1

Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

IMPACTS OF WEEDS INFESTATION

IN RICE PRODUCTION

RUCELLE D. BAYUTA
JESUSA DANIELA N. DACANAY
KATE B. MARQUEZ
JULIANE CAMILE U. VISDA

An Article Review Submitted to the Hybrid Rice Technology Division of the Philippine-
Sino Center for Agricultural Technology, Central Luzon State University,
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Subject of

AGRIC 3400 – Apprenticeship

(Bachelor of Science in Agriculture)

JULY 2023
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INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Weeds are generally wild plants that grow in areas where only specific crops are

cultivated. Others describe weeds as plants whose identity has not yet been discovered.

According to Penn State Extension, weeds are plants that showcase competitiveness,

persistence, perniciousness, and cause negative interference with human activity. In

agriculture, weeds are regarded as one of the major pests in crop production. Weeds are

abundant and characterized as persistent, which causes challenges in various ecosystems

and significant economic, ecological, and agricultural disruptions. This pest can be found

in agricultural fields, gardens, lawns, forests, water bodies, and urban areas. Contrary to

common knowledge, plants that are considered weeds aren’t only from the grass family.

It emphasizes plants and crops alike that aren’t the primary cultivars.

As previously stated, weeds are any plant that grows where it is unwanted and

competes with desirable crops for space, nutrients, water, and sunlight. These are

characterized by their ability to adapt and thrive in diverse environments. These

unwanted plants exhibit rapid growth, high reproductive rates, and efficient dispersal

mechanisms. Along with these characteristics, it enables weeds to withstand extreme

environmental conditions compared to crops, which are more fragile in nature. While

often considered undesirable or invasive, weeds play a crucial role in the natural

environment (MacLaren, 2020).

Rice is an essential source of food worldwide. However, weeds' growth negatively

impacts agricultural crop production, affecting yield, quality, and overall agricultural
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sustainability. According to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI),

weed damage has become a major factor affecting rice production, potentially reducing

rice yield by 20 to 80%. Weed competition ensues, leading to significant losses in rice

yields and severely threatening food security and agricultural sustainability.

In rice production, especially in the Philippines, weeds are among the top limiting

pests. If weeds aren’t properly managed, they can reduce rice yield from 44 to 96% by

competing for necessary plant resources for growth and development. The emergence of

weeds also affects the cost of production in rice cultivation through increased

management inputs and labor. The presence of weeds can also lower the quality and value

of harvested rice grains through contamination and mixing during the harvest season. The

presence of weeds can serve as an alternative host to disease-causing microorganisms

such as pathogens, insect pests, rice, and other relevant pests of rice (Donayre et al.,

2018).

Weeds can make the process of harvesting more difficult, which in turn increases

the amount of time and effort required. They have the potential to become entangled with

rice plants, which can result in losses during harvesting and the handling of harvested rice

afterward. To reduce the impacts of weed damage and impacts on rice production, it is

essential to understand the abundant weeds occurring in the area. Along with this, the

classification of weeds is crucial to understand to effectively apply management practices

when it comes to the emergence of weeds in the field. The following review of literature

will tackle weeds and their presence in rice production.

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This section provides a numeration of studies related to the impacts of weeds in

rice production. It tackles on the definition of weeds in rice fields, its classification, and

the incidences of weeds both inside and out of the country. The impacts of the weeds on

rice production are also included to show the significant reduction in rice yield when

weeds are left uncontrolled. Weed management practices are also included to review the

appropriate practices to be applied to prevent and reduce weed incidences on the rice

field.

Definition of Weeds and its Occurrences

Weed competition is the most important biological factor that reduces agricultural

crop yield. This happens primarily as a result of weeds consuming resources that would

otherwise be available to the crop. Several agronomic and environmental factors affect

yield loss of crops including weed density and time of emergence relative to the crop.

The competitive effects of weeds on crops can be minimize through practices that (1)

reduce weed density, (2) increase crop area or resource use, or (3) establish a crop size

advantage over weeds early in the growing season. Crop rotations, particularly crop

sequences that reduce the weed seed bank and therefore seedling density and prevent the

spread of perennial weeds, can be used in long term management of crop-weed

competition (Gallandt & Weiner, 2015).

Weeds are major problems across multiple ecosystems, from broadacre cropping

to rangelands, water bodies, natural systems, and recreation areas. They are unwanted
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plants that under certain circumstances can have negative impacts by, for examples,

contributor to yield loss and reduction in yield quality in an agricultural setting,

competing with the crop for resources like light, water, and nutrients (Vilà et al., 2004).

In comparison with pest and diseases, weeds have the potential to incur the greatest yield

loss, through competition with the crop and decreasing yield quality. This competition,

along with the cost of weed management strategies like tillage and herbicides, is

responsible for the economic impact of weeds, which can reach into the billions (Soltani,

2017).

The occurrence of weeds has the potential to result in significant reductions in

crop yield within the context of rice cultivation. The presence of weeds has the potential

to impede the growth of rice, restrict tillering, and decrease the quantity of productive

panicles produced by each plant. Weeds can cause a deterioration in the quality of rice

grains by infecting them with weed seeds, debris, and other unwelcome substances. This

could have a negative impact on the market value of the rice crop as well as the crop's

general popularity (Monteiro, 2022).

To apply appropriate management practices against weeds, it is important to

understand their classification, morphology, and life cycle, which helps in weed

identification. Proper weed identification is crucial to the right selection and effective

implementation of weed management practices. A compilation of weed identification

provides knowledge and information to guide farmers, researchers, extension workers,

and students to familiarize themselves and increase awareness. Weed identification also

varies depending on the country it is found, but a local herbarium can be involved for
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plant and weed taxonomy for proper weed identification and later on can be used for

weed control and management (FAO, n.d.). Learning about the various and distinct

characteristics of weeds will help people understand and apply economic and

environmental-friendly control measures.

Weed Classification

Weeds are monocotyledons, which are considered true grasses, possessing single

seed leaves as they emerge from the soil. Most of the time, weeds are described as having

long and narrow leaves with parallel venation patterns. The growth of leaves rises in an

alternate pattern on each side. There are two parts that make up the lower portion of

weeds, which are called the sheath and blade. A great number of weeds are characterized

by fibrous root systems. To distinguish weeds from crops, certain characteristics must be

evident, setting them apart from crops (Lingenfelter, 2007). These characteristics are used

to classify weeds according to various categories such as morphology, life cycle, and

photosynthetic activity.

Weeds Based on Morphology

Based on morphology, there are three types of weeds. There are grasses, sedges,

and broadleaves. Grasses are in the Graminae (Pocaceae) family. As stated in the

previous paragraph, this type of weed has long and narrow leaves, ligules, and sometimes

auricles. Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) is classified under this weed type. To distinguish

rice crops from weedy rice, the basis includes the length of the awn, which is longer than

that of cultivated rice crops. In comparison with cultivated rice, mature seeds of this
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variant easily detach from the plant when touched. Weedy rice is a strong competitor

when it comes to nutrient, water, and sunlight consumption. It absorbs more nitrogen than

rice crops. This can reduce rice yield by 20 to 90% at densities of 5 to 40 plants per

square meter. The management of weedy rice is quite difficult through the use of

chemical and manual methods due to the same physiological and morphological

characteristics as cultivated rice crops (Donayre et al., 2021).

Weeds under the sedge classification are members of the Cyperaceae family.

Sedges are similar to grasses, but this type of weed lacks ligules and auricles. The leaves'

venation on sedges is parallel, but the leaf sheaths are patterned continuously around the

stem. Broadleaves, on the other hand, are from a wide variety of families such as

Amaranthaceae, Commelinaceae, Pontederiaceae, Rubiaceae, and Hydrophyllaceae, to

name a few. This classification of weeds showcases leaves that are fully expanded with

netted venations. Parts of broadleaves such as leaves, flowers, stems, and branches are

arranged broadly in a wide array of shapes, colors, and structures (Donayre et al., 2021).

Weed Based on Life Cycle

The life cycle of weeds is simply the seasonal pattern of growth, development,

and reproduction. The annual and perennial life cycles of weeds are the two common

classifications determined by weeds in the Philippines. In other countries, there are

additional life cycle types due to the number of seasons occurring; the specific cycles

include annual, summer annual, winter annual, biennial, perennial, and creeping

perennial (Oregon State University, n.d.). Weeds with annual life cycles are those that

complete their cycle from seed to seed in less than one year within a cropping season.
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Perennial weeds are those that complete their life cycle in more than a year. These types

of weeds can be simple or creeping. Simple perennials are dispersed through seeds and

vegetative propagation. It can regenerate vegetatively into a new plant even after its

shoots get cut off from the main or mother plant. On the other hand, creeping perennials

can reproduce by means of seeds and their vegetative organs like stolons, rhizomes,

tubers, aerial bulblets, and bulbs (Donayre et al., 2021).

Based on Photosynthetic Activity

Under photosynthetic activity, there are two classifications which are C 3 and C4

weeds. C3 weeds are those that employ their photosynthetic pathway with 3-carbon

compound as its first stable product. The weeds categorized under this type prefer

environments with moderate temperature and sunlight intensity. This type weed however

cannot withstand high temperatures and are prone to photorespiration. C 3 are the

dominant in rice fields that are under submerged conditions.

The second classification under photosynthetic activity are C 4 weeds. This type is

those that are more efficient where 4-carbon compound is the first stable product. C4

weeds are those that have physiological adaptations that enables them to survive extreme

temperatures and drier areas.

Weeds in Rice Production

In total, there are approximately 250,000 plant species worldwide. About three

percent or 8,000 of those are weed species. Out of those 8,000 species, only 200 to 250

weeds are considered to be major problems in cropping systems worldwide (PennState

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Extension). The occurrence of these weeds also varies with the location and temperature

on specific continents. The following article will elaborate the commonly growing weeds

in Asia and in the Philippines.

Weeds of Rice in Asia

In Asia, there are 12 weeds considered to be the most troublesome in rice

production. These twelve weeds are collectively named as the dirty dozen identified by

the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). The twelve weeds below will be defined

by their morphology, biology and ecology, and agricultural importance.

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Table 1. The Dirty Dozen Weeds of Asia in Rice Production by Rice Knowledge Bank

Weeds Morphology Biology and Ecology Agricultural Importance

Cyperus iria L. These are tufted annual herbs, This type of weeds thrives in This weed is an important and widespread
Cyperaceae or occasionally perennial, with wetland rice, dryland annual pest especially in South and Southeast
fibrous yellowish red roots. crops, and plantation crops. Asia.

Stems are sharply angled, This type of weeds can produce It is an ovipositional host of insect pests
tufted and about 5-80 cm in 3,000 to 5,000 seeds per plant. and diseases of rice such as Creatonotus
height. gangis L. and Pyricularia oryzae.
Cyperus difformis This is an annual weed, with The small flower umbrella plant This weed produces a large quantity of
Cyperaceae fibrous and reddish roots. It thrives in wet or damp rich soils seeds. It completes it life cycle in about 30
can grow up to 100 cm tall. and is popular in lowland rice days. This dominant weed in direct-seeded
cultivation. rice occurs in high plant densities.
The stem is smooth, erect,
triangular, and thick and It is also found in fallow areas It forms a dense mat of vegetation in the
sometimes slightly winged. on poorer sandy or clay soils, early stages of the crop and reduces rice
although it cannot withstand yiled by 12-50%.
It produces brownish nut, significant floods. It has a
slight obovate and elliptical. It limited life period, reproduces It is an alternate host of Xanthonomas
is about 0.06 mm long and by seeds, and produces seeds all campestris
lightly pitted. year.
Echinochloa This is a tufted annual grass This weed flowers all It is a severe competitor of rice and it is
colona growing up to 60cm tall. It has throughout the year and is similar to rice in its vegetative growth
Poaceae reddish purple or green erect reproduced by seeds.
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stems with the absence of hair. stage.

Seeds produced by this weed
The leaves are linear with 10- have a short period of dormancy. This weed is a host of diseases such as
15 in length. This prefers moist but unflooded tungro and rice yellow dwarf.
fields. It is a weed problem
mainly in upland and rainfed
rice production areas.
Echinochloa This weed species are annual, This weed propagates by seed. It Echinochloa crus-galli are regarded as
crus-galli erect, tufted or reclining at flowers all throughout the year serious weeds in lowland rice due to its
Poaceae base. It can grow up to 200 cm and can produce seeds within 60 fast growth, highly competitive ability, and
tall. The culms root at lower days of growth. rapid capacity of reproduce.
nodes, cylindrical, and lacks
the presence of hairs. It is filled It prefers moist to wet land. It
with white spongy pith. easily grows in direct-seeded
rice fields and wastelands. It is
Leaves are linear with a broad commonly found in swamps and
round base and narrow top. Its aquatic places.
blade measures from 10-40 cm
long. Ligules are absent.
Eclipta prostrata This weed grows about 30-100 This is a widespread weed that It is a common weed growing on rainfed
Asteraceae cm tall. It can be an annual or can adapt to a wide range of lowland rice in the Philippines. It is also
perennial herb. It can be erect environmental conditions. It known to grow in other crops such as
or reclining or prostrate, often occurs in poorly drained wet sugarcane, flax, taro, papaya, banana,
branched. areas and saline conditions. soybean, vegetables, and cotton.

It has cylindrical green or These can be found along bodies It is an alternate host of root-knot
purplish steam. And often of water such as streams, in nematodes.

covered with long white hairs.
It produces achene, densely
warted, either brown or black
fruits measuring 2-3mm long.
Fimbristylis It is either annual or perennial,
miliacea without hairs. It is strongly
Cyperaceae tillering with fibrous roots. It
can grow up to 80-90 cm in
height.
Stems are slender, erect,
densely tufted, compressed and
smooth.
The leaves are stiff and thread-
like. There are no prominent
midribs and ligules are absent.
It has reddish brown spikelet
that are about 2-4 mm long,
either round or acute at apex.
The fruits are straw-colored or
pale ivory nut measuring 0.2 to
0.3 mm long.
Ischaemum This weed is either erect or It is propagated by seeds. It does It is considered as a serious weed in
rugosum Salisb. ascending, annual or perennial not germinate while submerged lowland direct-seeded rice areas. It
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drains, and canals of irrigated
lowland rice paddies.
It reproduced by seed. It It is an alternate host for various pathogens
blossoms all year and generates such as Rhizoctonia solania,
10,000 seeds per plan. Seeds Thanatephorus cucumeris, and
germinate most immediately and Xanthomonas campestris pv. Oryzae.
quickly after maturity.
It is a serious and widespread weed in rice
Seedlings develop in rice fields production.
immediately after rice is seeded,
blossoms in approximately a
month, and can produce a
second generation in the same
season. Germinates where flood
water is shallow or absent, and
seedlings might appear
throughout the rice growing
season.
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Poaceae that grows up to 100 cm in in after. However, after emerges later than many weeds in rice
height. emergence, it can easily grow production. Shallow flooding is favorable.
under flooded conditions.
The stems are often purplish,
and usually has hairs at nodes. It is often found in places with It acts as an alternate host of various insect
The leaf blades are about 10-30 wet conditions, especially in pests such as Chaetocnema basalis (Baly).
cm long, glabrous or with direct-seeded rice fields. It is also a host for diseases caused by
scattered hairs on both sides. tungro virus and nemadote Meloidogyne
Ligules are present which are sp.
membranous and fused with
auricles.
Leptochloa Usually tufted and smooth, This type of weed propagates This is a serious weed of rice. It has the
chinensis either annual or perennial that through seeds or vegetatively byability to withstand various conditions
Poaceae grows up to 120 cm tall. its rootstocks. such as water clogged fields, drained, and
moist conditions make it a problem weed
Stem are slender, hollow, erect Germination does not occur in rice production.
or ascending from a branching when its seeds are submerged in
base. The leaves are smooth water. This weed is an alternate host of various
and linear with about 10-30 cm insect weeds and disease-causing
in length. Ligules are an pathogens of rice.
inconspicuous membrane of 1-
2 mm long. It is deeply divided
into hairlike segments.
Ludwigia This is an erect annual herb This is a widespread weed that These agricultural weeds can be a serious
hyssopifolia that grows up to 15-150 cm tall likes to grow in wet places such rice weed on both clay-loam and clay soils
Onagraceae and is minutely hairy during its as shallow pools and ditches, in lowland rice fields.
margins of canals and fields of

early stages of growth.
Its stem is often angled 3-4,
green or purplish with white
spongy pneumatophores
arising from submerged roots.
The leaves are lance-shaped
with petioles growing up to 9
cm long.
Oryza sativa This weed is erect or stout or
Poaceae slender annual rice with
varying height and form. The
sem is tufted, erect, hollow,
and slender or sout, smooth
and hairless growing up to 80-
120 cm tall.
The leaves blade is flat with
parallel veins growing 15-30
cm long. It has ligule which are
usually 10 to 20 mm long and It possesses a red pericarp which
has auricle.
Schoenoplectus
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lowland rice.
It can produce about 250,000
seed per plant unit. Seeds are
released gradually and remain in
water floating up to 16 days
before they sink. The seeds do
not germinate when submerged
or when buried in the soil but in
10-40 degrees Celsius
temperatures.
Originated from outcrosses and It impacts agriculture by being a major
wild species that is highly weed in direct-seeded rice. It significantly
variable. The distinguishing reduces rice yields. Weedy rice is an
characteristic of this weed is the alternate host of rice insect pests, disease-
ready panicle shattering and causing pathogens, and plant parasitic
variable secondary dormancy. nematodes. This is often spready by
This weed type is highly adapted contaminated rice seeds.
and is able to survive a wide
range of environmental
conditions.
requires extra milling procedure
that effects the quality of milled
rice.
This is found in lowland rice, This can be an important pest in

juncoides
Cyperaceae
Sphenoclea It is an erect and branched herb
zeylanica that grows from 7-150 cm tall.
Sphenocleaceae Its leaves are simple and
spirally arranged. The blades
are oblong to lance-shaped
with flowers densely crowded
from white to greenish sessile.
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shallow ponds, streams, and agriculture, especially in rice production,
drains. as it can be a major weed in lowland rice
fields.
This weed emerges directly from
seeds in puddled rice fields, and
swampy areas where tillage is
minimal. The seedlings of this
weed emerge from its vegetative
buds. Seed germination fast as
anaerobic
This weed is reported to impact rice
production by reducing yield loss by 25 to
50%.
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Weeds of Rice in the Philippines

In the Philippines, there are a total of 78 weeds found in irrigated and rainfed

lowland rice fields. Fifteen out of the 78 weeds are grasses, while 13 are sedges, and the

broadleaves cover the majority with a count of 50. Twenty-one of these weeds were

newly added in 2021, along with five (5) grasses and 16 broadleaf grass species (Donayre

et al., 2021). These weeds were monitored and identified to provide a set list of

management practices to be used specifically for each.

In a single lot field inspection done by Bayuta, Dacanay, Marquez and Visda at

the Philippine-Sino Center for Agricultural Techonology (PhilSCAT) experimental rice,

there were seven weeds identified composed of three grasses, two sedges, and two

broadleaves. The visualization of these weeds is shown along with their description are

elaborated on the table below. The description of the identified weeds include their

distinguishing characteristics and impact in rice production based on the manual entitled

“Weed in Irrigated and Rainfed Lowland Ricefields in the Philippines”.

Weed Samples Identified from Lot 3D

I. Grasses

A. Leptochloa chinensis

This is a grass type of weed belongs to the Poaceae family. It grows in wet areas

where rice fields are irrigated and rainfed lowlands. It has either an annual or

sometimes perennial life cycle. The distinguishing characteristic of this weed is its

slender, tufted structure that can grow up to 120 cm in height. The leaves of this
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weeds are linear, flat, thin, membranous, at times it can be reddish or purplish.

The inflorescence are narrowly ovate panicles that are consist of 2-7 spikelets.

It is reported that Leptochloa chinesis is a C4 weed. It can produce up to 27,000

per plant unit. It can impact rice production by reducing yield up to 48% when it

competes at 16 plants/m2. It serves as an alternate host for rice pests such as green

and zigzag leaf hoppers.

Image 1. Leptochloa chinensis from family Poaceae

B. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. ssp. hispidula (Retz.) Honda

The image below displays Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) which is an annual grass

weed that grows in irrigated and rainfed lowland rice field. It propagates through

its seeds as a single plant unit is able to produce an average of 2,000 to 4,000

seeds. This weed can grow up to 200 cm tall. It has stout and spongy stems, thick
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roots. It has pinkish to purplish, green, soft, nodding panicle that stick together,

elliptic, and pointed spikelets.

This weed completes its cycle within 42 to 64 days after emergence. Some species

of this weed grows in direct-seeded areas in the country have resistance to

herbicides chloroacetamide (butachlor) and acetanilide (propanil). This weed is

hard to control by the use of handweeding due to its close resemblance to rice

plants at early stages of growth. It can reduce up to 18 to 57% of rice yield when

populated at 10 to 80 plants/m 2. It is an alternate food to rice bug and rice black

bug.

Image 2. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. ssp.

hispidula (Retz.) Honda from family Poaceae

C. Echinochloa glabrescens Munro ex Hook. f.

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This weed is locally known as telebisyon, it has an erect stem that can grow up to

100 cm tall. Its panicles usually grow in narrow, pyramidal formation with

numerous spikes with green to purplish spikelets that dispatch at maturity. Awns

measure about 1 cm long if present.

This weed impacts on rice is due to its highly competitive characteristic especially

when it grows at the same time as the transplantation of rice seedlings or after

direct seeding. The mean yield reductions of rice can range from 6 up to 73% if

the infestation level of Echinochloa glabrescens reaches at 5 to 40%, respectively.

This weed is also reported to be an alternate food source of rice bug and rice black

bug in absence of rice after harvest.

Image 3. Echinochloa glabrescens Munro ex Hook. f.

from the family Poaceae

D. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link from the family Poaceae

Image 4 shows Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, locally known as dukayang, lau-

lau, or pulang-pwet. It grows in irrigated and lowland rice fields. It reproduces

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itself through seeds and is considered an annual weed. The distinguishing

characteristic of this weed

This crop is reported to produce 3,000 to 6,000 seeds per plant. Hand weeding as

a control measure will be difficult to execute due to its close resemblance of its

early stages to young rice seedlings during development.

It can compete fully with a ratio of 4:1 and 8:1 weed to rice reducing up to 86% to

93% of yield. This weed is an alternate host for pests such as Sarocladium oryzae

causing disease of sheath rot of rice. Rice bug and rice black bug also uses this

weed as an alternate host.

Image 4. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link from the family Poaceae

II. Sedges

A. Cyperus iria
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Cyperus iria is characterized by its smoot and triangular steams, linear-lanceolate

leaves. It inflorescence showcase an umbel like shape and it has numerous,

spreading erect spikelets that are colored from yellow to yellow brown.

This weed establishes itself quickly soon after rice seedlings are transplanted or

direct-seeded in the field. One unit of this weed can produce 3,000 seeds. If left

unmanaged, it can reduce rice yield by 40%. It is also an alternative host for other

rice pests in the field such as green leafhoppers, and other plant microorganism’s

sich as Pycularia oryzae, and Rhizoctonia solani.

Image 5. Cyperus iria from family Cyperaceae

B. Cyperus difformis

This sedge weed can grow up to 75 cm in height. The stems of this weed are pale green in

color and are sharply angled at 3 at the tip. The leaves are shorter than its stem. The

inflorescence is either simple or compound with numerous globose spikelets.

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This weed can produce up to 50,000 seeds with respect to 60% germination. It

completes its life cycle within 30 days and can spread rapidly to emerge as a

dominated weed in rice production area where moisture level fluctuates. If the

incidence of this is left uncontrolled, it can reduce yield of rice grains by as high

as 43% in total.

Image 6. Cyperus difformis from Cyperaceae

C. Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl

This weed is often found in irrigated and rainfed lowland rice fields. These are

annual and sometimes perennial weeds that reproduce through seeds. The

characteristics of Fimbristylis dichotoma are its big and ovoid spikelets.

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Image 7. Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl from the Cyperaceae family

III. Broadleaves

A. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) C. Presl.

This weed type are fleshy, semi-aquatic and originated from monocotyledon

seeds. It has a shiny appearance in the field. The stem is soft, erect, and are

rooting at the nodes. The flower stalks are long bearing with petals of lilac-blue or

violet that are arranged in 2-6 groups. The leaves are heart-shaped with soft and

hollow petioles.

The reported impact of this weed in rice production is rice yield reduction of 16%

when it is left to compete within 7-40 days at 100 plants/m 2. If competition

continues until maturity with the same population level, it can reduce yield by

25%. It has a characteristic of discontinuous germination. This allows it to survive

and evade weed control.

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Image 8. Monochoria vaginalis from the family Pontederiaceae

B. Hydrolea zeylanica

This weed is locally called as kangkong-kangkungan. It is found in irrigated and

rainfed lowland ricefields. It reproduces by means of is seeds and through runner

propagation.

The stem of this broadleaves is hallowed and most of the time growing flat on top

of the soil surfaces. The shapes of leaf blades are shaped from lanceolate to ovate,

glabrous or pubescent while an acute base, margin entire, and acute apex. The

petals are purple-blue in color.

H. zeylanica when cut by its stem grow into new seedlings. Thus, it can establish

rapidly in the field and more so on flooded rice field conditions. It has a very

competitive characteristics that can significantly reduce rice yield by 19, 24, and
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52% with an infestation of weed rations 1:1, 1:5, and 1:10 (rice to weed),

respectively.

Image 9. Hydrolea zeylanica from the family Hydroleaceae

C. Ipomoea aquatica

This weed is commonly known as kangkong. It is an aquatic weed that has a

slender, smooth, and creeping habit of stem. It spreads on the ground or floats on

water. The stems are hollow and rooting at the nodes. The leaves have alternating

arrangement with morphological variations in its shapes. The flowers are funnel

in shape and are colored white to purple. I. aquatica grows in irrigated lowland

rice fields it reproduces by means of seeds and cuttings. The impact of this weed

in rice production is yet to be reported. However, it is determined to be an

alternate host of golden apple snails in the field in the absence of cultivated rice.
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Image 10. Ipomoea aquatica from the family Convolvulaceae

D. Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn.

This broadleaf is characterized by its erect and branched stems that are soft and

hallow. The leaves are oblong in shape to lanceolate, narrow, and pointed at the

tips with short stalks. The inflorescence is cylindrical and white to greenish

flowers. The impact of this weed is determined to reduce up to 45% yield of rice.

Some species of this weed can also be resistant to 2,4-D.

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Image 11. Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. from the family Sphenocleaceae

Weed Incidence in Rice Production

Weeds incidence in a rice field could be detrimental depending on how much its

occurrences. A study on yield loss assessment of rice under different biotic stresses and

system of rice intensification (SRI) amounting to 37.02% of weeds (Mondal et al., 2017).

N'cho et al. (2017), mentioned in a study that portions of rice field areas that are affected

by massive weed problems such as last 2008, it is stated that 53% of rice farmers was

affected and among that is 33% are dedicated for rice fields infestation; furthermore,

among the countries from Africa, Cote d'Ivoire reportedly has the highest proportion of

weed problems encountered by farmers amounting to 74%, where 49% are field affected

and yield losses of 40%.

Among weeds are the sedges which are also found in various areas of agricultural

fields. In a study featuring the bioinvasion assessment of sedges, the four considered

world's worst weeds in 95 countries are found in the Philippines which are the Cyperus
 26

rotundus, Cyperus iria, Cyperus difformis, and Fimbristylis miliacea; however, another

species that are found in most provinces are also considered as invasive species of sedges

such as Cyperus esculentus, Cyperus compactus, Cyperus distans, and two from the

world's worst weeds– Cyperus imbricatus and Cyperus rotundus. The study highlighted

the 14 identified Cyperus species that 28.57% among them as highly invasive; 50% are

slightly invasive and 21.43% recorded as not invasive at all (Celedonio & Roble, 2018).

In Nueva Ecija, the most distributed and found weeds among the rice field is the

Cyperus rotundus L. which amounts to 20% of infestation and lasting more than 20 years

from now; C. rotundus identified as much taller than the cultivated rice whichever

condition it undergoes (Donayre et al., 2015).

Management Options of Weeds

Weed management varies depending on the extent of the weed infestation in the

area and its ability to be controlled if it interferes with the growth of a crop nearby.

According to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the management practices

of weeds are dependent on the specific rice production growth stages during land

preparation, nursery stage, and early crop growth. These protocols are based on the

institution's weed management and control specifications.

Use of high-quality seeds. This technique is very effective in preventing

contamination and further entries of weed seeds in the field.

Practice field sanitation. Maintaining clean and weed-free seedling nurseries,

irrigation canals, and field bunds helps prevent the spread of volunteer weed seeds and
 27

asexual reproduction into the fields. Using clean equipment also aids in preventing

additional contamination on the field. Maintaining weed-free fields after harvest and

during the fallow period before the next cropping season helps reduce the number of

weed seeds in the soil seedbanks and weed infestations in the following cropping season.

Practice thorough land preparation. This helps control weeds by burying them

beneath the soil, separating shoots from roots, encouraging dormant seeds to germinate,

desiccating shoots, and depleting the carbohydrate reserves of perennial weeds. Flood the

field within 1-2 days whenever water is available and enough to irrigate the area. Plow

the field and keep it submerged for 1 week to soften lumped soil and decompose organic

materials. Allow the water to drain naturally to permit the germination of weed spores

that will be eradicated by harrowing later. After harrowing the field three times with a

one-week interval, it should be leveled with ant means. An evenly leveled field facilitates

effective management of water, nutrients, and pests, especially weeds and golden apple

snail.

Practice good water management. This will suppress weed growth in the field

especially when applied at the right time and level. For irrigated lowland fields, water

should be introduced 3-4 days after transplanting at a depth of 2-3 cm, and 7-10 days

after direct fertilization at a depth of 3-5 cm. As the plant grows later in the season, the

water level should be increased and maintained at 5-7 cm.

Use biological control. Using beneficial organisms (plant-feeding insects, disease-

causing microorganisms, and growth-suppressing plants) to inhibit weed growth or

reduce its population to a level where rice yield is not affected.

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Biological Control of Weeds with Insects

Biological weed control was initially used in India when Dactylopius ceylonicus

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) was introduced to Opuntia monacantha for dye production

(Rao et al., 1971). The insect decimated plant populations and was subsequently

dispersed across the country and into Sri Lanka for the control of O. monacantha.

However, the first official program to control a weed with biological control agents began

in 1902, when 23 insect species were shipped from Mexico to Hawaii to control Lantana

camara (Swezey, 1923). At least 90 countries have introduced weed biological control

agents intentionally (Schwarzländer et al., 2018).

Use herbicides. Herbicides are synthetic chemicals used to prevent the

proliferation of undesirable plants. Due to their efficacy and simplicity of application,

broad range of coverage, and immediate visibility of the results after application, they are

among the most popular weed control methods employed by many farmers in the

Philippines. This should be the last resort for weed control.

For wet-seeded rice weed control, the utilization of pre-emergence and post-

emergence herbicides is advised with moderation. The water depth in the rice field should

be closely monitored and maintained at an adequate volume for the crop. On dry-seeded

rice, weed control is greatly required, as is the application of herbicides and the

maintenance of water depth. Both wet seeded and dry seeded methods require hand

weeding before the crop canopy closes.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This section will be providing a summary of the review article done. This will

discuss the mentioned article sharing the understanding of weeds in rice production and

their impacts.

Discussion
 30

Weeds are amongst the generally known pests in agriculture. It is widespread

worldwide, be that in agricultural areas or just above earth overall. Most of the times,

weeds maybe overlooked in the production process for it just grows randomly unlike pest

incidences of insect infestation and disease-causing pathogen infection. However, it is

acquired from the reviewed article that the roles in weeds in agriculture doesn’t stop in

being persistent unwanted crops growing that may ruin field aesthetics but can be the

primary damaging pests and main cause of yield reduction when left unmanaged.

Aside from its competitive characteristic hindering cultivated rice to fully absorb

their needed nutrient requirements, it can lower the quality of harvested rice due to

contamination. As previously mentioned, the presence of weeds in the field can act as an

alternative host for insect pests and pathogen. The presence of infested and infected

weeds nearby the rice production site can greatly increase the possibility of these pest

incidences. This is more reason to understand the behavior of weeds to properly apply the

appropriate management methods.

The included article reviews gave statistics on the possible damages and

significant economic damages that occurs from the incidences of weeds in rice

production. The level of rice yield reduction varies depending on the weeds that are

present in the area. While some still lack reports on its possible impact on rice yield, the

elaborated weeds common in the Philippine have presented an alarming percentage of

lowering rice yield and decreasing the quality of grains through contamination.

Conclusion
 31

This paper was made to review articles regarding the impacts of weeds. It

discussed on the weed classification from its morphological, life cycle, and

photosynthetic ability. The occurrence of pests was also included along with the

incidences inside and outside of the Philippines. The economically important and

impactful weeds were also determined along with their potential damage with regards to

rice production.

The article talked entirely about the classification of weeds determining the

distinguishing characteristics of each weed growing in rice fields. The discussion focused

on the growth habits and putting emphasis on the means of propagation of weeds which

is mostly through seeds. This factor is one of the most troublesome in weeds as a major

agricultural pest. In one unit of agricultural weed, it can produce up to thousands of seeds

and can germinate a majority of its count most immediately despite the environmental

condition that it is part of. The persistence and survival characteristic of weeds enables it

to withstand and thrive in both conditions where rice plant is either favorable with or not.

One aspect that should be given much effort to in weed management is the correct

identification of various weeds found in the field. This can be gathered from obtaining

knowledge and learning more regarding agricultural weeds. This article review included

management options on agricultural weeds that covered various methods from cultural,

biological, and chemical practices. Among these mentioned, most are methods that are

done to mitigate the infestation of weeds in rice fields. The most recommended practice,

however, isn’t application after weed occurrence but rather part of pre-production in rice

which is land preparation. Thorough and properly executed land preparation in fields

goes a long way that would lessen both land inputs and labor. It is the most ideal
 32

management option that not only benefits the possible reduction of weed growth but also

serve as a good foundation for overall rice crop production.

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