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Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
REVIEW
Importance of soil health management in minimizing the soil borne diseases
in Zea mays
Vimla Singh1 · Meena Shekhar1 · Rakesh Mehra2 · Sunaina Bisht3 · Robin Gogoi3 · Arvind Kumar1
Abstract: Maize is a versatile crop adapted to wide agro
ecologies with a promising potential for overwhelming
capital gains. However, the crop is afflicted by various
biotic stresses, largely fungal and bacterial. It amounts to
huge monetary losses to farmers and also amplifies the
toxicity in food chain. With the growing awareness to cut
down the use of agrochemicals in agriculture owing to
increased agrochemical poisoning, there is great demand
to use the genotypically and agronomically potential strategy
to manage biotic stresses with exuded chemicals and
balanced nutrients to influence crop production. Research
on the pathogens and soil amendments in this regards is
gaining significance. Further, interactions of the host and
pathogenic organisms, depends on the effects of structural,
chemical, and physical soil heterogeneity which helps in
absorption of minerals from soil. The present article reviews
the balanced nutrition within the cropping systems in
relation to the success of biological interventions. We
discuss here the need to characterize the agronomic
interventions therein to strategize management of biotic
stresses. With the advent of new techniques, direct
visualization and quantification of edaphic processes in field
conditions for better genetic and agronomic approaches
can be optimized. By integrating interventions related to
soil chemistry and biology with other management
 Meena Shekhar: shekhar.meena@gmail.com
1
ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New
Delhi-110012, India
2
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Regional Research Station,
Karnal-132001, Haryana, India
3
Division of Plant Pathology, I.A.R.I., New Delhi-110012, India
Received: 21 April 2017/ Accepted: 18 July 2017
© Maize Technologists Association of India 2017
constraints of specific farming systems, promising yields
in maize can be derived.
Keywords: Soil environment · Soil health interventions ·
Disease management · Maize
Introduction
Interaction among plants, soils nutrients and pests or
pathogens is a complex phenomenon. In general plants,
suffering from nutrient stress are susceptible to pest and
diseases. Although disease resistance is governed by
genetics but the genetic potential is expressed by plant health
which has a direct relation with mineral nutrition. Severity
of many diseases can be reduced by proper nutrition (Fig.
1). Hence, fertilizer recommendations need to be developed
to optimize nutrient uptake and provide the crop with
adequate nutrients for normal growth and yield. There may
be 3 or 4 components associated with disease cycle viz.,
host, environment, pathogen/pest or vector. By interrupting
any aspect of disease cycle effective management of
diseases can be done. Pesticides are toxic to plants and
ecosystem in overdoses, which is reflected as negative
impact on population of soil micro organisms, small
necrotrophs and decomposers which serve to maintain soil
health.
Maize is attacked by several species of bacteria causing
root, leaf and stalk wilts, leaf spots, and seedling blight.
Also, several genera of fungal diseases of maize include
leaf blight, banded leaf and sheath blight, brown spot, post
flowering stalk rot, ear rot, brown leaf spot, downy
mildews, rust, false smut, cob rots etc. Most of the bacterial
and fungal diseases are soil borne.
Nutrients play an important role in growth and
development of plants and microorganisms and are
important factors in disease control. All the essential
2 Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
nutrients can affect disease severity (Huber and Graham,
1999). However, a particular nutrient can not only decrease
the severity of a disease but also increase the severity of
the disease incidence of other diseases or have a completely
opposite effect in a different environment (Graham and
Webb, 1991; Huber, 1980). The soil has natural reservoir
of macro and micro nutrients which can effectively prevent
pathogens and pest from attacking crops, if a natural balance
of nutrients is maintained. Soil provides a medium for seed
germination and root growth for absorption of water and
mineral nutrients. It stores reserves of nutrients within the
organic matter and mineral components, to be released into
usable forms at different rates. Root contains a matrix in
which transformations of nutrients occur through
biological, chemical and physical processes (Huber et al.,
2005; Powlson et al., 2011; Datnoff et al., 2007). The
present review discusses the effect of mineral imbalance
on disease resistance/susceptibility of host plant and
interaction with pathogens. The information presented in
the subsequent sections can be used by maize researchers
to devise a comprehensive IDM module in consideration
to the soil health.
Host pathogen interactions
Fungi germinate as spores on plant surfaces and invade
host tissues through natural openings like stomata, lenticels
Fig. 1. Healthy Plant Vs Diseased plant
(Source: Department of Plant Pathology. The Ohio State University Courtesy: Sarah et al.www.ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/plpath-gen-2)
or epidermal cell walls. This invasion is accomplished by
release of several tissue solubilizing enzymes as well as
compounds to counter the strength and integrity of cells.
However, polyphenols and flavonoids are also released by
host to resist the fungal invasion. The production and
transport of these compounds to sites of infection involves
minerals nutrients. In this event, if the host is malnourished,
the battle is won by the pathogen. Nitrogen (N) helps in
metabolites translocation, Calcium (Ca ++), maintains
integrity of cell walls and Potassium (K) maintains ionic
balance and turgidity of cell. Spore’s cytoplasm is denser,
the walls are thicker, and the metabolic rate is slower than
found in hyphae. Thus, thin and weak cell walls may leak
nutrients within the cell to the apoplast, favouring
germination of fungal spores on leaf and root surfaces.
However, mineral nutrient levels directly influence the
amount and composition of leakage hence, mineral
imbalances lower resistance to fungal diseases providing a
favorable environment for pathogens. Boron plays a key
role in the synthesis of these compounds. Borate-
complexing compounds trigger the enhanced formation of
a number of plant defense chemicals at the site of infection
(Gupta and Solanki, 2013). Mineral nutrition also affects
the formation of mechanical barriers in plant tissue, for
instance, the accumulation of silicon (Si) in the cell wall
helps in forming a protective physical barrier to fungal
penetration. Excessively high N levels lower the B and Si
Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
content and increase susceptibility to fungal diseases
(Zeyen, 2002; Epstein and Bloom, 2003). Other
micronutrients alos play important role in disease resistance,
viz., Copper (Cu) is widely used as a fungicide. The action
of Cu as a fungicide relies on direct application to the plant
surface and the infecting fungi. Cu deficiency leads to
impaired defense compound production, accumulation of
soluble carbohydrates, and reduced lignifications,
contributing to lower disease resistance (Weckx and
Clijsters, 1996). Plants which have low Cu level in tissue
(based on nutrient standards, Evans et al., 2006) are more
susceptible to various diseases. Therefore, the disease
suppression capabilities of Cu can be said to occur over a
wide range of concentration, and to function both as a
direct inhibitor to various diseases as well as enabling plants
to better defend themselves from disease. An experiment
with tomatoes revealed that Zn++ essentially negated the
fungicidal effects of Cu treatments. Zn is much less toxic
to many pathogens compared to Cu. When uptake of Cu
was suppressed by excess Zn, the stronger disease control
benefits of Cu were also reduced. Thus, there was a net
increase of disease in the plants
Bacterial diseases primarily leaf top and stalk rots are
also major biotic constraints in maize. Bacteria mainly enter
through natural openings and invade the intercellular spaces.
Thus, the defense mechanism requires strengthening of
internal tissues affected by antibacterial compounds in
response to infection to counter the proteolytic enzymes.
Bacterial stalk rot spreads by producing slime in the
vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) which disintegrate
the cell causing wilting. Certain plant nutrients support in
blocking or reducing the bacterial slime. Mineral nutrition
affects susceptibility to bacterial infections in much the
same way as it affects fungal infections. Potassium and
Ca play key roles in forming an effective barrier to
infections. When K, Ca, and, often, N levels are deficient,
plants are more susceptible to bacterial attacks. A frequent
symptom of B deficiency is the development of “corky”
tissue along leaf veins and stems as a result of the irregular
cell growth that occurs when B is deficient. These irregular
cells are more loosely bound than normal cells, essentially
producing wounds through which bacteria can enter.
Adequate increase in N levels increase minimizes bacterial
diseases; however, excessive N can makes the plant
susceptible.
Disease relationships to K content are more consistent.
K reduces bacterial and fungal diseases up to 70% and
insects and up to mites 60%. Potassium (K) is an important
nutrient as it is involved in functioning of stomata and
3
metabolic pathways as well. According to Levitt (1974)
theory, the change in turgor pressure of the guard cells is
also responsible to open and close the stomata and results
in absorption and loss of K+ ions by guard cells. In K+
deficient condition stomata remain open that result into
more loss of water due to transpiration which is a
predisposing condition for PFSR. Again in potassium
deficient condition the rate of photosynthesis is lower and
may result in pith senescence. Hence, maintaining a
sufficient supply of potassium to prevent lodging needs
more attention in maize hybrids. The response to
phosphorus varies with the season, cultivar and the
pathogen while at higher level of phosphorus severity of
stalk rot does not decrease. Lower dose of Potassium
coupled with higher dose of nitrogen favors stalk rot
incidence. Also, limited access to nutrients is critical to
photosynthesis, can cause carbohydrate stress that favors
stalk rot. Calcium affects the incidence of bacterial disease
in a variety of ways. Ca supports in stability of cell walls.
Calcium deficiencies trigger the accumulation of sugars
and amino acids in the apoplast, which lowers disease
resistance. Ca rich plants are tolerant to bacterial diseases
and physiological disorders that cause post harvest rotting.
Molybdenum deficiency lowers disease resistance by
affecting the production of nitrate reductase.
Plant nutrition affects both fungi and bacteria, and hence
the severity of diseases they spread. It is reported that the
nutrient status of a plant can affect the aphid population on
plants e.g. certain aphids tend to settle on yellow reflecting
surfaces, such as chlorotic leaves caused by nutrient
deficiency. Feeding intensity and reproduction by sucking
insects tend to be higher on plants with higher amino acid
content (Ohashi and Matsuoka, 1987). This condition is
typical of plants suffering from certain nutrient stresses.
It is reported that, silicon, application physically inhibits
the feeding ability of some sucking insects like aphids. In
studies with watercress, it was reported that high levels of
Zn effectively controls fungus which is also a vector for
the chlorotic leaf spot virus. Therefore, high Zn fertilization
can be effective to manage both a fungus and a virus
(Wenzel and Mehlhorn, 1995).
Role of Macro and micronutrient in biotic stress
management
A healthy soil has all the necessary mineral nutrients to
regulate disease resistance or tolerance (Graham and Webb,
1991). Resistance depends on the genotype of the two
organisms, plant age and changes in the environment.
4 Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
Although plant disease resistance and tolerance are
genetically controlled, they are affected by the environment
and especially by nutrient deficiencies and toxicities.
However, enough information is not available for appropriate
role of micronutrient management practices in sustainable
agriculture that can reduce yield losses in maize due to
diseases and improper doses of micronutrient as well. There
are many agronomic factors that affect the severity of plant
disease viz., planting time, crop rotation, mulching and
mineral nutrients, organic amendments (manures and green
manures), liming for pH adjustment, tillage, seedbed
preparation and irrigation (Huber and Graham, 1999).
Certain pathogens can immobilize nutrients in the
rhizosphere, or in infected tissues such as roots, while
others interfere with translocation or utilization efficiency,
causing nutrient deficiency or hyper accumulation and
nutrient toxicity (Huber and Graham, 1999). Also, some
organisms can utilize a significant amount of nutrients for
their growth, causing a reduction in the availability of
nutrients for the plant which therefore increases its
susceptibility to disease (Fig. 2).
Mineral fertilization reduces disease severity for
instance, when N was applied to the soil the incidence of
Fig. 2. Visual symptoms due to mineral deficiencies
(Image Courteys: University of Arizona Cooperative Extension via
P interest)
post flowering stalk rot is reduced. Also, P reduced Pythium
root rot and stalk rot infection also (Huber, 1980). However,
in case of foliar diseases, e.g. rust and mildews, N
application caused an increase in the incidence of the
diseases. Since the interaction of nutrients and disease
pathogens is complex. The effect of each nutrient on
certain diseases, its role in metabolism and also the possible
effects of deficiency on the plant are discussed in Table 1
below.
Mineral nutrition as affected by soil pH
Most of the mineral nutrients are available to crops within
the pH range of 6.5-7.5 (Fig. 3). It is recommended to
neutralize the pH before plantation. At neutral pH the existing
nutrients are unlocked and are readily available to plants.
At pH >7.5, phosphate ions react with Ca and Mg to form
less soluble compounds while at pH <5.0, phosphate ions
react with Fe and Al to form less soluble compounds. Also
most of the plant nutrients become less available if pH goes
above 7.5 therefore; to neutralize pH of acidic soil (pH
4.0-6.0) lime/dolomite is used and for alkaline soils pH above
8.3, gypsum/magnesium sulphate is used for neutralization.
Soil borne Fungal and Bacterial Diseases
Many soil borne pathogens infect the roots, which
impairs its ability to absorb water and nutrients (Huber and
Graham, 1999). The effects are serious when the levels of
Fig. 3. Source: Balance chart of micro and macronutrient to fight
against pests and diseases
(Image Courteys: Mid Klamath Watershed Council)
Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
Table 1. Role of macro and micro nutrients in plant nutrition and disease management
S. No. Nutrients Role in plant metabolism
1. Nitrogen (N) It is vital and major component
of chlorophyll and affects
overall growth of plants by
photosynthesis. It is the basic
building block of proteins and
a component of nucleic acids
2. Phosphorus Stimulates root growth, stalk and
stem strength, flowering, crop
maturity, crop quality, resistance
against diseases. It affects overall
life cycle of plants
3. Potassium (K) K+ acts as mobile regulator of
enzyme activity. Involved in
essentially all cellular functions that
influence disease severity. It alters
the compatibility relationship of
the host-parasite environment
within the plant. Shortage of K
reduces the amount of the plants
natural antifungal compounds at
the site of infection. Potassium
plays a central role in the
development of thick cuticles,
a physical barrier to infection or
penetration by sucking insects.
It supports rapid healing of
wounds and the accumulation of
compounds toxic to the fungus
around the wounds and insects
4. Calcium (Ca) It is structural component of cell
walls and other plant membranes,
plays role in improving the storage
life of fleshy fruit by inhibits cell
wall degrading enzymes activity
of pathogens.
Ca shortage results in improper
formation or function of the plant
cell walls, hence, increased
disease infection or spread within
the plants.
Deficiency symptoms
High rates along with low Zn,
Ca, or K favour disease.
Causes succulent growth and
thinner cell walls, Increased
plant density, thus more
humid air around the plants
causes delay in crop maturity,
higher amino acid content
in plant.
Deficiency appears as stunted
growth, extremely pale colour,
and upright leaves with light
green/yellow colour. Appears
burnt in extreme deficiency.
Purplish or reddish colour on
lower leaves and stem, Plants
short and dark green, extreme
deficiency develops brown or
black colour sometime bronze
colour under the leaf
Excess K inhibits the uptake
of Mg and Ca.
K+ deficiency favours accum-
ulation of nitrogen compo-
unds, sugars, etc., providing
conditions for parasite
development.
Tissue hardening, stomatal
opening patterns, etc. further
enhance infestation intensity.
Deficiency appears as small
spots on tips, edges of pale
leaves, Spots turn rusty and
fold at tips.
As the Ca content of the
tissue increases, the K and
Mg content is decreased, this
reduces resistance to infection.
Low Ca permits increased
transport of sugars from with
in the cell to the intercellular
spaces in the plant tissue
which tends favour growth
of pathogens.
Deficiency appears as plant
appearing dark green, with
tender and pale coloured
leaves, drying starts from tips
and eventually leaves die.
5
Disease susceptibility/resistance
Stalk rot in maize (Diplodia spp.,
Fusarium spp.), Root rot in maize
(Phythium spp.) Cyst nematode
(Heterodera spp.) are reduced by (NH4
form), increased by (NO3 form) nitrogen.
Northern blight in corn (Helminthos-
porium spp.) and Fusarium wilt (Fusarium
spp.) root rot (Rhizoctonia solani) are
increased by (NH4 form), decreased by
(NO3 form) nitrogen.
Corn smut, downy mildews, Pythium root
rots and leaf and sheath blight diseases
caused by Rhizoctonia solani
Plants tolerate nematode infections with
less yield loss. Reduces bacterial and
fungal diseases, nematodes and termite
incidence Reduces foliar and stalk rot
diseases. Gives stalk strength to the stalk
which is responsible to reduce stalk rot
in maize.
Effectively manages, N. Leaf blight
(Exherohilum turcicum); Root rot
(Gibberella saubinetti), Stalk rot
(Fusarium moniliforme, Gibberella zeae,
Diplodia zeae), Stem rot (Fusarium
culmorum), Stewart’s wilt (Erwinia
stewartii).
Infection causes increased production of
fungus inhibiting phenolic compounds
and flavonoids, both at the site of
infection and in other parts of the plant.
The production and transport of these
compounds is controlled in large part by
the general nutrition of the plant.
Increased leaf spot diseases, bacterial
stalk rot and top rot diseases.
6 Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
Table 1. (contd...........) Role of macro and micro nutrients in plant nutrition and disease management
S. No. Nutrients Role in plant metabolism
4. Boron (B) It forms carbohydrate-borate
complexes, which control
carbohydrate transport and cell
wall protein metabolism, cell
membrane permeability or
stability, metabolism of
phenolics and a plays a primary
role in the synthesis of lignin.
It helps in production of disease
protection compounds and
structures within plants.
5. Copper (Cu) Copper is an essential nutrient
for higher plants as well as fungi
and bacteria. It is very toxic to
all plant forms when present at
high levels. The difference in
tolerance enables growers to use
Cu as a disease treatment.
Cu acts to detoxify oxygen
radicals (O= and OH-) and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), form
in response to infection thus
limiting damage to plant cells.
6. Manganese Plays key role in the production
(Mn) of phenolic compounds and
lignin formation, two of the major
items in resistance against disease,
later detoxification.
7. Zinc (Zn) Zn aids both in the production
and detoxification of oxygen
radicals and hydrogen peroxide,
thus limiting damage to plant
cells. It is essential to the
integrity and stability of plant
membranes and it is thought to
help prevent “leakage” of
essential elements or compounds
from plant cells.
8. Iron (Fe) Fe has a role in both the produc-
tion and detoxification of oxygen
radicals and hydrogen peroxide,
thus it limits damage to plant
cells.
Deficiency symptoms Disease susceptibility/resistance
Plant cell walls tend to swell Boron deficiency favours yellows in
and split having weakened various crops (Fusarium oxysporum),
intercellular space which Stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) and
provides easy expansion of Charcoal stalk rot in maize
the infection. (Macrophomina phaseolina).
Deficiency appears as disco-
loration of leaf buds which
break and drop down.
Shortages of key nutrients Decreases the severity of a wide range of
such as K, Mn, Cu, Zn, and fungal and bacterial diseases, particularly
B reduce the amount of the foliar diseases e.g. Leaf blight (Helmintho-
plants natural antifungal sporium spp.) and fungal leaf spot
compounds at the site of (Alternaria spp.)
infection.
Deficiency appears as pale
pink coloration between the
veins, wilting and drooping
of leaves.
Contributes to the suppr- Favours Helminthosporium and
ession of fungus and bacterial Alternaria leaf spot, various mildews and
diseases. It catalyses several Pythium root and stalk rot.
biochemical reactions.
Deficiency appears as pale
coloured leaves, dark green
and articulated veins and
veinules.
Zinc shortages contribute to Effective against Phytopthora spp.,
the accumulation of unused Fusarium root/stalk rot, leaf spots by
sugars within the plant and Physoderma spp., Alternaria spp., Post
leakage of sugars onto the flowering stalk rot by Fusarium and
surface of the leaf enhancing Verticilium spp., Rhizoctonia stem/sheath
fungal and bacterial invasion. blights, Downey mildew etc.
It’s shortage also enhances
feeding intensity and repro-
duction by sucking insects.
Deficiency appears as pale,
narrow and short, dark green
veins. Dark spots on leaves
and edges.
Generally plant pathogens Effective for managing Rusts and Smuts
have a high requirement for vector borne diseases.
Fe. However, increased Fe
availability or uptake can
actually increase disease
severity.
Deficiency appears as pale col-
ored leaves with green major
major veins. No spots on leaves.
Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8 7

Table 1. (contd........) Role of macro and micro nutrients in plant nutrition and disease management

S. No. Nutrients Role in plant metabolism Deficiency symptoms Disease susceptibility/resistance

9. Chlorine (Cl) Essential micronutrient with Excessive Cl increases Effective in controlling Bacterial stalk rot
significant disease control salinity stress causing plant of maize caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi
benefits. damage. and other fungal rot caused by Gibberella
zeae, Gobbler Fusarium moniliforme),
Northern corn leaf blight (Exserohilum
turcicum), downy mildews

10. Silicon (Si) Increases the effectiveness of Deficiency results in poor Effective in controlling Brown spot
the mechanical barrier that defense against insects and Powdery mildew and Rust diseases.
plants present to infection pathogen invasion.
Transported to sites of infection Prevents from vector borne viral diseases.
in defense processes it transports
of the disease fighting phenolic
compounds to the infection sites.

11. Molybdenum Little known about the effects Effect of Mo deficiency on
(Mo) that on plant diseases. plant diseases may be
indirect, through its role in
N metabolism.
Deficiency appears as light
green/lemon yellow or orange
leaves. Spots on whole leaf
except veins. Sticky secretions
from under the leaf.
Reduces stalk rot caused by Fusarium
Verticillioides and reduces reproduction
of Phytophthora spp. Causes preflowering
stalk rot in maize.
Soil applications of Mo minimizes
populations of the nematode
Rotylenchulus reniformis.

12. Nickel (Ni) Plays a key role in N
metabolism in plants.
Critical level in plants is reported
to be between 10 and 100 ppb
(parts per billion).
Deficiency symptoms similar Reduction in rust pustules (@ 30 ppb to
to Nitrogen deficiency. 3.3 ppm to the roots).
Reduced the level of rust infection (@ 1).

13. Cadmium (Cd) Low concentrations has been Toxic to plants in low Suppresses the effects of mildews in
found to stimulate or enhance quantities. maize.
the formation of lignin. Up to 3 ppm depresses plant
growth.

14. Lithium (Li) Toxic at low levels Toxic at soil levels in excess Significantly suppress the effects of
of 2 to 5 ppm. various mildews.

nutrients are marginal and also form immobile nutrients.
Also, stem girdling or acropetal infection can limit root
growth and affect nutrient and water uptake. Pathogens
also affect membrane permeability or mobilization towards
infected sites, which induces nutrient deficiency or toxicity.
Fusarium spp. can increase the concentration of P in leaves,
but at the same time, decrease the concentration of N, K,
Ca and Mg (Huber and Graham, 1999).
A micronutrient-deficient plant usually has poor defense
against soil borne diseases. The effect may be direct e.g.,
soil-applied manganese (Mn) inhibit the growth of certain
fungi, hence, nitrites are toxic to some Fusarium and
Phytophthora species because nitritification requires Mn.
The use of ammonium-based fertilizers generally makes
plants susceptible to some diseases (e.g., Fusarium and
Phytophthora root rots), whereas nitrate-based fertilizers
reduce disease incidence. The effects may be due to
reduced pH by ammonium fertilizers and increased soil pH
by nitrate fertilizers.
Mineral nutrition and disease incidence
Incidence of pests such as insects, mites, and nematodes
are a concerns for yields. These pests also carry pathogens.
Visual factors such as leaf color are important factors in
pest susceptibility. Mechanical barriers (tough fibers, silicon
crystals, lignifications) and chemical/biochemical barriers
(attractants, toxins, and repellents) are primary lines of
defense against pests which is regulated by mineral balance.
There is often a correlation between N applications
8 Maize Journal (April & October 2017) 6(1&2): 1-8
(stimulation of growth) and pest attack so; younger tissues
of plants are more susceptibility to pest attack. Boron
deficiency increases pest susceptibility due to poor
synthesis of flavonoids and phenolic compounds which
form the biochemical defense mechanism.
Conclusion
Utilizing soil for agriculture inevitably leads to changes in
soil properties such as nutrient status, pH, organic matter
content, and physical characteristics. A balanced human
intervention, replenishment of soil water storage and runoff
to prevent risk of soil erosion and transfer of sediments to
surface with proper regulation of the movement of
nutrients, pollutants and sediments to surface- or ground-
waters can be effective for maintaining soil health. It’s
further necessary that plant pathologists should identify
and focus on management practices that promote soil health,
have positive effects on the management of soil borne
diseases.
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