SATELLITE

JESSIE JAYE R. BALBIN, ECE, MEP-ECE

DIRECTOR, Q-POINT REVIEW CENTER
• In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is
an object which has been placed into orbit
by human endeavor. Such objects are
sometimes called artificial satellites to
distinguish them from natural satellites
such as the Moon.
A full size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2
 History
• Early conceptions
• The first fictional depiction of a satellite
being launched into orbit is a short story
by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon.
The story was serialized in The Atlantic
Monthly, starting in 1869.The idea
surfaces again in Jules Verne's The
Begum's Millions (1879).
 History
• In 1903 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published
Исследование мировых пространств реактивными
приборами (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means
of Reaction Devices), which is the first academic treatise
on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft.
• He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal
orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multi-stage
rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be used to
achieve this. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen and
liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.
 History
• In 1928 Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his
sole book, Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums -
der Raketen-Motor (The Problem of Space Travel — The
Rocket Motor), a plan for a breakthrough into space and
a permanent human presence there. He conceived of a
space station in detail and calculated its geostationary
orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for
detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground
and described how the special conditions of space could
be useful for scientific experiments. The book described
geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky)
and discussed communication between them and the
ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using
satellites for mass broadcasting and as
telecommunications relays.
 History
• In a 1945 Wireless World article the English
science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917-
2008) described in detail the possible use of
communications satellites for mass
communications.Clarke examined the logistics of
satellite launch, possible orbits and other
aspects of the creation of a network of world-
circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-
speed global communications. He also
suggested that three geostationary satellites
would provide coverage over the entire planet.
 History of artificial satellites
• The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1,
launched by the Soviet Union on 4
October 1957, and that started the whole
Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei
Korolev as chief designer. This triggered
the Space Race between the Soviet Union
and the United States.
• Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high
atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital
change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in
the ionosphere.
• Because the satellite's body was filled with pressurized
nitrogen, Sputnik 1 also provided the first opportunity for
meteoroid detection, as a loss of internal pressure due to
meteoroid penetration of the outer surface would have
been evident in the temperature data sent back to Earth.
• The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success
precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and
ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.
• Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3,
1957 and carried the first living passenger
into orbit, a dog named Laika.
• In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of
an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite
vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one
of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century
• On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S.
intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became
known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that
they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
• Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National
Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military
interest picked up and in early 1955 the Air Force and Navy were
working on Project Orbiter, which involved using a Jupiter C rocket
to launch a satellite. The project succeeded, and Explorer 1 became
the United States' first satellite on January 31, 1958
• The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the
International Space Station.
 Timeline of artificial satellites
and space probes
• Key: Year - Origin - Target - Status - Description

1950’s
• 1957 - Soviet Union - Earth - Success - Sputnik 1 is launched, the first
Earth orbiting satellite
• 1957 - Soviet Union - Earth - Partial success - Sputnik 2 is launched,
the first Earth orbiting satellite with an animal (Laika)
• 1958 - USA - Earth - Success - Explorer 1
• 1958 - USA - Moon - Failure - Pioneer 1 orbiter
• 1958 - USA - Moon - Failure - Pioneer 3 flyby
• 1959 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 1 flyby launched, it
discovered solar wind
• 1959 - USA - Moon - Partial success - Pioneer 4 flyby
• 1959 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 2 impactor launched, it
was the first spacecraft to impact onto the surface of the moon
• 1959 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 3 flyby launched, it
returned the first image of the Moon's hidden side
1960s
• 1960 - USA - Sun - Pioneer 5 solar monitor
• 1960 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1960A probe
• 1960 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1960B probe
• 1961 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - 1VA (proto-Venera) flyby
• 1961 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Venera 1 flyby
• 1961 - USA - Earth - Success - OSCAR1 First Amateur Satellite
• 1962 - USA - Venus - Success - Mariner 2 launched and became the
first satellite to return data about Venus
• 1962 - USA - Earth - Success - Telstar 1 is launched
• 1962 - Canada - Earth - Success - Alouette 1 is launched, the first
Canadian satellite
• 1962 - UK - Earth - Success -
• 1962 - USA - Moon - Failure - Ranger 3 photographic mission
• 1962 - USA - Moon - Partial Failure - Ranger 4 photographic mission
(impacted lunar surface)
• 1962 - USA - Moon - Partial Failure - Ranger 5 photographic mission
(became flyby)
• 1962 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1962A flyby
• 1962 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1 flyby
• 1962 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1962B lander
• 1963 - USA - Earth - Failure - Syncom 1 is launched
• 1963 - USA - Earth - Success - Syncom 2 is launched; the first
geosynchronous orbit
• 1963 - Soviet Union - Moon - Partial Failure - Luna 4 lander
(became probe)
• 1964 - USA - Earth - Success - Syncom 3 is launched; the first
geostationary orbit
• 1964 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Zond 1 flyby
• 1964 - USA - Moon - Failure - Ranger 6 photographic mission
• 1964 - USA - Moon - Success - Ranger 7 photographic mission
• 1964 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mariner 3 flyby
• 1964 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 4 flyby, the first
successful Mars mission
• 1964 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Zond 2 flyby
• 1965 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 6 solar probe
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Venera 2 flyby
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Venera 3 atmospheric
probe
• 1965 - USA - Moon - Success - Ranger 8 photographic mission
• 1965 - USA - Moon - Success - Ranger 9 photographic mission
• 1965 - Canada - Earth - Success - Alouette 2 is launched
aboard a U.S. rocket
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 5 lander
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 6 lander
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 3 flyby
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 7 lander
• 1965 - France - Satellite - Success - Astérix satellite
• 1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 8 lander
• 1965 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 4 sends the first clear
pictures of Mars
• 1966 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 7 solar probe
• 1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 9 lander returned
the first photographs from the surface of the Moon
• 1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 10 becomes the
first spacecraft to orbit the Moon
• 1966 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 1 lander
• 1966 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 1 orbiter
• 1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 11 orbiter
• 1966 - USA - Moon - Failure - Surveyor 2
• 1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 12 orbiter
• 1966 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 2 orbiter
• 1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 13 lander
• 1967 - Australia - Earth - Success - WRESAT is launched from
Woomera on a U.S. Redstone rocket, the first Australian
satellite
• 1967 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 8 solar probe
• 1967 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 4 sends the
first data from below the clouds of Venus
• 1967 - USA - Venus - Success - Mariner 5 flyby
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 3 orbiter
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 2 lander
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 4 orbiter
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Failure - Surveyor 3 lander
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Explorer 35 orbiter
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 5 orbiter
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 5 lander
• 1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 6 lander, also took off
from the Moon's surface
• 1967 - USA - Success - The gamma-ray satellite discovers
gamma-ray emission from the plane of the Milky Way
• 1968 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 9 solar probe
• 1968 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 7 lander
• 1968 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 14 orbiter
• 1968 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 5 flyby
• 1968 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 6 flyby
• 1969 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 5 atmospheric
probe
• 1969 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 6 atmospheric
probe
• 1969 - USA - Moon - Success - Apollo 10 manned orbiter
• 1969 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 15 lander
• 1969 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 7 flyby
• 1969 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 6 flyby
• 1969 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 7 flyby
1970’s
• 1970 - Japan - Earth - Success - Osumi the first Japanese
satellite
• 1970 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 7, the first
successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet
• 1970 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 16 lander is the
first automated return of samples from the Moon
• 1970 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 8 flyby
• 1970 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 17/Lunokhod 1
lander/rover is the first automated surface exploration of the
Moon
• 1970 - USA - Success - Launch of Uhuru, the first dedicated X-
ray satellite
• 1970 - China - Success - Launch of Dong Fang Hong I, the first
Chinese satellite
• 1971 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 18 lander
• 1971 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 19 orbiter
• 1971 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mariner 8 flyby
• 1971 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Cosmos 419 probe
• 1971 - Soviet Union - Mars - Partial Failure - Mars 2 orbiter and
lander, created the first human artifact on Mars
• 1971 - Soviet Union - Mars - Partial Success - Mars 3 orbiter and
lander, first successful landing on Mars
• 1971 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 9 orbiter, first pictures
of Mars' moons (Phobos and Deimos) taken
• 1971 - UK - Earth - Success - Prospero X-3 satellite, first and
only satellite launched by Britain using a British rocket
• 1972 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 8 lander
• 1972 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 20 lander
• 1972 - Success - Launch of the Copernicus ultraviolet satellite
• 1972 - USA - Sun - Success - Explorer 49 solar probe
• 1973 - USA - Venus/Mercury - Success - Mariner 10 launched,
it passed by and photographed Mercury, also was the first dual
planet probe
• 1973 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 21/Lunokhod 2
lander/rover
• 1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 4 orbiter
• 1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Success - Mars 5 orbiter
• 1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 6 orbiter and lander
• 1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 7 orbiter and lander
• 1974 - Germany - Sun - Success - Helios 1 solar probe
• 1974 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 22 orbiter
• 1974 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 23 probe
• 1974 - Success - Launch of the Ariel V X-ray satellite
• 1975 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 9 returns the first
pictures of the surface of Venus
• 1975 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 10 orbiter and lander
• 1975 - USA - Mars - Partial Success - Viking 1 orbiter and lander; lands on
Mars 1976
• 1975 - USA - Mars - Success - Viking 2 orbiter and lander; lands on Mars
1976
• 1975 - India - Earth - Success - Aryabhata India, launched by USSR
• 1975 - India - India's first rocket SLV launched
• 1976 - Germany - Sun - Success - Helios 2 solar probe
• 1976 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 24 lander
• 1976 - Earth - Success - Hermes Communications Technology Satellite
prototype for testing direct broadcast TV
• 1976 - Success - The Vela and ANS X-ray satellites discover X-ray
bursts
• 1976 - Success - The X-ray satellite shows that X-ray bursts have
blackbody spectra
• 1977 - Success - Launch of the X-ray satellite
• 1978 - USA - Venus - Success - Pioneer Venus 1 orbiter
• 1978 - USA - Venus - Success - Pioneer Venus 2 atmospheric
probe
• 1978 - Soviet Union - Venus - Partial Success - Venera 11 flyby
and lander
• 1978 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 12 flyby and
lander
• 1978 - Success - Launch of the International Ultraviolet
Explorer satellite
• 1978 - Success - Launch of the Einstein X-ray satellite (HEAO-2)
is the first X-ray photographs of astronomical objects
• 1979 - Success - Launch of the Hakucho X-ray satellite ()
• 1979 - Success - Launch of the cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite
• 1979 - USA - Jupiter - Success - Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 send
back images of Jupiter and its system
1980’s
• 1980 - USA - Sun - Failure- Solar Maximum Mission solar probe
succeeded after being repaired in Earth orbit
• 1981 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 13 launched, it
returned the first colour pictures of the surface of Venus
• 1981 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 14 flyby and
lander
• 1983 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 15 orbiter
• 1983 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 16 orbiter
• 1983 - Success - Launch of the EXOSAT X-ray satellite
• 1983 - Success - Launch of the Tenma X-ray satellite (ASTRO-B)
• 1983 - Success - Launch of the IRAS satellite
• 1984 - Soviet Union - Venus/Halley's Comet - Success - Vega 1
flyby, atmospheric probe and lander
• 1984 - Soviet Union - Venus/Halley's Comet - Success - Vega 2
flyby, atmospheric probe and lander
• 1986 - Europe - Halley's Comet - Success - Giotto flyby
• 1987 - Success - Launch of the Ginga X-ray satellite (ASTRO-C)
• 1988 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Phobos 1 orbiter and lander
• 1988 - Soviet Union - Mars - Partial Failure - Phobos 2 flyby and
lander
• 1989 - Venus - Success - Magellan orbiter launched which mapped
99 percent of the surface of Venus (300 m resolution)
• 1989 - USA - Venus/Earth/Moon/Gaspra/Ida/Jupiter - Failure -
Galileo flyby, orbiter and atmospheric probe
• 1989 - USA - Neptune - Success - Voyager 2 sends back images of
Neptune and its system
• 1989 - Success - Launch of the Granat gamma-ray and X-ray
satellite
• 1989 - Europe - Success - Launch of the Hipparcos satellite
• 1989 - Success - Launch of the COBE satellite
1990’s
• 1990 - USA - Sun - Success - Ulysses solar flyby
• 1990 - Japan - Moon - - MUSES-A probe, this was the
first non-U.S. or USSR probe to reach the Moon
• 1990 - USA/ Europe - Success - Launch of the Hubble
Space Telescope
• 1990 - Germany - Success - Launch of the ROSAT X-
ray satellite is the first imaging X-ray sky survey
• 1991 - Japan - Sun - Success - Yohkoh solar probe
• 1991 - USA - Success - Launch of the Compton
Gamma-Ray Observatory satellite
• 1992 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mars Observer orbiter
• 1993 - Japan - Success - Launch of the ASCA
(ASTRO-D) X-ray satellite
• 1994 - USA - Moon - Success - Clementine orbiter
mapped the surface of the Moon (resolution 125-150m)
and allowed the first accurate relief map of the Moon to
be generated
• 1995 - USA - Sun - Success - SOHO solar probe
• 1996 - USA - Mars - Mars Global Surveyor orbiter
• 1996 - USA - Mars - Success - Mars
Pathfinder/Sojourner lander/rover, the first automated
surface exploration another planet
• 1996 - Russia - Mars - Failure - Mars 96 orbiter and
lander
• 1997 - USA/Europe - Success - Saturn and Titan -
Cassini-Huygens - arrived in orbit on July 1, 2004,
landed on Titan January 14, 2005
• 1997 – Philippines – Moon – Success – Aguila 2 satellite
• 1998 - North Korea - Unknown - Claimed launch of
Kwangmyongsong by North Korea though no
independent source was able to verify its existence
• 1998 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Prospector
orbiter
• 1998 - Japan - Mars - Failure - Nozomi (Planet B)
orbiter, the first Japanese spacecraft to reach another
planet
• 1998 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mars Climate Orbiter
• 1999 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mars Polar Lander
• 1999 - USA - Mars - Failure - Deep Space 2 (DS2)
penetrators
2000’s
• 2001 - USA - Sun - Partial Success - Genesis solar wind sample
return - crash-landed on return
• 2001 - USA - Success - Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) performs cosmological observations.
• 2001 - USA - Mars - Success - Mars Odyssey
• 2003 - Canada - Earth - Success - MOST the smallest space
telescope in orbit
• 2003 - USA - Comet Encke - Failure - CONTOUR launched, but
lost during early trajectory insertion.
• 2003 - Europe - Moon - Success - Smart 1 orbiter
• 2003 - Europe - Mars - Partial Success - Mars Express orbiter
(successfully reached orbit) and failed lander, the Beagle 2
• 2003 - USA - Mars - Success - Mars Exploration Rovers -
successful launches, Spirit successfully landed, Opportunity
successfully landed
• 2004 - ESA - Comet 67P - Rosetta space probe
launched - yet to arrive
• 2004 - USA - Mercury - MESSENGER orbiter -
launched - yet to arrive
• 2004 - USA - Success - Launch of the Swift Gamma ray
burst observatory.
• 2005 - Iran - Earth - Sinah-1 - launched, first Iranian-
built satellite
• 2005 - USA - Comet Tempel 1 - Deep Impact -
successful comet impact
• 2005 - USA - Mars - Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter - in
orbit
• 2005 - Europe - Venus - Venus Express - in orbit
• 2006 - USA - Pluto - New Horizons - launched - yet to
arrive
• 2006 - France/ESA - Earth - COROT - launched,
telescope to search for extrasolar planets
• 2007 - USA - Mars - Success - Phoenix - launched and
successfully landed
• 2007 - Japan - Moon - SELENE orbiter and lander - in
lunar orbit since October 3, 2007
• 2007 - USA - Vesta/Ceres- Dawn - launched - yet to
arrive
• 2007 - China - Moon - Chang'e-I - in lunar orbit since
November 5, 2007
• 2008 - India - Moon - Chandrayaan (work in progress)
 List of communications satellite
firsts
• 1928- Herman Potocnik describes a space station in
geosynchronous orbit

• 1945- Arthur C. Clarke proposes a station in geosynchronous orbit

to relay communications and broadcast television

• 1957- Sputnik 1- first satellite equipped by radio-transmitters

• 1958- Project SCORE -America's first communications satellite

• August, 1960- Echo I - first passive reflector satellite

• October, 1960- Courier 1B - first active repeater satellite

• July, 1962 –Telstar - first satellite designed to transmit

television and high-speed data communications

• 1963- Syncom - first communications satellite in

geosynchronous orbit1

• March, 1965- OSCAR-III - first amateur radio

communications satellite

• October, 1965- Molniya - first Soviet communication

satellite, highly elliptic orbit
• April, 1965- Early Bird- INTELSAT's first satellite for
commercial service

• November, 1967- Orbita -first national TV network based

on satellite television

• 1973- Anik 1- first national satellite television system,

Canada

• April, 1945 - Westar 1-USA's first geosynchronous

communications satellite

• December 19, 1974- Symphonie - first geostationary

communications satellite to be three-axis stabilized
• 1976- Ekran - first serial Direct-To-Home TV
communication satellite
• July 8, 1976 - Palapa A1- first Indonesia communications
satellite
• 1983- TDRSS - first satellite designed to provide
communications relay services for other spacecraft.
• February 2, 1985 - Arabsat-1A - first communications
satellite for the Arab League
• August 10, 1994 - Turksat 1B -first communications
satellite for Turkey
• January 14, 2005 - Cassini spacecraft relays to Earth
images from the Huygens probe as it lands on Saturn's
moon, Titan, the longest relay to date.
• NICOMSAT1 1ST Nigeria Communication Satellite
Non-Military Satellite Services
Fixed Satellite Service
• Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of
billions of voice, data, and video
transmission tasks across all countries
and continents between certain points on
the earth’s surface
Mobile Satellite Systems
• Mobile satellite systems help connect
remote regions, vehicles, ships and
aircraft to other parts of the world and/or
other mobile or stationary communications
units, in addition to serving as navigation
systems
Scientific Research Satellite (commercial
and noncommercial)
• Scientific research satellites provide us
with meteorological information, land
survey data (e.g., remote sensing), and
other different scientific research
applications such as earth science, marine
science, and atmospheric research.
 Types of Satellites
• Anti-satellite weapons/”Killer Satellites”
- are satellites that are armed, designed to take out
enemy warheads, satellites, other space assets.
They may have particle weapons, energy
weapons, kinetic weapons, nuclear and/or
conventional missiles and/or a combination of
these weapons. In fiction, one has been featured
in the movie Maximum Overdrive in which one of
these, disguised as a "Weather Satellite" had
taken out a UFO with Class IV nuclear weapons
and laser cannon.
• Astronomical satellites are satellites used for
observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer
space objects.

• Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living

organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.

• Communications satellites are satellites stationed in

space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern
communications satellites typically use geosynchronous
orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.
MILSTAR: A communication satellite
• Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low weights and
small sizes. New classifications are used to categorize these
satellites: minisatellite (500–200 kg), microsatellite (below 200 kg),
nanosatellite (below 10 kg).

• Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals

transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine
their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the
satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-
improving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to
measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real
time.

• Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or

communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence
applications. Little is known about the full power of these satellites,
as governments who operate them usually keep information
pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
• Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military
uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making
etc.

• Space stations are man-made structures that are designed for

human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is
distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major
propulsion or landing facilities — instead, other vehicles are used as
transport to and from the station. Space stations are designed for
medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even
years.

• Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another

satellite by a thin cable called a tether.

• Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather

and climate
 Orbit types

• The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around

Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is
the most common type of orbit with approximately 2456
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits
may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and
eccentricity.
• The commonly used altitude classifications are Low
Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and High
Earth Orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below
2000 km, and Medium Earth Orbit is any orbit higher
than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous
orbit at 35786 km. High Earth Orbit is any orbit higher
than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.
 Centric classifications
• Galactocentric orbit: An orbit about the center of a galaxy. Earth's
sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic center of the Milky
Way.

• Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all
planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many
artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are
not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.

• Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the

Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 2465
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.

• Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars, such as moons

or artificial satellites
Various earth orbits to
scale;
-cyan represents low
earth orbit,
-yellow represents
medium earth orbit,
-the black dashed line
represents
geosynchronous orbit,
-the green dash-dot line
the orbit of Global
Positioning System (GPS)
satellites, and
-the red dotted line the
orbit of the International
Space Station (ISS).
 Altitude classifications

• Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits

ranging in altitude from 0–2000 km (0–1240
miles)
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits
ranging in altitude from 2000 km (1240 miles) to
just below geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km
(22240 miles). Also known as an intermediate
circular orbit.
• High Earth Orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits
above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit
35786 km (22240 miles).
 Inclination classifications

• Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in

reference to the equatorial plane is not zero
degrees.
• Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly
above both poles of the planet on each
revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or
very close to) 90 degrees.
• Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar
orbit that passes the equator at the same local
time on every pass. Useful for image taking
satellites because shadows will be nearly the
same on every pass.
 Eccentricity classifications

• Circular orbit: An orbit that has an

eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a
circle.
– Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbital
maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one
circular orbit to another using two engine
impulses. This maneuver was named after
Walter Hohmann.
 Eccentricity classifications
• Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0
and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
– Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the
perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the
apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.
– Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee
is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at
the altitude of a geostationary orbit.
– Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and
orbital period of half of a sidereal day (roughly 12 hours). Such a
satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the
planet.
– Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and
orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours). Such a
satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the
planet.
 Eccentricity classifications
• Hyperbolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity greater
than 1. Such an orbit also has a velocity in excess of the
escape velocity and as such, will escape the
gravitational pull of the planet and continue to travel
infinitely.
• Parabolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity equal to 1.
Such an orbit also has a velocity equal to the escape
velocity and therefore will escape the gravitational pull of
the planet and travel until its velocity relative to the
planet is 0. If the speed of such an orbit is increased it
will become a hyperbolic orbit.
– Escape orbit (EO): A high-speed parabolic orbit where the
object has escape velocity and is moving away from the planet.
– Capture orbit: A high-speed parabolic orbit where the object has
escape velocity and is moving toward the planet.
 Synchronous classifications

• Synchronous orbit: An orbit where the satellite has an

orbital period equal to the average rotational period
(earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) of the
body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation
as that body. To a ground observer such a satellite would
trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
• Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): An orbit with an
altitude of approximately 20200 km (12544.2 miles) and
an orbital period equal to one-half of the average
rotational period (earth's is approximately 12 hours) of
the body being orbited
 Synchronous classifications
• Geosynchronous orbit (GEO): Orbits with an altitude of
approximately 35786 km (22240 miles). Such a satellite would trace
an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
• Geostationary orbit (GSO): A geosynchronous orbit with an
inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would
appear as a fixed point in the sky.
– Clarke orbit: Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after
scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.
• Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit above
GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal
orbit.
• Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO.
Satellites will drift east.
• Graveyard orbit: An orbit a few hundred kilometers above
geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their
operation.
– Disposal orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
– Junk orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
 Synchronous classifications
• Areosynchronous orbit: A synchronous orbit around
the planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to
Mars' sidereal day, 24,6229 hours.
• Areostationary orbit (ASO): A circular areosynchronous
orbit on the equatorial plane and about 17000 km(10557
miles) above the surface. To an observer on the ground
this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.
• Heliosynchronous orbit: An heliocentric orbit about the
Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the
Sun's period of rotation. These orbits occur at a radius of
24,360 Gm (0,1628 AU) around the Sun, a little less than
half of the of Mercury.
 Special classifications

• Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which

combines altitude and inclination in such a way
that the satellite passes over any given point of
the planets's surface at the same local solar
time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in
constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy,
and weather satellites.
• Moon orbit: The orbital characteristics of earth's
moon. Average altitude of 384403 kilometres
(238857 mi), elliptical-inclined orbit.
 Pseudo-orbit classifications
• Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be
orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet.
• Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of
orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.
– Suborbital spaceflight: A synonym for exo-orbit.
• Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)
• Prograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of less than 90°. Or
rather, an orbit that is in the same direction as the rotation of the
primary.
• Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more than 90°. Or
rather, an orbit counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Apart
from those in sun-synchronous orbit, few satellites are launched into
retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them
is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the
rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward
component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at
its launch latitude.
• Halo orbit and Lissajous orbit: Orbits "around" Lagrangian points.
 Satellite Modules
Spacecraft bus or service module
• This first module consist of five subsystems:
• The Structural Subsystems
– The structural subsystem provides the mechanical
base structure, shields the satellite from extreme
temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage,
and controls the satellite’s spin functions.
• The Telemetry Subsystems
– The telemetry subsystem monitors the on-board
equipment operations, transmits equipment operation
data to the earth control station, and receives the
earth control station’s commands to perform
equipment operation adjustments.
• The Power Subsystems
– The power subsystem consists of solar panels and backup
batteries that generate power when the satellite passes into the
earth’s shadow.
• The Thermal Control Subsystems
– The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic
equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or
the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellite’s body
• The Attitude and Orbit Controlled Control
Subsystems
– The attitude and orbit controlled subsystem consists of small
rocket thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital
position and keep antennas positioning in the right directions.
• Communication Payload
• The second major module is the communication
payload, which is made up of transponders.
• A transponders is capable of :
– Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth
satellite transmission stations (antennas).
– Amplifying received radio signals
– Sorting the input signals and directing the output
signals through input/output signal multiplexers
to the proper downlink antennas for
retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations
(antennas).