HP-I, Chapter-Three1, Classification of HP

Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering
HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING-I
HWRE3171
NATNAEL SITOTA
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
Chapter three
3. Classification and Types of Hydropower
Development
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Chapter three
3. Classification and Types Of Hydropower Development
Instructional objectives
On completion of this lesson, the students shall learn about:
3.1. Layouts Of Hydropower Plant
3.2. Classification Of Hydropower Development
3.3. Reservoir and Plant Capacity Determination
3.4. Hydropower Development Cycles
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3.1. Layouts of Hydropower plant
To provide these functions, the following components
Principal components: of are used:
A dam/diversion weir
hydropower scheme: Reservoir
An intake mouth
The three basic elements are necessary
Headrace (tunnel/canal)
in order to generate power from water: A fore bay/surge chamber
 Means of creating head A silt basin
 A conduit to convey water A penstock or pressure shaft
Control equipment’s (regulating structures) (gates,
 A power stations valves)
Power house (turbine and generator)
Draft tube
A channel/tunnel (tailrace)
Channel crossings
Penstock supports and anchors
Switch yard
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Dam: to create head.
Water intake: to take water and convert it to the penstock.
Penstock: to take water with a high velocity to rotate turbines. Water-hummer problem in the
penstock.
Surge tank: to absorb water-hummer pressure.
Powerhouse
Substructure: electrical and mechanical instruments.
Superstructure: the structural elements to protect and house the operating equipment.
Tailrace: the channel at the downstream of the powerhouse, which receives water from the
turbines.
Transformers and transmission lines: to transmit electricity to consumers.
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Powerhouse
Anchor
Penstock
Penstock
Support
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Low head (run of the river only) Medium head (stored only)
High head (run of the river or stored)
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Although the above components are common for all hydropower development schemes; the
general arrangement are slightly different
The arrangement of high and medium head power plants is more or less similar.
The low head power plants, which are usually of run-of power type schemes, have a slightly
different arrangement
Various possibilities exist for the general layout of hydro scheme.
 The layout of hydropower scheme should be done in order to have optimum layout and which
also gives minimum cost for implementation, maintenance and operation.
 A decision must be made with regards to the relative lengths of the penstock and
channel/tunnel, and how to route them.
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In High and medium head development, usually, there could be two types of power scheme
layout:
 Concentrated fall schemes
 Diversion schemes
In the concentrated fall type projects, the powerhouse would be built at the toe of a concrete
gravity dam.
 The water is conveyed to the turbines via penstocks laid under, or bypassing, the
dam.
 It consists of a long system of water conduits.
In the diversion type of layout, the diversion could be using a canal and a penstock or a
tunnel and a penstock. The former is usually called the Open Flow Diversion System and the
latter Pressure Diversion System.
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 System Layout: channel and penstock option
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 Mid length penstock  Long Penstock following river
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3.2. Classification of Hydropower Development
Hydropower plants exhibits a great deal of variety. Almost every hydropower project has some
special features uncommon with other projects of the same type
Hydropower plants could be classified on the basis of:
 The hydraulic features of the plant
 Purpose of development
 Operation in meeting the demand(operating features)
 Based on storage and pondage
 Location & topographical features
 Plant Capacity
 Operating head
 Construction Features(layout)
A complete understanding of the type requires information under all such categories. All the
above classification basis are not mutually exclusive.
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 Classification based on hydraulic features: The basic hydraulic principles governs the type
Conventional Hydro-plants
 Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the river.
 Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
Pumped storage plants
 Use the concept of recycling the same water.
 Water is pumped back into the reservoir when there are periods of low power demand.
 Normally used with areas with a shortage of water
 It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is pumped back for future use.
 A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a system which increases the load factor
and provides additional capacity to meet the peak load.
 It has a function of indirect energy storage
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Unconventional Hydro-plants
Tidal power plant
 Use the tidal energy of the sea water.
 Very few have been constructed due to
structural complication.
 Essentially work on the principle that there is
arise in sea water during high tide period and a
fall during the ebb period
Wave power plant
Depression power plant

 Hydropower generated by diverting an ample
source of water in the natural depression
 Water level in the depression is controlled by
evaporation.
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 Classification based on purpose
Single-purpose developments: The water is used only for the purpose of producing electricity.
Multipurpose developments: Hydropower production is just one of many purposes for which the
water resources are used. Other uses might include, for example, irrigation, flood control,
navigation, municipal, and industrial water supply.
Classification based on actual operation in meeting demand ( Basis of operation)
Isolated plant (Off-grid) (SCS): operating independently
 Mini and small hydropower scheme serving small community
Interconnected in to grids (ICS): Plant operating as part of the interconnected grid system.
 In this system, a power station may be distinguished as a base load plant or peak load plant.
 Hydropower plants are best suited as peak load plants, because
 hydropower plants can start relatively quickly and can thus accept load quickly.
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 Classification based on basis of use
Uses to meet the demand for electrical power
 Base-load developments: When the energy from a hydropower plant is used to meet all or part
of The sustained and essentially constant portion of the electrical load or firm power
requirements, it is called a base-load plant. Energy available essentially at all times is referred to
as firm power.
 Peak-load development: Peak demands for electric power occur daily, weekly, and seasonally.
Plants in which the electrical production capacity is relatively high and the volume of water
discharged through the units can be changed readily are used to meet peak demands. Storage of
the water supply is necessary.
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 Classification based on basis of use
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 Classification based on storage and pondage
Storage becomes necessary when the flow is uneven over a year.
 Construction of a dam usually implies a much more efficient and controlled use of the available
water.
Without storage, the plant uses only the natural flow as best as it can.
 In such cases, only a mini-reservoir or a Pondage which takes care of day-to-day fluctuations
may be necessary.
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 Classification based on location and topography
Normally plants in hilly areas are always associated with dams;
Whereas plants in plain areas may have only weirs for the main structure.
For plants situated far in the interior and away from load centers the transmission costs are
relatively more.
Thus the knowledge about the location and topography of a plant helps us to appreciate these
points.
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 Classification based on plant capacity
Classification based on plant capacity changes with time and according to standards and codes of a country.
 According to Mossonyi
◦ Midget (Micro) plant up to 100 KW Classify hydropower plants according to
◦ Low (Mini) capacity < 1000KW mossonyi and present day classification.
◦ Medium capacity < 10,000KW
◦ High capacity > 10,000KW
 According to Present day classification (literatures)
◦ Micro hydropower < 5 MW
◦ Medium plant 5 to 100 MW
◦ High Capacity 101 to 1,000 MW
◦ Super plant above 1,000 MW
What is the types of Ethiopia’s Hydropower?
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 Classification based on operating head
While any of the above classifications cold be used to describe a power plant the most popular &
convenient classification is the one based on head operating on the turbine.
On this basis:
 Low head plants < 15m
 Medium head plants 15-50m
 High head plants 50-250m
 Very high head plants > 250m
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 Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
In this category hydropower development could be classified based on the dominant construction
features of the plant
 Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 Valley dam plants (Medium to high head plants)
 Diversion Canal Plants
 High head plants
 Pumped storage plants
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Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 The normal flow of the river is not materially distributed due to the construction of the plant
 They have small ponds to provide the necessary pondage in order to balance day-to-day
fluctuation (there is no storage)
 Such plants neither have a significant storage nor do they have a diversion of the water away
from the main channel
 A weir or barrage is built across a river & the low head created is used to generate power.
 It also acts as a control spilling device (Spillway).
 The power house is normally in the main course of the river
 Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high discharge, flat slope, little sediment and
stable reach of a river.
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 Water enters the power house through an intake structure incorporating some or all of the
following.
 Entrance flume separated by piers and walls for each machine unit.
 The appurtenances of the entrance structure are the sill, fine rack or screen and gate
 Turbine chamber: scroll case with turbine
 Concrete or steel draft tube
 Power house building
Additional structures:
 Deflector or skimmer walls, Fore bay, service bridge, river training walls, Sediment trap and
flushing sluices, where necessary
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Depending on different arrangements, mosonyi proposed the following groupings of the run-of-
river plants:
These groupings are mainly on the basis of constructional arrangements of the power house with
the weir.
 Block power plants
 Twin power plant
 Pier-head power plant
 submersible power plants
a) Block power plant b) Twin block plant c)Island plant d) pier head plant e) Submersible
plant
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 Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)
 The dominant feature is the dam which creates the required storage (to balance seasonal fluctuation) and
necessary head for the power house.
 Water stored during high-flow periods to augment the water available during the low-flow periods, thus
supplying the demand for energy in a more efficient manner.
 No diversion of water away from the main river is involved
 Water flows through the penstock embedded in the dam & diverted into a cannel/tunnel system to deliver
flow enters to the power house.
 Power house is located at the toe of the dam

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Classification based on construction feature(layouts)
 Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)
 Sometimes the power house is not immediately at the toe of the dam but at some distance downstream
( eg. the Koka power plant).

 This arrangement is more expensive than the more general dam-and power house together arrangement (due to longer
conveyance with consequent losses) and is used only when it offers some special advantages such as extra head due to
advantageous topographical conditions .
 Like achieving extra head(eg. melka wakena HP)

 The arrangement however, needs longer conveyances system with consequent losses.
 There are different arrangements of the power house location vis-a-visa spillway location. If the spillway is in the central
portion of the dam, then the power house may be located on one of the banks or as twin power house, one on each bank.
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Valley dam plants (medium to high head plants)
 Important components of a valley dam plant
 The dam with its appurtenance structures like spillway, energy dissipation arrangements etc.
 The intake with racks, stop logs, gates & ancillaries
 The penstock conveying water to the turbine with inlet valve & anchorage.
 The main power house with its components.
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Diversion and canal type development
 The distinguishing feature is the presence of power canal or tunnel that diverts the water from the
main stream channel.
 The power house is provided at suitable location along the stretch of the canal
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 The water often flowing through the turbine is brought back to the main stream very shortly through
tailrace tunnel or channel.
 Diversion canal plants are generally low head or medium head plants.
 They don't have storage reservoir.
 Short pondage requirement is met through a pool called forebay located just u/s of the power house, in
the case of diversion canals and by means of a surge tank in case of diversion tunnel
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 Further, due to economic considerations discharges of such plants have to be moderate.
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Diversion and canal type development: Ways of developing head
 The head may be made available due to the flatter bed slopes of power canal(as compared with the
river)
 Beside, due to the river meanders the length of the river between two points may be much greater
as compared to that of the relatively straight reach of the channel.
 If the river has a natural fall, diverting the water from u/s side of the fall & locating the power
house at the d/s side of the fall provide the required head (e.g. Tis Abay-II HP).
 In inter-basin diversion, water may be diverted from a higher level river to a lower river through a
diversion canal to the power house located at the lower river.
 The above discussions make it clear that diversion power plants are most suitable on rivers either
of steep slopes or meandering reaches.
 Further, due to economic considerations discharges of such plants have to be moderate.
 Run-of-river plants almost invariability, would be more economical for large discharge
development.
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Diversion and canal type development: Main Structures
 Diversion weir with its appurtenant structures.
 Diversion canal intake with its ancillary works such as sill, trash rack, skimmer wall sluices, settling
basin. De-silting canal and silt exclusion arrangement is needed in some sediment laden streams
 Bridges and culverts of the canal.
 Forebay & its appurtenant structures
Diversion Canal Plant Arrangement
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Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant
 The features of such a plant is development of high head resulting from the diversion of water,
which could be achieved by:
 Diverting the river water through a systems of canals and tunnels to a downstream point of
the same river.
 Diverting the water through canals and tunnels to a point on another river which is at much
lower level.
 There may be two options concerning storage situation
 A diversion weir to create Pondage ( and no storage). Here like run-off-plant the power
production is governed by the natural flow in the river.
 Storage may be provided on the main river at the point of diversion. (This second option
is advantageous since the fluctuation in reservoir level does not materially affect the head
and the power output can be adjusted by the controlled flow release from the reservoir.
 Eg. Fincha & Melka Wakana power plants
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Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant,
 When storage provided on the main river at the point of diversion
 This advantage is not available to the valley dam plant in which the power house is built on
the downstream face of the dam.
 Under such cases, a change in reservoir level also changes the head proportionately.
 If the length of the pressure tunnel is considerable, a surge tank may be provided upstream
of the power station, which may smoothen the fluctuation of flow demand.
 This purpose was served in the canal plants by the forebay.
 Canals follow the contours of the terrain and thus may not have the shortest route from the intake
to the power house.
 Tunnels, however, can make through their way by the shortest distance and thus create enormous
heads apart from enabling to divert water of one basin to other
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Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant main component
 Storage or diversion weir with appurtenant structures
 The canal/tunnel
 Head race either open cut or tunnels with its structures
 Penstock
 Forebay or surge tank
 Power house
 Tailrace
 High head diversion canal plants are more or less similar to the low head diversion canal plants.
 The main point of difference is, however, the elaborate conveyance system for the high head
plants(diversion tunnel plants)
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Diversion and canal type development: High head diversion plant main component
 In the diversion tunnel type plant:
 The dam replaces a diversion weir
 Tunnels are used for head race
 Reservoir intake is used instead of canal intake and
 A surge tank is employed in place of forebay
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Diversion and canal type development: High diversion head plant main component
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Diversion and canal type development: High diversion head plant main component
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Pumped storage power plant
 Pumped storage plants are special types of power plants which work as ordinary conventional
hydropower stations for part of the time.
 Hydropower schemes of the pumped storage type are those which utilize the flow of water from
a reservoir at higher potential (head-water pond) to one at lower potential (tail water pond)
 Pumped storage plant is suitable where:
 The natural annual run-off is insufficient to justify a conventional hydroelectric installation
 It is possible to have reservoir at head & tail water locations.
 This kind of plant generates energy for peak load, & at off peak period water is pumped
back for future use.
 During off peak periods excess power available from some other plants in the system is
used in pumping back water from the lower reservoir
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 During times of peak load, water is drawn from the headwater pond to run the reversible turbine-
pump units in the turbine mode. The water released gets collected in the tail water pond.
 During off-peak hours, the reversible units are supplied with the excess electricity available in
the power grid which then pumps part of the water of the tail-water pond back into the head-
water reservoir.
 Various arrangements are possible for higher and lower reservoirs:
 Both reservoirs in a single river
 Two reservoirs on two separate rivers close to each other and flowing at different
elevations
 Higher reservoir an artificially constructed pool and the lower reservoir on natural river
 The lower reservoir in a natural lake while the higher is artificial
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 Pumped storage hydropower development are energy-storing systems.
 Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher one
 Utilizing low-cost “dump” power produced during periods of low demand by power plants
 Which can be operated economically at a constant load
 In this system more energy is expended in pumping than can be produced by the turbines.
 The relative monetary value of “peak” power compared to “dump” power makes the sysstem
economically feasible
 Frequently. Peak power is worth at least three times as much as dump power.
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Pumped storage power plant: Application Situation of pumped storage power plant.
 Short term peaking
 Weekly peaking
 Seasonal peaking
 Short term peaking
 This involves turbine operating fro a few hours each day
 To meet daily peaks
 The recovery pumping during the early morning hours when energy loads are lowest and
cheap dump power is available.
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 Weekly peaking
 This requires operating turbines in generating mode to meet several peak loads during the workweek.
 Refilling the upper reservoir to a degree each day but gradually drawing down the upper reservoir during
the week.
 Major recovery pumping during the weekend when loads are low
 This requires relatively large reservoirs.
 Seasonal peaking
 Seasonal peaking would require very large upper reservoir storage
 To provide longer generator operating during seasonal peaks
 The recovery pumping would take large blocks of dump power.
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Pumped storage power plant: Another ways of classifying pump storage plants:
 Pure pumped storage plant: is a closed cycle plant with the volume of water flowing to the
lower reservoir being equal to the volume pumped to the higher reservoir in one cycle of
operation.
 In such a system, same water is circulated again and again and thus except for make-up
quantity of water for seepage and evaporation losses, the plant does not need any fresh
water flow.
 Mixed pumped storage plant: the total generation in one cycle is greater than the total
pumping during that period. In mixed type of plants, the higher reservoir has to be necessarily on
a natural stream so as to provide greater flow during generation.
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Pumped storage power plant: Arrangement of units
 Complete pump and motor units and separate but complete turbine and generator units, involving
four machines.
 Multistage pump and turbine with a common motor/generator, involving three machines. In this
case Pump and turbine were directly coupled to the generator/motor and generator and turbine are
permanently locked together.
 In this case, when the turbine runs, the unit operates as a generator and when the pump is operated
the same unit operates as a motor
 A single-stage pump/turbine and a common motor/generator involving two machines in which units
have reversible directions for operation. This arrangement is called reversible pump-turbine
installation.
 The modern trend is to use only a two-unit installation namely, a generator which operates as a motor
coupled to a turbine which in turn also operates as a pump when rotating in reverse direction
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Pumped storage power plant: Planning and selection of site.
 Two important parameter in planning for pumped/storage hydropower development are:
 Head
 Discharge to be utilized in sizing the plant
 Head:-
 It is evident that the head will vary as the reservoirs are drawn down
 Sites with heads less than 1000ft are not likely to be economical for pure pumped/ storage
hydropower plant.
 Reservoir costs can be minimized by selecting a site with a high head.
 Hydraulic capacity is also inversely proportional to head
 Penstock diameter and penstock costs can also be minimized by maximizing head.
 For a given plant capcity, powerhouse costs are lower for high head plants.
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 Two important parameter in planning for pumped/storage hydropower development are:
 Head
 Discharge to be utilized in sizing the plant
 Head:-
 This is because the units run at higher speeds and high speed machines are smaller than low –speed
machines.
 Because smaller water volumes are required at high head plants, reservoir drawdowns are usually
smaller at both reservoirs.
 Analysis must be made for the length of time the units will operate
 To determine the volume of water that must be stored in an upper reservoir
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 The figure presents a graph that is useful in determining the live storage required.
Reservoir storage
required vs head for
1000Mw plant with
14 hours of storage.
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Pumped storage power plant: Efficiency of pumped storage plants.
 It is customary to state that for every 3 kW input, you may expect 2 kW output in pumped storage
plants.
 The normally attainable overall plant efficiency is around 70%.
 It should be worked out as below, for closed cycle operation:
 Now if Q is the discharge and H is the gross head, Then
 Where ηt = the overall efficiency of generation (including turbine, generator and transformer
efficiency). and
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Pumped storage power plant: Efficiency of pumped storage plants.
 Where ηp = overall efficiency of pumping operation. Then,
hf = kH, then
 Average values of ηt, ηp, and k are respectively 0.88, 0.85, and 0.02 to 0.03. With these values, the
overall efficiency comes out to be 72%.
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Pumped storage power plant: Example.
 A closed cycle pumping-storage plant with a gross head of 350m, has a head race tunnel 4m
diameter and 700m long. The power house discharges directly into the lower reservoir. The flow
velocity is 6.5m/s and the friction factor f = 0.018. if the overall efficiencies of the pumping and
generation are 85% and 88%, respectively, estimate the plant efficiency.
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3.3. Reservoir and plant capacity determination
 Reservoir capacity
A rivers does not carry the same quantity of water through
the year.
In general, we observe high flow in summer and low flow
in winter and on the other hand, the water demand is high in
winter and low in summer.
Therefore, the regulation of the stream flow is required to
meet the demands.
A water supply, irrigation, or hydropower project drawing
water directly from a river may, therefore, be unable to
satisfy the demands of it consumes during low flows.
Reservoirs are man made structures that created to store
water during times of excess flow and supply if from
storage when the demand exceeds the inflow.
Reservoir capacity is depend on the inflow & demand
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 Reservoir capacity: Storage zones 1. Active storage.
2. Inactive storage.
3. Live storage.
4. Dead storage.
5. Flood storage.
6. Reservoir capacity: gross capacity of reservoir.
7. Retention water level; top water level; normal top
water level; full supply level; normal water level.
8. Flood surcharge; surcharge
9. Maximum water level; top of joint use (part of
reservoir capacity including both surcharge and the
empty part of active storage, assigned to flood control
or conservation depending on the time of year.
10. Minim operation level; top of inactive storage
11. Freeboard
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 Reservoir capacity: Storage zones
Reservoir capacity has to be adjusted to account for the dead storage, evaporation losses and carry
over storage.
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 Reservoir capacity
The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following methods:
 Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method)
 Sequent Peak Analysis
 Operation Study
 Other Approaches (Stochastic Methods and Optimization Analysis etc…)
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 Reservoir capacity: Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method):
 One of the most widely used methods.
 Assumptions:
 Demand is constant, and
 The year repeats itself continuously.
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If the flow is the daily or monthly discharge then the area under the curve up to a certain time will
be the volume of runoff for that period.
The slope of the mass curve at a certain time gives the discharge at that time on the hydrograph
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Required storage capacity of the reservoir is the vertical difference a+b.
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Determination of capacity for a known yield.
1. The tangents, which are parallel to the
demand line, are plotted at the high points
(D&E).
2. The maximum departures from the tangents
to the following low points of the mass curve
(F & G) determine the necessary storage
amounts V 1 andV2.
3. The largest one of the volumes will give the
required capacity of the reservoir.
The reservoir would be full at points D, D’, E, & E’. The reservoir would be empty at points F & G.
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Determination of capacity for a known capacity.
1. The value V of known reservoir capacity is
placed vertically in all the low points in the
mass curve and tangents are drawn to the
previous high points.
2. The slope of these tangents (D1 & D2)
indicate the yields that can be supplied for
those critical periods with this given capacity.
3. The smallest one of the yields can be supplied
all the time.
The plotted tangents must cut the mass curve when extended forward, as it is the case here with
points C’ and E’. Otherwise, the reservoir will not refill.
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The mass curve gives results if ΣD < ΣS during the period of record.
The graphical approach is quite satisfactory if the reservoir releases are constant during the
period of analysis.
When reservoir releases vary, the sequent-peak analysis is recommended.
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 Reservoir capacity: Sequent peak analysis:
Sequent Peak Analysis is more suitable when the data of long observation periods or long generated
data are used, or when the demand is not constant.
1. Differences between inflows (S) and demands (D) are
calculated and their summations obtained.
2. Σ(S-D) values are plotted against time as
shown in the figure.
3. On this plot the first peak value and next larger peak
(sequent peak) are determined.
4. The storage required between these two points is the
difference between the first peak and the lowest point
in this period.
5. This process is repeated for all the peaks in the
record period as shown in the figure also. The
maximum of the storage values is the required
capacity.
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 Reservoir capacity: Sequent peak analysis:
If the record period or generated data sequence is very long, the graphical solution may be time
consuming
In that case and analytical solution procedure may be applied for the analysis and it can be solved
easily using a computer
In this way, the required storage Vt at the end of a period t can be expressed as:-
At the beginning of the analysis, initially Vt-1 is set to zero and calculations continue to find Vt
values for up to twice the length of the record period.
The maximum of all the calculated values of Vt is the required storage capacity.
75
 Reservoir capacity: Example:
Monthly inflows at proposed reservoir site for a drought period of 15 months are given along with
targeted demands in table below. Compute the storage required by plotting sequent peak algorithm.
Month J un J ul Aug Se p Oct Nov De c J a n Fe b Ma r Apr Ma y J un J ul Aug

Rifer inflows
3
250 350 400 200 150 150 100 50 150 300 400 450 150 200 450
(Mm )
Targetd deman 150 150 200 250 350 400 250 200 150 150 100 250 350 300 100
(Mm3)
76
 Reservoir capacity: Operational study:
The reservoir storage is considered as adequate when the reservoir can supply all types of demands
under possible losses like seepage and evaporation.
In order to increase the operational performance of a reservoir, the evaporation and seepage must be
controlled.
The operation of a storage reservoir is also governed by the inflow.
Rule curves indicating temporal storage requirements according to local conditions and project
demands need to be used for effective operation purposes.
77
Rules:
 During normal periods of river flow, the reservoir will be maintained at the normal pool level.
 If extremely high flows are expected, the normal pool level can be drawn to such an elevation
that the maximum expected flood flow will be sufficient to restore the active storage to its
maximum level.
 The operation study is based on the solution of the continuity equation.
Where dv: differential storage during time dt
I: instantaneous total inflow
O: instantaneous total outflow
78
Rules:
 Since the information concerned the time variation of inflow and outflow is normally limited,
then long term (e.g. one month) averaged quantities of inflow and outflow are considered in
practice:
Where Δv: the change in storage during time interval Δt
: the average inflow (runoff, precipitation etc…)during ∆t
: the average outflow (evaporation, seepage, controlled
outflows, mandatory releases, uncontrolled spills etc…)during ∆t
79
In General:
1. Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site during the critical dry period. Generally, the
monthly inflow rates are required. However, for very large reservoirs, the annual inflow rates
may be used.
2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water rights or to honor the
agreement between the states or the cities.
3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir during the month.
4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the reservoir.
5. Find out the demand during various months.
80
In General:
6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:
Adjusted inflow = Stream Inflow + Ppt – Evap’n – d/s Discharge
7. Compute the storage capacity for each month.
Storage required = Adjusted inflow – Demand
8. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the storages required found in
Step 7.
81
3.4. Hydropower development cycles
 Any water resource program of which a hydropower scheme may form part has environmental and
social impacts, which must be taken into consideration at the initial planning stage.
Also, legal and political implications must be carefully considered.
The latest technological advancements in hydroelectric power generation permit the selection of proper
designs incorporating environmental and social requirements.
Principal parameters necessary in making hydropower studies are water discharge (Q) and hydraulic
head (H).
The measurement and analyses of these parameters are primarily hydrologic problems.
Good contour maps may be sufficient to determine the value for the head.
82
 Assessment of hydropower resources
 Relevance of surveys, data assessment and analyses to the success of the project.
 Required data and field survey.
 Key element: hydrological data. Data gathering, analyses, relevance for project.
Mitigating project risks through sound assessment and analysis.
Key Challenge: (Small) hydro power development involves a number of risks which deter developers
and investors. Key challenges(risks):-
 Hydrological Risks
 Construction Risk
 Risk of Design Flaws
 Social and Environmental risk
 Political Risk
83
Site-surveying and data collection:
Should be conducted if an initial technical projects assessment(desk-study) comes to the
conclusion that a site is potentially attractive.
Should be conducted, if there is a realistic chance that a potential –project can be funded and
implemented (Particularly for rural electrification projects: Avoid raising expectations among local
population that can not possibly be fulfilled later!)
Conducted during times with potentially lowest stream flow
Required data and filed survey:
 Hydrological Analysis  Social and environmental studies
 FDC(project optimization and  Identify demand (off-grid electrification)
design flow)  To identify potential risk/ conflicts and
 Flood Flows(Technical safety of means for mitigation
Project Components)  Feasibility to fulfill obligation of
legislation, donors, lenders
84
Required data and filed survey:
 Geological Analysis  Topo-graphical mapping
 Stability of structures( depend on  Head availability
types and dimension of structure)  Optimum position and alignment of structures
 Distance for transmission
 Accessibility
Neglect in any of these assessments leads to flaws in

optimization and design, eventually reflected in the
project’s feasibility
85
Very critical information during project planning and optimization are the available flow and head.
 Design Discharge Qd  Net Head Hn

 Very critical value, based on complex hydrological  Very critical value, but relatively
analysis. easy to determine easy to determine
 Too high Qd: HPP oversized, expected annual with topographic survey.
generation not achieved, revenue stream  Wrong Hn: leads to mismatch
smaller than required, financial viability of turbine (strong impact).
critical.
 Too low Qd: HPP dimensioned too small,
more attractive development solution possible.
 Wrong Qd: not matching peak efficiency
point of installed turbine.
86
Suitable methods for head measurements and topographic survey:
 Site reconnaissance  Pre-feasibility and feasibility
 Altimeter  Theodolite, total station
 Hypsometer.  Stereoscopic aerials, triangulation and control point survey
 Detailed design  Only micro hydro
 Additional topographic survey of  Clinometer/hypsometer and
specific areas, if required compass
87
 Project development steps:
Desk-study
Initial site assessment/reconnaissance
Pre-feasibility study
Feasibility study
Detailed engineering design and tender document
Implementation(tendering, contracting, construction, testing, commissioning, operation and
maintenance)
Suitable methods for head measurement and topographic survey
88
The studies to be carried out:
Resources studies:
 Preparation/updating of resources inventories
 Preparation/updating of resources rankings
Site specific studies:
 Reconnaissance studies
 Pre-feasibility studies
 Feasibility studies
 Definite plan or design studies
89
The studies to be carried out: Resources studies:
The main purpose of resource inventory investigation is to identify, register and catalogue the
hydropower resource existing in a river basins.
Flow data and data on topography is sufficient to establish the production and generating capability
of a site.
The identified project sites are ranked according to size, cost, electric demand, etc.
Preparation of resources inventories and their updating is a continuous process and should not be
stopped at any time.
90
The studies to be carried out: Site specific studies:
Reconnaissance studies
 The details and data requirements of these studies are regional in nature.
 Accuracy of these data as a requirement is less.
 Carried out for specific purpose such as: to establish the available potential in a district .
They are concerned with project selection from inventories of resources.
The main objectives may be such as:
 Find potential energy sources and Estimate energy available in a stream
 Assessment of demand or define electric power need.
 Selection of candidate projects from the resources inventories which will meet the electric power demand.
 Investigation of candidate projects & project alternatives to the best technical level.
 Technical ranking of candidate projects should be prepared and well recorded.
 Estimation of preliminary cost and implementation schedule
91
Reconnaissance studies:
 Selection of a suitable project from the list of investigated candidate projects.
 May not be site specific.
Main activity to be done:
 Data collection
 Field work and.
 Office studies.
 Final reconnaissance report.
92
 Reconnaissance studies: Main activity to be done:
 Data collection:  Office study:

 Infrastructure information  Power demand forecast
 Power market and demand forecast  Flow regulation
 Hydrology  Head
 Topography  Environmental constraints
 Geology and geo technical engineering
 Environmental studies
 Socio-economic set up
 Report:
 Any reconnaissance report must conclude with a statement on the viability and sustainability of the project under
consideration.
 Data requirement for feasibility study should be indicated
93
Reconnaissance studies: Main activity to be done:
Field work: the following issues should be recorded properly;
 Terrain features such as location and placement of structures
 Infrastructures such as access to the project, transmission lines,
 Settlement and resettlement issue
 Availability of construction material
 Environmental issues such as diversion of flow from one catchment to the
 other, deforestation, etc.
 Multipurpose uses
 Diversion of flow during construction of Headwork and/or coffer dams
 Incase of reservoir and tunnel projects special attention shall be given to the geological and geo technical
properties.
 Appraisal of discharge available
94
Reconnaissance studies: Main activity to be done:
Field work: the following issues should be recorded properly;
 Study of existing and future water uses like drinking, irrigation, etc.
 Verification of estimated head
 Powerhouse type, location and equipment
95
Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary design):
 In this study one or more project alternatives are proposed and studied before selection.
 The main purpose of pre-feasibility is to:
 Establish demand for the project.
 Formulate a plan for developing this project
 Assess if the project is technically, economically and environmentally acceptable
 Make recommendation for future action
96
 The following aspects are to be investigated during pre-feasibility study:
1. Hydrology study:
 Source, extent, amount, occurrence and variability of water.
 Present, past and future needs of water
 Include opportunities for control and development of water.
 Quality of water in terms of its physical and chemical properties
 Sediment quality and quantity
 Existing water rights should be recognized for each and every stakeholder.
2. Power studies: considers a balance b/n power supply & demand.
3. Layout Planning: a comprehensive layout plan will be prepared and should be supplemented with
sufficient number of drawings, which will be used for preparation of the bill of quantities.
97
 The following aspects are to be investigated during pre-feasibility study:
3. Layout Planning: a comprehensive layout plan will be prepared and should be supplemented with
sufficient number of drawings, which will be used for preparation of the bill of quantities .
4. Geology and foundation engineering
5. Seismic studies
6. Environmental studies
7. Estimation of cost
8. Economic and financial studies
9. Future investigation plan
10.Pre-feasibility report: A clear statement should be made in respect of technical, economical and
environmental feasibility of the project. It should give clear indication whether or not to study the project
in more detail
98
Feasibility study:
 Feasibility studies are carried out to determine the technical, economical and environmental viability of a
project.
 This phase of investigation consists of a detailed study which is directed towards the ultimate permission,
financing, final design and construction of the project under investigation.
 Made to formulate a specific project.
 Assess the desirability of implementing hydropower development.
 The main part of feasibility studies include:
 Topography
1. Data collection:  Socioeconomic data
 Population  Geology
 Income distribution  Seismic
 Power market  Environment
 Tariffs  Meteorology
 Hydrology  Infrastructure
99
Feasibility study: 3. Layout optimization:
2. Project feasibility estimation:  Project layout
 Power and energy estimation  Sediment & control measures
 Power system studies  Number and size of units
 Water resources studies  Auxiliary equipment
 Geology and foundation conditions  Transmission planning
 Seismic studies 5. Project feasibility estimation:
 Construction materials  Intake structure and sediment excluder
 Existing infrastructure  Headrace and tailrace
 Powerhouse
4. Environmental studies:
 Dimensioning and preparation of
 Assessment of environmental
specification for hydro turbine and
disturbance and their mitigation
electromechanical equipment
measures
 Construction facilities
100
Feasibility study:
6. Estimation of project cost:
 Project cost
 Operation, maintenance and replacement
 Environmental cost
 Construction planning and budgeting
 Contingencies and other costs
6. Economical and financial analysis
7. Future steps to be taken for the project implementation
8. Feasibility Report
101
Definite plan or design studies:
 Made before final design and initiation of construction
 Required daily or at least monthly flow data
 Operational studies
102
The studies to be carried out: Implementation phase:
 Project implementation is a multidisciplinary job which include:
 Approval and appropriation of funds
 Pre-qualification and hiring of consultants
 Detailed design
 Preparation of tender/contract documents
 Pre-qualification of contractors
 Preparation of construction design and engineering design
 Preparation of operation manual
 Construction supervision
 Construction of civil works
 Supply and erection of equipment
 Testing, commissioning and commercial operation
 Preparation of completion report
103

HP-I, Chapter-Three1, Classification of HP

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Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

High head (run of the river or stored)

Depression power plant

 No diversion of water away from the main river is involved

 Power house is located at the toe of the dam

( eg. the Koka power plant).

 Like achieving extra head(eg. melka wakena HP)

 Important components of a valley dam plant

 The intake with racks, stop logs, gates & ancillaries

 The main power house with its components.

Diversion Canal Plant Arrangement

 Now if Q is the discharge and H is the gross head, Then

 Where ηp = overall efficiency of pumping operation. Then,

Month J un J ul Aug Se p Oct Nov De c J a n Fe b Ma r Apr Ma y J un J ul Aug

Neglect in any of these assessments leads to flaws in

 Design Discharge Qd  Net Head Hn

 Data collection:  Office study:

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