversion weir to create Pondage ( and no storage). Here like run-off-plant the power
production is governed by the natural flow in the river.
Storage may be provided on the main river at the point of diversion. (This second option
is advantageous since the fluctuation in reservoir level does not materially affect the head and
the power output can be adjusted by the controlled flow release from the reservoir.
Eg. Fincha & Melka Wakana power plants
40
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant,
When storage provided on the main river at the point of diversion
This advantage is not available to the valley dam plant in which the power house is built on
the downstream face of the dam.
Under such cases, a change in reservoir level also changes the head proportionately.
If the length of the pressure tunnel is considerable, a surge tank may be provided upstream
of the power station, which may smoothen the fluctuation of flow demand.
This purpose was served in the canal plants by the forebay.
Canals follow the contours of the terrain and thus may not have the shortest route from the intake
to the power house.
Tunnels, however, can make through their way by the shortest distance and thus create enormous
heads apart from enabling to divert water of one basin to other
41
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant main component
Storage or diversion weir with appurtenant structures
The canal/tunnel
Head race either open cut or tunnels with its structures
Penstock
Forebay or surge tank
Power house
Tailrace
High head diversion canal plants are more or less similar to the low head diversion canal plants.
The main point of difference is, however, the elaborate conveyance system for the high head
plants(diversion tunnel plants)
42
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant main component
In the diversion tunnel type plant:
The dam replaces a diversion weir
Tunnels are used for head race
Reservoir intake is used instead of canal intake and
A surge tank is employed in place of forebay
43
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: High diversion head plant main component
44
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Diversion and canal type development: High diversion head plant main component
45
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
Pumped storage plants are special types of power plants which work as ordinary conventional
hydropower stations for part of the time.
Hydropower schemes of the pumped storage type are those which utilize the flow of water from
a reservoir at higher potential (head-water pond) to one at lower potential (tail water pond)
Pumped storage plant is suitable where:
The natural annual run-off is insufficient to justify a conventional hydroelectric installation
It is possible to have reservoir at head & tail water locations.
This kind of plant generates energy for peak load, & at off peak period water is pumped
back for future use.
During off peak periods excess power available from some other plants in the system is
used in pumping back water from the lower reservoir
46
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
During times of peak load, water is drawn from the headwater pond to run the reversible turbine-
pump units in the turbine mode. The water released gets collected in the tail water pond.
During off-peak hours, the reversible units are supplied with the excess electricity available in
the power grid which then pumps part of the water of the tail-water pond back into the head-
water reservoir.
Various arrangements are possible for higher and lower reservoirs:
Both reservoirs in a single river
Two reservoirs on two separate rivers close to each other and flowing at different
elevations
Higher reservoir an artificially constructed pool and the lower reservoir on natural river
The lower reservoir in a natural lake while the higher is artificial
47
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
48
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
49
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
50
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
Pumped storage hydropower development are energy-storing systems.
Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher one
Utilizing low-cost “dump” power produced during periods of low demand by power plants
Which can be operated economically at a constant load
In this system more energy is expended in pumping than can be produced by the turbines.
The relative monetary value of “peak” power compared to “dump” power makes the sysstem
economically feasible
Frequently. Peak power is worth at least three times as much as dump power.
51
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
52
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Application Situation of pumped storage power plant.
Short term peaking
Weekly peaking
Seasonal peaking
Short term peaking
This involves turbine operating fro a few hours each day
To meet daily peaks
The recovery pumping during the early morning hours when energy loads are lowest and
cheap dump power is available.
53
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
Weekly peaking
This requires operating turbines in generating mode to meet several peak loads during the workweek.
Refilling the upper reservoir to a degree each day but gradually drawing down the upper reservoir during
the week.
Major recovery pumping during the weekend when loads are low
This requires relatively large reservoirs.
Seasonal peaking
Seasonal peaking would require very large upper reservoir storage
To provide longer generator operating during seasonal peaks
The recovery pumping would take large blocks of dump power.
54
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant
55
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Another ways of classifying pump storage plants:
Pure pumped storage plant: is a closed cycle plant with the volume of water flowing to the
lower reservoir being equal to the volume pumped to the higher reservoir in one cycle of
operation.
In such a system, same water is circulated again and again and thus except for make-up
quantity of water for seepage and evaporation losses, the plant does not need any fresh
water flow.
Mixed pumped storage plant: the total generation in one cycle is greater than the total pumping
during that period. In mixed type of plants, the higher reservoir has to be necessarily on a natural
stream so as to provide greater flow during generation.
56
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Arrangement of units
Complete pump and motor units and separate but complete turbine and generator units, involving
four machines.
Multistage pump and turbine with a common motor/generator, involving three machines. In this case
Pump and turbine were directly coupled to the generator/motor and generator and turbine are permanently
locked together.
In this case, when the turbine runs, the unit operates as a generator and when the pump is operated the
same unit operates as a motor
A single-stage pump/turbine and a common motor/generator involving two machines in which units
have reversible directions for operation. This arrangement is called reversible pump-turbine
installation.
The modern trend is to use only a two-unit installation namely, a generator which operates as a motor
coupled to a turbine which in turn also operates as a pump when rotating in reverse direction
57
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Planning and selection of site.
Two important parameter in planning for pumped/storage hydropower development are:
Head
Discharge to be utilized in sizing the plant
Head:-
It is evident that the head will vary as the reservoirs are drawn down
Sites with heads less than 1000ft are not likely to be economical for pure pumped/ storage
hydropower plant.
Reservoir costs can be minimized by selecting a site with a high head.
Hydraulic capacity is also inversely proportional to head
Penstock diameter and penstock costs can also be minimized by maximizing head.
For a given plant capcity, powerhouse costs are lower for high head plants.
58
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Planning and selection of site.
Two important parameter in planning for pumped/storage hydropower development are:
Head
Discharge to be utilized in sizing the plant
Head:-
This is because the units run at higher speeds and high speed machines are smaller than low –speed
machines.
Because smaller water volumes are required at high head plants, reservoir drawdowns are usually
smaller at both reservoirs.
Analysis must be made for the length of time the units will operate
To determine the volume of water that must be stored in an upper reservoir
59
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Planning and selection of site.
The figure presents a graph that is useful in determining the live storage required.
Reservoir storage
required vs head for
1000Mw plant with
14 hours of storage.
60
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Efficiency of pumped storage plants.
It is customary to state that for every 3 kW input, you may expect 2 kW output in pumped storage
plants.
The normally attainable overall plant efficiency is around 70%.
It should be worked out as below, for closed cycle operation:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝐸𝑔 )
𝜂0 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝐸𝑝 )
Now if Q is the discharge and H is the gross head, Then
γ𝑄(𝐻 − 𝑓 )
𝑔= ∗ 0.736 ∗ ηt
75
Where ηt = the overall efficiency of generation (including turbine, generator and transformer
efficiency). and
61
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Efficiency of pumped storage plants.
𝐸𝑔 (𝐻 − 𝑓 )
𝜂0 = = ∗ 𝜂𝑡 ∗ 𝜂𝑝
𝐸𝑝 (𝐻 + 𝑓 )
Where ηp = overall efficiency of pumping operation. Then,
(1−𝑘)
hf = kH, then 𝜂0 = ∗ 𝜂𝑡 ∗ 𝜂𝑝
(1+𝑘)
Average values of ηt, ηp, and k are respectively 0.88, 0.85, and 0.02 to 0.03. With these values, the
overall efficiency comes out to be 72%.
62
3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
Pumped storage power plant: Example.
A closed cycle pumping-storage plant with a gross head of 350m, has a head race tunnel 4m
diameter and 700m long. The power house discharges directly into the lower reservoir. The flow
velocity is 6.5m/s and the friction factor f = 0.018. if the overall efficiencies of the pumping and
generation are 85% and 88%, respectively, estimate the plant efficiency.
63
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity
A rivers does not carry the same quantity of water through
the year.
In general, we observe high flow in summer and low flow
in winter and on the other hand, the water demand is high in
winter and low in summer.
Therefore, the regulation of the stream flow is required to
meet the demands.
A water supply, irrigation, or hydropower project
drawing water directly from a river may, therefore, be
unable to satisfy the demands of it consumes during low
flows.
Reservoirs are man made structures that created to store
water during times of excess flow and supply if from
storage when the demand exceeds the inflow.
Reservoir capacity is depend on the inflow & demand
64
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Storage zones 1. Active storage.
2. Inactive storage.
3. Live storage.
4. Dead storage.
5. Flood storage.
6. Reservoir capacity: gross capacity of reservoir.
7. Retention water level; top water level; normal top
water level; full supply level; normal water level.
8. Flood surcharge; surcharge
9. Maximum water level; top of joint use (part of
reservoir capacity including both surcharge and
the empty part of active storage, assigned to flood
control or conservation depending on the time of
year.
10. Minim operation level; top of inactive storage
11. Freeboard
65
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Storage zones
Reservoir capacity has to be adjusted to account for the dead storage, evaporation losses and carry
over storage.
66
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity
The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following methods:
Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method)
Sequent Peak Analysis
Operation Study
Other Approaches (Stochastic Methods and Optimization Analysis etc…)
67
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
One of the most widely used methods.
Assumptions:
Demand is constant, and
The year repeats itself continuously.
68
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
If the flow is the daily or monthly discharge then the area under the curve up to a certain time will be
the volume of runoff for that period.
The slope of the mass curve at a certain time gives the discharge at that time on the hydrograph
69
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
Required storage capacity of the reservoir is the vertical difference a+b.
70
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
Determination of capacity for a known yield.
1. The tangents, which are parallel to the
demand line, are plotted at the high points
(D&E).
2. The maximum departures from the tangents
to the following low points of the mass curve
(F & G) determine the necessary storage
amounts V 1 andV2.
3. The largest one of the volumes will give the
required capacity of the reservoir.
The reservoir would be full at points D, D’, E, & E’. The reservoir would be empty at points F & G.
71
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
Determination of capacity for a known capacity.
1. The value V of known reservoir capacity is
placed vertically in all the low points in the
mass curve and tangents are drawn to the
previous high points.
2. The slope of these tangents (D1 & D2)
indicate the yields that can be supplied for
those critical periods with this given capacity.
3. The smallest one of the yields can be supplied
all the time.
The plotted tangents must cut the mass curve when extended forward, as it is the case here with
points C’ and E’. Otherwise, the reservoir will not refill.
72
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
The mass curve gives results if ΣD < ΣS during the period of record.
The graphical approach is quite satisfactory if the reservoir releases are constant during the
period of analysis.
When reservoir releases vary, the sequent-peak analysis is recommended.
73
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Sequent peak analysis:
Sequent Peak Analysis is more suitable when the data of long observation periods or long generated
data are used, or when the demand is not constant.
1. Differences between inflows (S) and demands (D) are
calculated and their summations obtained.
2. Σ(S-D) values are plotted against time as
shown in the figure.
3. On this plot the first peak value and next larger peak
(sequent peak) are determined.
4. The storage required between these two points is the
difference between the first peak and the lowest point
in this period.
5. This process is repeated for all the peaks in the record
period as shown in the figure also. The maximum of
the storage values is the required capacity.
74
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Sequent peak analysis:
If the record period or generated data sequence is very long, the graphical solution may be time
consuming
In that case and analytical solution procedure may be applied for the analysis and it can be solved
easily using a computer
In this way, the required storage Vt at the end of a period t can be expressed as:-
𝐷 − 𝑆𝑡 + 𝑉𝑡−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑡
0 𝑂𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
At the beginning of the analysis, initially Vt-1 is set to zero and calculations continue to find Vt
values for up to twice the length of the record period.
The maximum of all the calculated values of Vt is the required storage capacity.
75
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Example:
Monthly inflows at proposed reservoir site for a drought period of 15 months are given along with
targeted demands in table below. Compute the storage required by plotting sequent peak algorithm.
Month Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
Rifer inflows
250 350 400 200 150 150 100 50 150 300 400 450 150 200 450
(Mm3)
Targetd deman
150 150 200 250 350 400 250 200 150 150 100 250 350 300 100
(Mm3)
76
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Operational study:
The reservoir storage is considered as adequate when the reservoir can supply all types of demands
under possible losses like seepage and evaporation.
In order to increase the operational performance of a reservoir, the evaporation and seepage must be
controlled.
The operation of a storage reservoir is also governed by the inflow.
Rule curves indicating temporal storage requirements according to local conditions and project
demands need to be used for effective operation purposes.
77
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Operational study:
Rules:
During normal periods of river flow, the reservoir will be maintained at the normal pool level.
If extremely high flows are expected, the normal pool level can be drawn to such an elevation
that the maximum expected flood flow will be sufficient to restore the active storage to its
maximum level.
The operation study is based on the solution of the continuity equation.
𝑑𝑣
=𝐼−𝑂 Where dv: differential storage during time dt
𝑑𝑡
I: instantaneous total inflow
O: instantaneous total outflow
78
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Operational study:
Rules:
Since the information concerned the time variation of inflow and outflow is normally limited,
then long term (e.g. one month) averaged quantities of inflow and outflow are considered in
practice:
∆𝑉
=𝐼−𝑂 Where Δv: the change in storage during time interval Δt
∆𝑡
I: the average inflow (runoff, precipitation etc…)during ∆t
O : the average outflow (evaporation, seepage, controlled
outflows, mandatory releases, uncontrolled spills etc…)during ∆t
79
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Operational study:
In General:
1. Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site during the critical dry period. Generally, the
monthly inflow rates are required. However, for very large reservoirs, the annual inflow rates
may be used.
2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water rights or to honor the
agreement between the states or the cities.
3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir during the month.
4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the reservoir.
5. Find out the demand during various months.
80
3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
Reservoir capacity: Operational study:
In General:
6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:
Adjusted inflow = Stream Inflow + Ppt – Evap’n – d/s Discharge
6. Compute the storage capacity for each month.
Storage required = Adjusted inflow – Demand
6. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the storages required found in
Step 7.
81
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Any water resource program of which a hydropower scheme may form part has environmental and
social impacts, which must be taken into consideration at the initial planning stage.
Also, legal and political implications must be carefully considered.
The latest technological advancements in hydroelectric power generation permit the selection of proper
designs incorporating environmental and social requirements.
Principal parameters necessary in making hydro- power studies are water discharge (Q) and hydraulic
head (H).
The measurement and analyses of these parameters are primarily hydrologic problems.
Good contour maps may be sufficient to determine the value for the head.
82
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Assessment of hydropower resources
Relevance of surveys, data assessment and analyses to the success of the project.
Required data and field survey.
Key element: hydrological data. Data gathering, analyses, relevance for project.
Mitigating project risks through sound assessment and analysis.
Key Challenge: (Small) hydro power development involves a number of risks which deter developers
and investors. Key challenges(risks):-
Hydrological Risks
Construction Risk
Risk of Design Flaws
Social and Environmental risk
Political Risk
83
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Site-surveying and data collection:
Should be conducted if an initial technical projects assessment(desk-study) comes to the
conclusion that a site is potentially attractive.
Should be conducted, if there is a realistic chance that a potential –project can be funded and
implemented (Particularly for rural electrification projects: Avoid raising expectations among local
population that can not possibly be fulfilled later!)
Conducted during times with potentially lowest stream flow
Required data and filed survey:
Hydrological Analysis Social and environmental studies
FDC(project optimization and Identify demand (off-grid electrification)
design flow) To identify potential risk/ conflicts and
Flood Flows(Technical safety of means for mitigation
Project Components) Feasibility to fulfill obligation of
legislation, donors, lenders
84
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Site-surveying and data collection:
Required data and filed survey:
Geological Analysis Topo-graphical mapping
Stability of structures( depend on Head availability
types and dimension of structure) Optimum position and alignment of structures
Distance for transmission
Accessibility
85
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Site-surveying and data collection:
Very critical information during project planning and optimization are the available flow and head.
𝑃𝑒𝑙 = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑄𝑑 ∗ 𝐻𝑛 ∗ 𝜂
86
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Suitable methods for head measurements and topographic survey:
Site reconnaissance Pre-feasibility and feasibility
Altimeter Theodolite, total station
Hypsometer. Stereoscopic aerials, triangulation and control point survey
Detailed design Only micro hydro
Additional topographic survey of Clinometer/hypsometer and
specific areas, if required compass
87
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
Project development steps:
Desk-study
Initial site assessment/reconnaissance
Pre-feasibility study
Feasibility study
Detailed engineering design and tender document
Implementation(tendering, contracting, construction, testing, commissioning, operation and
maintenance)
Suitable methods for head measurement and topographic survey
88
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out:
Resources studies:
Preparation/updating of resources inventories
Preparation/updating of resources rankings
Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies
Pre-feasibility studies
Feasibility studies
Definite plan or design studies
89
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Resources studies:
The main purpose of resource inventory investigation is to identify, register and catalogue the
hydropower resource existing in a river basins.
Flow data and data on topography is sufficient to establish the production and generating capability
of a site.
The identified project sites are ranked according to size, cost, electric demand, etc.
Preparation of resources inventories and their updating is a continuous process and should not be
stopped at any time.
90
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies
The details and data requirements of these studies are regional in nature.
Accuracy of these data as a requirement is less.
Carried out for specific purpose such as: to establish the available potential in a district.
They are concerned with project selection from inventories of resources.
The main objectives may be such as:
Find potential energy sources and Estimate energy available in a stream
Assessment of demand or define electric power need.
Selection of candidate projects from the resources inventories which will meet the electric power demand.
Investigation of candidate projects & project alternatives to the best technical level.
Technical ranking of candidate projects should be prepared and well recorded.
Estimation of preliminary cost and implementation schedule
91
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies:
Selection of a suitable project from the list of investigated candidate projects.
May not be site specific.
Main activity to be done:
Data collection
Field work and.
Office studies.
Final reconnaissance report.
92
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies: Main activity to be done:
Data collection: Office study:
Infrastructure information Power demand forecast
Power market and demand forecast Flow regulation
Hydrology Head
Topography Environmental constraints
Geology and geo technical engineering
Environmental studies
Socio-economic set up
Report:
Any reconnaissance report must conclude with a statement on the viability and sustainability of the
project under consideration.
Data requirement for feasibility study should be indicated
93
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies: Main activity to be done:
Field work: the following issues should be recorded properly;
Terrain features such as location and placement of structures
Infrastructures such as access to the project, transmission lines,
Settlement and resettlement issue
Availability of construction material
Environmental issues such as diversion of flow from one catchment to the
other, deforestation, etc.
Multipurpose uses
Diversion of flow during construction of Headwork and/or coffer dams
Incase of reservoir and tunnel projects special attention shall be given to the geological and geo technical
properties.
Appraisal of discharge available
94
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies: Main activity to be done:
Field work: the following issues should be recorded properly;
Study of existing and future water uses like drinking, irrigation, etc.
Verification of estimated head
Powerhouse type, location and equipment
95
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary design):
In this study one or more project alternatives are proposed and studied before selection.
The main purpose of pre-feasibility is to:
Establish demand for the project.
Formulate a plan for developing this project
Assess if the project is technically, economically and environmentally acceptable
Make recommendation for future action
96
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary design):
The following aspects are to be investigated during pre-feasibility study:
1. Hydrology study:
Source, extent, amount, occurrence and variability of water.
Present, past and future needs of water
Include opportunities for control and development of water.
Quality of water in terms of its physical and chemical properties
Sediment quality and quantity
Existing water rights should be recognized for each and every stakeholder.
2. Power studies: considers a balance b/n power supply & demand.
3. Layout Planning: a comprehensive layout plan will be prepared and should be supplemented with
sufficient number of drawings, which will be used for preparation of the bill of quantities.
97
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary design):
The following aspects are to be investigated during pre-feasibility study:
3. Layout Planning: a comprehensive layout plan will be prepared and should be supplemented with
sufficient number of drawings, which will be used for preparation of the bill of quantities.
4. Geology and foundation engineering
5. Seismic studies
6. Environmental studies
7. Estimation of cost
8. Economic and financial studies
9. Future investigation plan
10.Pre-feasibility report: A clear statement should be made in respect of technical, economical and
environmental feasibility of the project. It should give clear indication whether or not to study the project
in more detail
98
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Feasibility study:
Feasibility studies are carried out to determine the technical, economical and environmental viability of a
project.
This phase of investigation consists of a detailed study which is directed towards the ultimate permission,
financing, final design and construction of the project under investigation.
Made to formulate a specific project.
Assess the desirability of implementing hydropower development.
The main part of feasibility studies include:
Topography
1. Data collection: Socioeconomic data
Population Geology
Income distribution Seismic
Power market Environment
Tariffs Meteorology
Hydrology Infrastructure
99
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Feasibility study: 3. Layout optimization:
2. Project feasibility estimation: Project layout
Power and energy estimation Sediment & control measures
Power system studies Number and size of units
Water resources studies Auxiliary equipment
Geology and foundation conditions Transmission planning
Seismic studies 5. Project feasibility estimation:
Construction materials Intake structure and sediment excluder
Existing infrastructure Headrace and tailrace
Powerhouse
4. Environmental studies:
Dimensioning and preparation of
Assessment of environmental
specification for hydro turbine and
disturbance and their mitigation
electromechanical equipment
measures
Construction facilities
100
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Feasibility study:
6. Estimation of project cost:
Project cost
Operation, maintenance and replacement
Environmental cost
Construction planning and budgeting
Contingencies and other costs
6. Economical and financial analysis
7. Future steps to be taken for the project implementation
8. Feasibility Report
101
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Definite plan or design studies:
Made before final design and initiation of construction
Required daily or at least monthly flow data
Operational studies
102
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
The studies to be carried out: Implementation phase:
Project implementation is a multidisciplinary job which include:
Approval and appropriation of funds
Pre-qualification and hiring of consultants
Detailed design
Preparation of tender/contract documents
Pre-qualification of contractors
Preparation of construction design and engineering design
Preparation of operation manual
Construction supervision
Construction of civil works
Supply and erection of equipment
Testing, commissioning and commercial operation
Preparation of completion report
103