In this form, we write a variable (say x) representing any

1. SET
A set is a collection of well-defined and well distinguished
objects of our perception or thought.
The sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, etc.
and the members or elements of the set are denoted by lower-
case letters a, b, c, etc. If x is a member of the set A, we write
x ∈ A (read as 'x belongs to A') and if x is not a member of the
set A, we write x ∉ A (read as 'x does not belong to A,). If x
and y both belong to A, we write x, y ∈A.
2. REPRESENTATION OF A SET
Usually, sets are represented in the following two ways :
(i) Roster form or Tabular form
(ii) Set Builder form or Rule Method
member of the set followed by a property satisfied by each
member of the set.
For example, the set A of all prime numbers less than 10 in
the set-builder form is written as
A = {x | x is a prime number less that 10}
The symbol '|' stands for the words 'such that'. Sometimes,
we use the symbol ':' in place of the symbol '|'.
3. TYPES OF SETS
Empty Set or Null Set
A set which has no element is called the null set or empty
set. It is denoted by the symbol $ .
For example, each of the following is a null set :
(a) The set of all real numbers whose square is –1.
(b) The set of all rational numbers whose square is 2.

In this form, we list all the member of the set within braces (c) The set of all those integers that are both even and odd.
(curly brackets) and separate these by commas. For example, A set consisting of atleast one element is called a
the set A of all odd natural numbers less that 10 in the Roster non-empty set.
form is written as :
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

A set having only one element is called singleton set.

For example, {0} is a singleton set, whose only member is 0.
In roster form, every element of the set is listed
only once.
The order in which the elements are listed is
A set which has finite number of elements is called a finite
immaterial.
set. Otherwise, it is called an infinite set.
For example, each of the following sets denotes
For example, the set of all days in a week is a finite set
the same set {1, 2, 3}, {3, 2, 1}, {1, 3, 2}
whereas the set of all integers, denoted by
{............ -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,...} or {x | x is an integer}, is an infinite set.
An empty set $ which has no element in a finite set A is
called empty of void or null set.
 4. OPERATIONS ON SETS
Cardinal Number
Union of Two Sets
The number of elements in finite set is represented by n(A),
known as Cardinal number. The union of two sets A and B, written as A u B (read as 'A
Equal Sets union B'), is the set consisting of all the elements which are

Two sets A and B are said to be equals, written as A = B, if either in A or in B or in both Thus,
every element of A is in B and every element of B is in A. A u B = {x : x c A or x cB}
Equivalent Sets Clearly, x c A u B → x c A or x cB, and

Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent, if n x ∈ A u B → x ø A or x ø B.

(A) = n (B). Clearly, equal sets are equivalent but equivalent
sets need not be equal.
For example, the sets A = { 4, 5, 3, 2} and B = {1, 6, 8, 9} are
equivalent but are not equal.

Subset

Let A and B be two sets. If every elements of A is an element

of B, then A is called a subset of B and we write A c B or
B s A (read as 'A is contained in B' or B contains A'). B is
called superset of A.

For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d, e, f}, then

A u B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}

Intersection of Two sets

(i) Every set is a subset and a superset itself.
The intersection of two sets A and B, written as A n B
(ii) If A is not a subset of B, we write A @ B. (read as ‘A’ intersection ‘B’) is the set consisting of all the
(iii) The empty set is the subset of every set. common elements of A and B. Thus,

(iv) If A is a set with n(A) = m, then the number of A n B = {x : x c A and x c B}

subsets of A are 2m and the number of proper Clearly, x c A n B → x c A and x c B, and
subsets of A are 2m -1.
x ∈ A n B → x ∈ A or x ∈ B.
For example, let A = {3, 4}, then the subsets of A
are 𝜙 , {3}, {4}. {3, 4}. Here, n(A) = 2 and number
of subsets of A = 22 = 4. Also, {3} c {3,4}and {2,3}
c {3, 4}
Power Set

The set of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set
of A and is denoted by P(A).
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then
P(A) = { 𝜙 , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2} {1, 3}, {2, 3},
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d) and B = {c, d, e, f}, then
{1, 2, 3}}
A n B = {c, d}.
Clearly, if A has n elements, then its power set P (A) contains
exactly 2n elements.

Disjoint Sets:Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if A
n B = 𝜙 , i.e. A and B have no element in common.
Complement of a Set
If U is a universal set and A is a subset of U, then the
complement of A is the set which contains those elements
of U, which are not contained in A and is denoted by A'or
Ac. Thus,

Ac = {x : x cU and x ø A}

For example, if U = {1,2,3,4 ...} and A= {2,4,6,8,...}, then,

For example, if A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6},
then A n B = 𝜙 , so A and B are disjoint sets. Ac = {1,3,5,7, ...}

4.3 Difference of Two Sets Important Results

If A and B are two sets, then their difference A - B is defined a) Uc = 𝜙 b) 𝜙 c = U c) A u Ac = U

as :
A - B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B}. d) A n Ac = 𝜙
Similarly, B - A = {x : x ∈ B and x ∉A }.
5. ALGEBRA OF SETS

1. For any set A , we have

a) A u A = A b) A n A = A

2. For any set A, we have

c) A u 𝜙 = A d) A n 𝜙 = 𝜙

e) A u U = U f) A n U = A

3. For any two sets A and B, we have

For example, if A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
g) A u B = B u A h) A n B = B n A
then A- B = {2, 4} and B - A = {7, 9}. 4. For any three sets A, B and C, we have
Important Results i) A u (B u C) = (A u B) u C

(a) A - B s B –A j) A n (B n C) = (A n B) n C

(b) The sets A - B , B - A and A n B are disjoint sets 5. For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(c) A - B c A and B - A c B k) A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C)

(d) A - 𝜙 = A and A - A = 𝜙 l) A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C)

4.4 Symmetric Difference of Two Sets 6. If A is any set, we have (Ac)c = A.

7. Demorgan's Laws For any three sets A, B and C, we have
The symmetric difference of two sets A and B , denoted by
A Δ B, is defined as i) (A u B)c = Ac n Bc
A Δ B = (A - B) u (B - A).
ii) (A n B)c = Ac u Bc
For example, if A= {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {1, 3,5,7,9} then
iii) A - (B u C) = (A - B) n ( A - C)
A Δ B = (A- B) u (B - A) = {2,4} u{7,9} = {2,4,7,9}.
iv) A - (B n C) = (A - B) u (A- C)
IMPORTANT RESULTS

1. n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A n B)

2. n(AUBUC) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A n B) – n(B n C) - n (C n A) + n(A n B n C )
3. Let A and B be finite sets. If A ∩ B = φ, then (i) n ( A ∪ B ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ).