Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

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Invasive alien plant species (Banmara): Investigating its invasive potential,

ecological consequences on biodiversity, and management strategies
Shubh Pravat Singh Yadav a, *, Dipesh Kumar Mehata a, Shobha Pokhrel b,
Netra Prasad Ghimire a, Pramod Gyawali c, Shambhu Katel a, Umesh Timilsina d
a
G. P. Koirala College of Agriculture and Research Center (GPCAR), Purbanchal University, Gothgaun, Morang, Nepal
b
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Paklihawa, Rupandehi, Nepal
c
College of Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Forestry University, Tikapur, Kailali, Nepal
d
Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitwan, Nepal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) pose a growing ecological threat, disrupting native ecosystems and biodi­
Banmara species versity while challenging traditional conservation efforts. Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata, and
Invasive alien species Mikania micrantha, belonging to the Banmara species, pose a significant threat to agriculture, resulting in crop
Ecological impacts
loss and increased production costs. Their detrimental effects on floral, faunal organisms, and ecosystems make
Ageratina adenophora
Chromolaena odorata
them a substantial menace to biodiversity. Out of 219 alien flowering plant species, 30 are identified as invasive,
Mikania micrantha resulting in adverse environmental outcomes and impacting agricultural production. Remarkably, two notable
Banmara species, C. odorata and M. micrantha, rank among the world’s top 100 most invasive alien species in
agroecosystems and rangelands. Additionally, A. adenophora is on the alert list of the European and Mediter­
ranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). The presence of Banmara species is more prevalent in central and
eastern Nepal, particularly in the Tarai, Siwalik, and Middle Mountain regions, showing a high degree of in­
vasion. A. adenophora and C. odorata have invaded the High Mountain region and the High Himalayas, while
M. micrantha is more prevalent in the Terai and upper hilly regions of Nepal. These invasive species disrupt
forests, shrublands, wetlands, and agricultural ecosystems, causing ecological imbalances, habitat degradation,
and adverse effects on biodiversity. The negative impacts resulting from the biological invasion of Banmara
species seem to be on the rise in Nepal; however, national policy and management responses appear insufficient
to address the issue adequately. The findings of this study highlight the urgent need to address the challenges
posed by these invasive plant species. This comprehensive review synthesizes current knowledge regarding
Banmara species, emphasizing their ecological consequences and the pressing need for effective management
strategies. By comprehending these repercussions and implementing robust management strategies, the impact
of Banmara species can be minimized, safeguarding native biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.

1. Introduction specific subset of naturalized species, known as invasive species, com­

The term "Invasive alien plant species" (IAPS) refers to plant species
that were once indigenous to a specific area but have subsequently been
introduced to locations outside of their native region [1]. These plants
pose risks to ecosystems, human health, and biological diversity when
they establish themselves and spread rapidly. Biological invasions are
the processes by which these plants colonize new areas and cause harm
[2]. Predicting and avoiding biological invasions requires understanding
the interactions between foreign, naturalized, and invasive organisms. A
prises a subset of foreign species. Understanding this link will improve
our capacity to anticipate and mitigate the effects of biological in­
cursions [3]. In areas undergoing agroecological transitions or regen­
eration, invasive alien plants (IAP) can pose serious issues for restoration
ecologists, agriculturists, farmers, researchers, and politicians. For these
stakeholders involved in the process, this problem may become a major
bottleneck [4]. It is important to recognize that invasive alien species
(IAS) pose a danger to host ecosystems and are major contributor to the
decline of biodiversity [5]. Biodiversity is harmed by IAS, which

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sushantpy8500@gmail.com (S.P. Singh Yadav).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2024.101031
Received 20 July 2023; Received in revised form 7 December 2023; Accepted 1 February 2024
Available online 8 February 2024
2666-1543/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

frequently cause the extinction of entire species. Table 3 shows the list of invasive alien plant species prevalent in Nepal.
In fact, 42% of the vulnerable and endangered species in the United A. adenophora, C. odorata, and M. micrantha are classified as IAPS,
States have declined due to them. Table 1 represents the top 100 IAPS commonly referred to as "Banmara" or the "Forest killer plants." These
existing at a global level. Different ecosystems have shown diverse species belong to the Asteraceae family and are specifically known as
patterns of IAS’ effects on biodiversity over time [6,7]. Alien plant in­ ‘Kalo Banmara’, ‘Seto Banmara’, and ‘Lahare Banmara’, respectively.
vasions can significantly affect soil characteristics, species diversity, and They have successfully established themselves in various regions
the composition of soil microbial communities. These incursions cause worldwide, exhibiting a broad distribution and rapid expansion over
long-term harm by upsetting the delicate balance between local flora time [12,13]. In Nepal, these species were initially introduced between
and soil microbes [8]. Both artificial or natural actions can potentially the 1950s and early 1960s and have since gained notoriety for their
disrupt the ecosystem’s ability to operate normally, facilitating the destructive impact on forest ecosystems [14]. They are native to Mexico,
entrance of alien species into a disturbed community, which may replace Central America, and South America. These belong to perennial plant
or alter various local flora components [9,10]. Several variables, such as species with short stems that can display traits of both an herbaceous
the particular species involved, climatic circumstances, indigenous plant and a tiny shrub [15]. These species have effectively colonized
flora, and the distinct features of the local ecosystem, affect how alien various habitats, including fallow fields, roadsides, agricultural ecosys­
plants behave. Islands, inland waterways, and coastal regions are tems, and degraded regions and habitats [16]. The Banmara are widely
frequently particularly at risk [11]. In Nepal, there are 219 alien flow­ recognized as a significant agricultural menace, particularly in range­
ering plants, 27 of which have been classified as invasive species with lands, where they consistently outcompete and replace valuable vege­
negative ecological impacts, notably agricultural production [1]. The tation or indigenous species [17]. Within forest plantations, Banmara
list of 219 alien plant species of Nepal is well documented in Table 2. becomes a troublesome species, colonizing disturbed areas and
Many invasive plant species, including A. adenophora, Lantana camara, impeding the natural regeneration of planted trees. Consequently, it has
C. odorata, M. micrantha, and Hyptis suaveolens, pose serious dangers to earned the name "Banmara" in Nepal [18]. These species are widespread
Nepal’s forests and shrublands. These exotic species threaten the in Nepal, occurring in climatic zones ranging from tropical to subtrop­
ecological stability and health of Nepal’s natural environment [2,12]. ical [14,15]. The distribution of these species encompasses the Terai,
hilly terrain, and low mountain regions in the central, eastern, and
Table 1 western parts of the country [16]. Extensive dispersion of these species
List of global prevalence for the top 100 Invasive Alien Plant Species (IAPS). would pose risks to forest regrowth, diminish production, and exacer­
bate forest degradation [19].
Common Name Scientific Name Family References
Invading and occupying farmland, Banmara competes with natural
Common water Eichhornia crassipes Pontederiaceae [23] plants and trees for nutrients, water, sunshine, and space, leading to
hyacinth Mart.
significant crop harvest losses. The productivity of animals is also
Giant hogweed Heracleum Apiaceae [24]
mantegazzianum impacted, and the invasion of grassland causes significant losses in the
Santa Maria feverfew Parthenium Asteraceae [1] harvest of natural pasture [20]. Approximately 0.5–0.7 percent of the
hysterophorus global population of trees and shrubs has become invasive outside of
West Indian Lantana Lantana camara Verbena [25]
their native ranges. In order to successfully manage and halt the spread
Himalayan balsam Impatiens glandulifera Balsaminaceae [24,26]
Purple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria Lythraceae [1]
of IPS like Banmara, a thorough understanding of their ecology,
Siam weed Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae [27] morphology, reproductive biology, physiology, and biochemistry is
Japanese stlitgrass Microstegium vimineum Poaceae [24] required. Effective management strategies can be implemented by
Black-jack Bidens pilosa Asteraceae [1] considering a diverse range of variables that influence the density,
Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae [28]
growth, and competitiveness of these species [21]. These tactics can be
Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquatium Haloragaceae [25]
Mile-a-minute weed Mikania micrantha Asteraceae [29] modified to reduce the occurrence of these species, mitigate their
Giant salvinia Salvinia molesta D. Salviniaceae [28] adverse effects, and enhance land utilization. Such objectives can be
Mitch. achieved by coordinating preventive and control strategies [20,22]. This
Mexican prickly Argemone Mexicana L. Papaveraceae [1]
study endeavors to investigate the concept of introduced Banmara spe­
poppy
Cogon grass Imperata cylindrica Poceae [23]
cies, encompassing their biological and physiological characteristics,
Velvet mesquite Prosopis juliflora Fabaceae [30] habitat preferences, and distribution patterns, alongside their implica­
River tamarind Leucaena leucocephala Fabaceae [23] tions for agriculture and forests. Furthermore, the study aims to delve
Tree of heaven Ailanthus altissima Simaroubaceae [24] into the diverse management strategies implemented to tackle the
Crofton weed Ageratina adenophora Asteraceae [23]
Banmara issue, with a specific focus on Nepal.
Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle Apiaceae [28]
ranunculoides
Coojong Acacia saligna Fabaceae [28] 2. Overview of banmara
Eastern baccharis Baccharis halimifolia Asteraceae [23]
Fountain grass Pennisetum setaceum Poaceae [31]
2.1. Taxonomy and origin
Common ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia Asteraceae [32]
Caulerpa seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia Caulerpaceae [33]
Strawberry Guava Psidium cattleianum Myrtaceae [34] A. adenophora, C. odorata, and M. micrantha Kunth, all these Banmara
Miconia Miconia calvescens Melastomataceae [35] species are the member of the Asteraceae family [12]. A. adenophora is
Black wattle Acacia mearnsii Fabaceae [36] commonly known as "Kalo Banmara" or the "Forest Killer Plant" due to
Coralberry Ardisia elliptica Primulaceae [37]
Elephant grass Arundo donax Poaceae [38]
its dark green foliage. It is also referred to as "Crofton wood" [13]. The
Trumpet tree Cecropia peltata Urticaceae [39] plant derives its name from the Greek terms "Aden" (meaning gland) and
Red cinchona Cinchona pubescens Rubiaceae [23] "Phoros" (meaning bearing), which describe the oil-producing glands
Koster’s curse Clidemia hirta Melastomataceae [23] found in its leaves [14,15]. A. adenophora, considered one of the most
Ginger lily Hedychium Zingiberaceae [40]
destructive invasive weeds globally, is native to Mexico but has spread
gardnerianum
Hiptage Hiptage benghalensis Malpighiaceae [41] to South Asian countries, Australia, and Africa [13,46]. With over 400
Bora-bora Ligustrum robustum Oleaceae [42] species, M. micrantha is known by various names depending on the re­
Paperbark teatree Melaleuca quinquenervia Myrtaceae [43] gion. In Asia and the South Pacific, it is often called "mile-a-minute,"
Giant sensitive plant Mimosa pigra Fabaceae [44] whereas in the Americas, it is referred to as "bittervine", "hemp vine," or
Fire tree Morella faya Myricaceae [45]
"American rope" [47,48]. C. odorata is renowned for its vast size,

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S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

Table 2
Comprehensive catalogue of 219 alien plant species in Nepal.
Common name Local name Scientific name Family References

Mile-a-minute weed Lahare Banmara Mikania micrantha Asteraceae [47]

Cogongrass Siudi phool Imperata cylindrical Poaceae [25]
Bimro Tusal Hibiscus cannabinus L. Malvaceae [52]
Salparni Ghantu Desmodium gangeticum Fabaceae [53]
Large-Leaf Flemingia Bhatmaase Flemingia macrophylla Fabaceae [54]
Bracken fern Ghidaghass Pteridium aquilinum Dennstaedtiaceae [55]
Bengal Patchouli Sugandhawal Pogostemon benghalensis Lamiaceae [56]
Bermuda grass Hariyo Ghas Cynodon dactylon Poaceae [57]
Ban Kancho Ban Jamara Croton bonplandianus Euphorbiaceae [58]
Crofton weed Kalo Banmara Ageratine adenophora Asteraceae [59,60]
Common Yarrow Ghede Pate Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae [58]
Blue Billygoat Weed Nilo Gandhey Ageratum houstonianum Asteraceae [60]
Wild Sugarcane Kans Saccharum spontaneum Poaceae [58]
Celery Ajwain ko Patta Apium graveolens L. Apiaceae [58]
Lantana Rato Lantana Lantana camara Verbenaceae [25,59]
Gotu Kola Brahmi Centella asiatica Apiaceae [61]
Malabar Bauhinia Koiralo Bauhinia vahlii Fabeceae [62]
Giant Reed Lambo Sunte Arundo donax Poaceae [63]
Goatweed Ghamayau Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae [25]
Broadleaf Woodsorrel Chari Amilo Oxalis latifolia Kunth. Oxalidaceae [60]
Satavari Kurilo Asparagus Racemosus Asparagaceae [60]
Himalayan Boxwood Kartiki Myrsine semiserrata Primulaceae [60]
Bushmint Tulsi Jhar Hyptis suaveolens Lamiaceae [64]
Snakeroot – Eupatorium odoratum Asteraceae [64]
Tropical soda apple – Solanum viarum Solanaceae [64]
Tila Ban Bhangraya Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae [65]
Apple of Peru Shirish ko Phool Nicandra physalodes Solanaceae [64]
Mexican poppy Thakal Argemone mexicana L Papaveraceae [64]
Blackjack/Hairy beggar-tick Kalokuro Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae [60]
Siam weed Seto Banmara Chromolaena odorata (L.), R. M. King and H. Roxb Asteraceae [59]
Sensitive plant Lajjawati Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae [27,60]
Corn spurry Thangnejhar Spergula arvensis L. Caryophyllaceae [1]
Alligator weed Jala jambhu, Patpate Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb Amaranthaceae [1]
Purple wood sorel Chari amito Oxalis latifoba Kunth Oxalidaceae [66]
Karwinsky’s Fleabane Phule Jhar Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Asteraceae [25]
Spiny pigweed Kandelude Amaranthus spinosus L Amaranthaceae [60]
Billygoat Raunne/Gandhe Ageratum conyzoides (L.) Asteraceae [59]
Parrot’s feather – Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. Holaragaceae [1]
Water hyacinth Jalkumbhi Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae [1]
White Clover Ban Ghas Trifolium repens Fabaceae [67]
Smallflower Galinsoga Hajara Jhar Galinsoga parvifora Asteraceae [66]
Perennial ryegrass – Lolium perenne Poaceae [14]
Lucerne Alfalfa Medicago sativa Fabaceae [14]
Chir pine Dhupi Schima wallichii Theaceae [14]
Tamarind Imli Tamarindus indica Fabaceae [68]
Teak Sagwan Tectona grandis Verbanaceae [50]
Albizia Siris Albizia julibrissin Fabaceae [50]
Litchi Litchi Litchi chinensis Sapindaceae [69]
Pineapple Anaros Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae [70]
Coconut Nariwal Cocos nucifera Arecaceae [71]
Pumpkin Farsi Cucurbita spp Cucurbitaceae [50]
Leucaena Subabool Leucaena leucocephala Leguminosae [25]
Longbeak Eucalyptus Gum chap Eucalyptus camaldulensis Myrtaceae [72]
Earleaf acacia Khayar Acacia auriculoformis Fabeceae [36]
Coffee weed Taewar Cassia occidentalis Fabeceae [73]
Rain tree Vilayati Siris Samania saman Fabeceae [60]
White Leadtree Subabool L. leucocephala Fabeceae [59]
Frangipani Gulmohar Plumeria rubra L. Apocynaceae [58]
Radish Tori Raphnus sativus Brassicaceae [52]
Potato Alu Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae [52]
Carrot Gajar Daucus carota Apiaceae [52]
hemp-agrimony Ban Munsye Eupatorium cannabinum Asteraceae [52]
acuminate barrenwort – E. acuminatum Berberidaceae [50]
Jananese boneset – Eupatorium chinense Asteraceae [59]
Vanilla leaved joe pye weed – Eupatorium fortunei Asteraceae [74]
Japanese Thoroughtwort Bhada Eupatorium japonicum Asteraceae [75]
silk oak Sahaj Grevillea robusta Proteaceae [76]
amaranth Laal saag Amaranthus spp. Amaranthaceae [77]
goldenrods – Solidago spp. Asteraceae [78]
Night-blooming jasmine Raat-ki-Rani Cestrum spp. Solanaceae [1]
Creeping Water Primrose Manjari Ludwigia adscendendens Onagraceae [79]
Mineral Plant Ban Chitwan Ruellia tuberosa L Acanthaceae [58]
Indian sal tree Sal Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae [2]
Rosewood Satisal Dalbergia latifolia Fabaceae [2]
(continued on next page)

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S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

Table 2 (continued )
Common name Local name Scientific name Family References

Downy brome Jhundo Bromus tectorum Poaceae [18]

Canada Thistle Jungali Baunsul Cirsium arvense Asteraceae [18]
Spotted knapweed – Centaurea stoebe Asteraceae [80]
Orchard Grass Gahat Dactylis glomerata Poaceae [81]
Chir Pine Sallo Pinus sp. Pinaceae [82]
Bluestem grass – Andropogon sp. Poaceae [83]
Melilot Surmeli Ghaas Melilotus officinalis Fabaceae [18]
Water cabbage Pani banda Pistia stratiotes Pistieae [1]
Southern cutgrass Dhukur Simal Leersia hexandra Poaceae [84]
Toothcup Kali Jhar Ammannia baccifera L Lythraceae [58]
Cattail Kuhaule Typha spp. Typhaceae [85]
Spiny sandbur Kanta bairi Cenchrus echinatus Poaceae [11]
Smooth Cordgrass – Sporobolus alterniflorus Poaceae [11]
Torpedograss – Panicum repens Poaceae [11]
long-thorn kiawe Prosopis juliflora Fabaceae [58]
Broadleaf bottonweed Alu Pate Jhar Spermacoce alata Rubiaceae [25]
Shaggy Soldier Jhuse Chitlange Galinsoga quadriradiata Asteraceae [86]
Rough cockle-Bur Bhede kuro Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae [25]
Coffee Senna Panwar Senna occidentalis (L.) Link. Caesalpiniaceae [60]
Sickle pod senna Tapre Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae [1]
Parthenium Pati jhar Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae [25]
Sugar-apple Sharifa Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae [58]
Titepati Titepati Artemisia vulgaris L. AsteraceaeB [58]
Bush morning Glory Besaram Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) D.F. Austin Convolvulaceae [66]
Ragweed Sisno Ambrosia artemisiifolia Asteraceae [87]
Love-lies-bleeding Latte Simi Amaranthus caudatus L Amaranthaceae [88]
Spiny Amaranth Kantharee Amaranthus spinosus L Amaranthaceae [52]
Aloe vera Ghritkumari Aloe vera (L.) Burm f Asphodelaceae [59]
Onion Piyaz Allium cepa L. Amaryllidaceae [52]
Golden Trumpet Ghanti phool Allamanda cathartica L Apocynaceae [52]
Lebbeck Siris Albizia lebbeck Benth. Mimosaceae [89]
Century plant Koiralo Agave americana L. Asparagaceae [58]
White snakeroot – Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktze Asteraceae [90]
Chinese chaff flower Lati jhar Achyranthes bidentata Blume Amaranthaceae [52]
Cucumber tree Torrui Averrhoa bilimbi L. Oxalidaceae [91]
Okra Bhindi Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Malvaceae [92]
Black wattle Kadam Acacia auriculiformis L. Mimosaceae [93]
Bristly Starbur Dudhe jwari Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae [94]
Sticky Daisy Ban Jhar Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktze Asteraceae [95]
Pigeonberry Bhamfuli Rivina humilis L. Phytolaccaceae [58]
cashew tree Kaju phal Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae [52]
Garlic Lasun Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae [52]
Elephant head amaranth Rato latte Amaranthus tricolor L. Amaranthaceae [96]
Arecanut Supaaree Areca catechu L. Arecaceae [52]
Calico Flower Bhui Biro Aristolochia littoralis Parodi Aristolochiaceae [52]
Tall Needle Grass Maithekur Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst Poaceae [52]
Cassie Kikar Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd Fabeceae [52]
Rain tree Bokrey Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr Mimosaceae [52]
Wild maracuja Nimbuwal Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae [58]
Khakiweed Kaande Tumbi Alternanthera pungens Kunth Amaranthaceae [52]
Slender Amaranth Bhajigathi Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae [52]
Scarlet Toothcup Kopila Ammannia baccifera L. Lythraceae [52]
Marsh Seedbox Kunaliya Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae [58]
Dill Sowa Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae [52]
Soursop Sitaphal Annona muricata L. Annonaceae [52]
Custard apple Ata Annona reticulata L. Annonaceae [52]
Laligurans Blood flower Asclepias curassavica L Apocynaceae [52]
Indian shot – Canna indica L. Cannaceae [52]
Chili pepper Khursani Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae [52]
Balloon Vine – Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae [52]
Papita Amala Carica papaya L Caricaceae [52]
Cockscomb Lata Hara Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae [52]
Hornwort jalkumbhi Ceratophyllum demersum L. Ceratophyllaceae [52]
Peruvian apple cactus Pahilo Thulo Sankhe Cereus repandus (L.) Mill. Cactaceae [52]
– Nayatapri Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson Asteraceae [52]
Sensitve plant Lajjawati Biophytum sensitivum DC Oxalidaceae [52]
Beetroot Chukandar Beta vulgaris L. Amaranthaceae [52]
Annatto Simal Bixa orellana L. Bixaceae [52]
Chickpea Chana Cicer arietinum L. Fabaceae [52]
Thorn Apple Dhaturo Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae [52]
Variable Flatsedge Kankrej Cyperus difformis L. Cyperaceae [52]
Tropical crabgrass Chino Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers Poaceae [52]
Jungle rice Sama Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Poaceae [97]
Gum tree Masala Eucalyptus citriodora Hk Myrtaceae [98]
Common fig Anjeer Ficus carica L. Moraceae [99]
Sunflower Suryamukhi Helianthus annuus L. Asteraceae [52]
(continued on next page)

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S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

Table 2 (continued )
Common name Local name Scientific name Family References

Gorakhbuti Dudhe Khursani Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae [58]

Fragrant Flat Sedge Aago Shing Cyperus odoratus L. Cyperaceae [25]
Mexican Fireplant Dhudhe jhar Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae [25]
Soap bush Banmariya Clidemia hirda (L.) D. Don Melastomataceae [25]
Southern magnolia – Magnolia grandiflora L. Magnoliaceae [58]
– Suryaphool Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Grey Asteraceae [25]
Castor plant Erandako gida Ricinus comm unisL Euphorbiaceae [25]
Passion fruit Ghadi phool Passiflora edulis Sim. Passifloraceae [25]
Physic nut Ratanjot Jatropha curcas L. Euphrbiaceae [25]
Wild lettuce Ban tarul Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Asteraceae [25]
Pale Rattlebox – Crotalaria pallid Aiton Fabaceae [25]
Mexican Mint Gandh Pati Mesosphaerum suaveolens Lamiaceae [86]
Giant sensitive plant Thulo lajjawati jhar Mimosa diplotricha Fabaceae [86]
Touch-Me-Not Lajwanti Mimosa pudica Fabaceae [58]
– Dal kacchu Pontederia crassipes Pontederiaceae [86]
Balsam – Impatiens balsamina Balsaminaceae [52]
Ivy morning glory – Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae [52]
Chinaberry tree Bakenu Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae [100]
Four o’clock plant – Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae [101]
Corn mint – Mentha arvensis L Lamiaceae [102]
Ground Cherry – Physalis minima L Solanaceae [103]
Caterpillar tree Galaichi Plumeria alba L. Apocynaceae [52]
Pomegranate – Punica granatum L. Lythraceae [104]
Common madder – Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae [105]
Sesame weed Til Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae [52]
Pigeon berry – Duranta erecta L. Verbenaceae [106]
Sweet Fennel Jimbu Foeniculum vulgare Mill Apiaceae [107]
Chinese hibiscus Japa puspi Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae [108]
Morning glory – Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. Convolvulaceae [109]
Picotee morning glory – Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae [52]
Littlebell – Ipomoea triloba L. Convolvulaceae [52]
Gandhri Bhotee jhar Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. Lamiaceae [58]
Japanese mint – Mentha arvensis L. Lamiaceae [110]
Bean – Phaseolus vulgaris L. Fabaceae [52]
Capeweed – Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae [111]
Cabbage Bandakopi Brassica oleracea L. Brassicaceae [58]
Riverhemp Dhaincha Sesbania sesban (L.) Fabaceae [112]
St. Paul’s Wort Dudhe jhaar Siegesbeckia orientalis L Asteraceae [113]
Eggplant Baijun Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae [114]
Pea eggplant – Solanum torvum Solanaceae [115]
Nattaichuri Kurilo Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae [52]
African marigold Saipatri Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae [52]
Caltrop Gokhro Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae [52]
Caesarweed Jhingauni Urena lobata L. Malvaceae [52]
Sleepy Morning Bhereli Pate Waltheria indica L. Malvaceae [52]
Jungle mat bean Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. Papilionaceae [52]
Fenugreek Methi Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae [52]
Coral vine – Antigonon leptopus Polygonaceae [58]
Pishal Pati Bakaino Alnus glutinosa Betulaceae [5]
European ash tree Sissoo Fraxinus excelsior Oleaceae [5]
Paspalum – Paspalum spp. Poaceae [5]
American basil Ban tulsi Ocimum americanum Lamiaceae [9]
Green-flowered Mallow – Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae [5]
Silver wattle – Acacia dealbata Fabaceae [5]
Pink Shower Tree Bandar lathi Cassia javanica L. Leguminosae [58]
Deodar Dhuppa Thuja occidentalis Bailey Cupressaceae [58]
Honey mesquite – Prosopis glandulosa Fabaceae [5]
Prickly pear cactus Nagbeli Opuntia ficus-indica Cactaceae [116]
Illiois pondweed – Potamogeton illinoensis Potamogetonaceae [117]
Giant Salvinia – Salvinia molesta Salviniaceae [118]
Snakeweed Dudhilo Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae [119]
False Daist Bhringaj Eclipta prostrata Asteraceae [120]
Scarlet Pimpernel Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae [121]
Coatbuttons Ghirasus Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae [122]
Sankshep Mari Ladder brake fern Pteris vittata Pteridaceae [123]
Madagascar Sadaphuli Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae [124]
Bohemain knotweed – Reynoutria Bohemica Polygonaceae [125]
Cursed Buttercup Dil Bahadur Ranunculus sceleratus L. Ranunculaceae [126]
Daru Haridra Timur Artemisia indica Asteraceae [16]

distinctiveness, and well-developed nature. Although America is agricultural fields, wetlands, and ecologically insignificant areas [16,
believed to be the likely place of origin for the Asteraceae family, species 50].
within this family have now achieved a widespread distribution across
the globe [49]. These invasive species have successfully established
themselves as prevalent species in various habitats, including forests,

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S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

Table 3
List of invasive alien plant species (IAPS) of Nepal including common name, local name, scientific name, family and habitat.
Common name Local name Scientific name Family Habitat References

Crofton weed Kalo Banmara Ageratina adenophora L. Asteraceae Woodlands and bushlands [12]
Sensitive plant Lajjawati Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae Bushlands and woods [1]
Siam weed Seto Banmara Chromolaena odorata (L.), R. M. King and Asteraceae Wooded areas and shrublands [154]
H. Roxb.
Bushmint TulsiJhar Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Lamiaceae Shrub lands and forests [12,71]
Bush morning Glory Besaram Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Convolvulaceae Wetlands [155]
Choisy) D.F. Austin
Corn spurry Thangnejhar Spergula arvensis L. Caryophyllaceae Agroecosystems [12]
Parthenium Patijhar Parthenium hysterophorous L. Asteraceae Semi-arid meadows that have been damaged [156]
and deteriorated
Rough cockle Bur Bhede kuro Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceace Grasslands and populated regions [157]
Shaggy Soldier Jhuse Chitlange Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav. Asteraceae Agroecosystem [12]
Southern cut grass Karaute ghans, Navo Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae Wetlands [158]
dhan
Alligator weed Jala jambhu, Patpate Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae Agroecosystems [159]
Billygoat Raunne/Gandhe Ageratum conyzoides (L.) Asteraceae agroecosystem [12,160]
Black jack/Hairy Kalokuro Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae Residential areas and grasslands [12,161]
beggar-tick
Lantana Kirne kanda Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Natural and agricultural ecosystems [162]
Mexican poppy Thakal Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Cultivable and deserted field [163]
Purple wood sorel Chari amito Oxalis latifoba Kunth Oxalidaceae Agroecosystem [12]
Water hyacinth Jalkumbhi Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae Wetlands [164]
Water lettuce Kumbhika Panibanda Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae Wetlands and seas that are abnormally warm [165]
Spiny pigweed Kandelude Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Residential neighbourhoods and grasslands [12]
Parrot’s feather – Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. Holaragaceae Wetlands [166]
Sickle pod senna Tapre Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae Grasslands and populated regions [12]
Blue Billygoat weed Nilogandhe Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Asteraceae Fields used for grazing [84]
Mile-a-minute weed Lahare Banmara Mikania micrantha Kunth Asteraceae Shrublands and forests [12]
Broadleaf bottonweed AluPate Jhar Spermacoce alata Aubl. Verbenaceae Roadside ditches and vacant fields [167]
Karwinsky’s Fleabane Phule Jhar Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Asteraceae Agroecosystems [12]
Water lotus Pani Kamal Nymphaea nouchali Nymphaeaceae Wetlands [168]
Water lily Pani Lily Nymphoides peltata Menyanthaceae Wetlands [168]
Water chestnut – Trapa natans Trapaceae Wetlands [168]
Giant sensitive plant Ara kanda Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright Fabaceae Bushlands and woods [151]
Coffee senna Thulo Tapre Senna occidentalia (L). Link Fabaceae Grasslands and populated regions [2,151]

2.2. Distribution and habitat
The term "invasive" is commonly used to describe plant species that
have been transported to new areas and rapidly established themselves
in the new environment [1]. These plant species tend to occupy habitats
adjacent to woodlands, agroforestry areas, agricultural land along
stream banks, and disturbed areas, demonstrating a propensity for
thriving in such environments [13,14]. The robust proliferation of these
Banmara species, namely Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata,
and Mikania micrantha, within the geographical expanse of Nepal is
effectively depicted in Fig. 1. Invasive and hazardous plant species have
established themselves in a wide range of habitats, causing significant
reductions in crop yields and detrimental effects on agricultural output
[29]. A. adenophora has rapidly spread across various regions in
Southwestern China, including Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi,
Xizang, and Chongqing. Its range extends further east into countries like
Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, India, the Philippines, Malaysia, and
Singapore (Fig. 2). It has also been observed in South Africa, New Zea­
land, and eastern Australia, advancing north at an average rate of 20 km
per year [12,20]. First discovered in Nepal in 1952, Ageratina adeno­
phora has since expanded its presence to areas with diverse climates,
ranging from tropical to subtropical. It is particularly widespread
throughout the nation, with high prevalence in the Terai, hilly areas,
and lower mountain regions in Central, Eastern, and Western Nepal. It is
also commonly found in the higher Siwalik hills [15,16]. The native
range of M. micrantha encompasses several Caribbean countries and
stretches from Northern Argentina to Mexico. In Asia, it can be found
from Pakistan to Taiwan, including Nepal, the Philippines, and
Indonesia. It also occurs on islands in the Indian Ocean, such as Sri
Lanka, Christmas, La Reunion, and Mauritius (Fig. 3). However, it pri­
marily thrives in riparian settings within its natural range, typically
along the banks of rivers, lakes, and marshy areas, and it is rarely
invasive [48,51]. Chromolaena odorata occurs from the southwestern
parts of the United States (Florida and Texas) to northwestern Argentina,
wherever the environmental conditions and climate are favorable
(Fig. 4) [49].
2.3. Morphological and physiological characteristics
2.3.1. Morphological characteristics
2.3.1.1. Stems. Ageratina adenophora is a perennial herbaceous species
or a diminutive, low-stemmed plant with a cylindrical form. It generally
reaches a maximum height of 2 m (6.6 feet) and is adorned with a
covering of fine hairs, enhancing its green beauty. These plants originate
from a compact, light-yellow rootstock [12]. Micrantha Mikania Kunth
stands out with its slender stems, which can be smooth or sparsely
covered in small hairs and exhibit longitudinal ribs. Occasionally,
adventitious roots can form at the stem nodes. This plant species is
characterized by its robust growth and perennial nature. It is a vine that
grows in clusters and displays a tendency to twine, climb, or creep. The
stems of Mikania micrantha can extend up to 6 m in length [48,51].
Chromolaena odorata, a perennial shrub, grows in a climbing manner and
possesses delicate, slender stems. It readily branches out and features
leaves that grow in pairs, each having an oval or triangular shape with
three distinct veins. Typically, this plant reaches a height of 2–3 m and
has a shallow root system composed of fibers. However, when supported
by nearby plants, it can attain heights of 5–10 m [49,127].
2.3.1.2. Leaf. Ageratina adenophora exhibits deep green leaves with a
strikingly vibrant purple tint. These leaves are arranged opposite each
other on the stem and have a distinctive trowel-like shape with serrated
edges. They can reach a length of up to 10 cm [12,17]. In the case of

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S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

Fig. 1. Current distribution of Banmara species including Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata, and Mikania micrantha, in Nepal, Data were retrieved from:
[12,48,131–142].

Fig. 2. Current worldwide distribution of Ageratina adenophora, Data were retrieved from: [12,20,130,143–153].

Mikania micrantha Kunth, the leaves are smooth (glabrous) and attached heart, or acuminate, resembling a triangular shape with a long-pointed
to the stem by petioles ranging from 2 to 8 cm in length. They have tip. The leaves are positioned opposite each other along the stem and
serrated edges (dentate margins) and can be either cordate, resembling a have a size range of 4–13 cm in length and 2–9 cm in breadth [48,51].

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S.P. Singh Yadav et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031

Fig. 3. Current worldwide distribution of Mikania micrantha, Data were retrieved from: [12,51,139,141,143–148,151,153].

Fig. 4. Current worldwide distribution of Chromolaena odorata, Data were retrieved from: [20,51,149–153].

The biotype of C. odorata found in southern Africa differs from the more
common biotype in that it has glabrous leaves, which are young and
display a vivid yellow-green coloration [49].
2.3.1.3. Flower. Ageratina adenophora produces flower clusters con­
sisting of approximately 50–70 tubular florets. These florets are
approximately 3.5 mm long and have a white hue [12]. They are ar­
ranged in small heads that are 5–6 mm in diameter and surrounded by
green bracts. These flower heads are positioned in flat clusters at the
terminals of the branches, which can span up to 10 cm in width [17].
Mikania micrantha produces multiple fluffy flower heads called capitula.
These capitula are grouped in branches that arise from the leaf forks or
at the tips of branches (axillary or terminal corymbs). They have a
disc-like shape and are small, measuring 3–6 mm in length. They exhibit
a white or greenish-white coloration [51]. Chromolaena odorata bears
flowers that are somewhat hairy and range in color from pale blue to
lavender. This plant starts blooming in response to a decrease in both
sunlight duration and rainfall [49].
2.3.1.4. Seeds. Ageratina adenophora ’s seeds, known as achenes,
exhibit an elliptic or oblanceolate shape and can have a rounded or
inflated appearance. They range in width from 0.3 to 0.5 mm and in
length from 1.5 to 2 mm [12,17]. Mikania micrantha plants produce
blackish-brown or black-tinted seeds. These elongated, linear-oblong

8
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
achenes have a five-angled cross-section. They measure between 0.2 and
0.6 mm in width and 1.2–2 mm in length. Each seed possesses a pappus,
which is a ring-like structure consisting of several bristles or hairs
measuring 2–4 mm in length and having a yellowish tint [47]. A single
Chromolaena odorata plant is capable of producing over a million seeds
in a single season. Seed development typically occurs within two months
after flowering. In South Africa, seed production typically increases until
the plants reach approximately 10 years of age, after which it declines
sharply, signalling the onset of senescence. Seed dispersal occurs
through wind dispersal as well as attachment to animal hair, clothing, or
vehicles [1,49].
2.3.2. Physiological characteristics
Seed germination in Banmara species is heavily dependent on light.
However, once the seeds have germinated, the immature plants can
tolerate a considerable amount of shade by increasing their leaf area to
compensate for the reduced light intensity. As the plant grows, it quickly
forms dense clusters or thickets [13,17]. Extensive research has focused
on the medicinal properties of these invasive species, revealing the
presence of various beneficial compounds such as steroids, tannins,
triterpenes, coumarins, and saponins. These phytochemicals have been
shown to possess antibacterial, antipyretic, wound-healing, antioxidant,
analgesic, anti-tumor, insecticidal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and
larvicidal properties [12,14]. Ageratina adenophora exerts allelopathic
effects, emitting chemicals that adversely affect nearby plants [128].
The widespread expansion of these invasive species can be attributed to
its introduction into ruderal habitats, facilitated by disturbed environ­
ments and favorable climatic conditions such as temperature, moisture,
light, and nutrient availability. Despite the occurrence of seedling
mortality, the population of these invasive species remains large, partly
due to factors like the allelopathic effects of its water-saturated leaves
[29,129].
2.4. Reproductive strategy
In response to the growth pressure from natural vegetation, these
invasive species have developed a "post-adaptation mechanism" char­
acterized by creeping growth, stem-to-root root development, and the
formation of multiple branches [20]. These species exhibit a remarkable
capacity for vegetative renewal and prolific reproduction through the
production of numerous small seeds. They rapidly multiply and establish
monocultures in invaded areas [14,16,50]. Flowering and fruiting
typically occur in spring and October [130]. Wind and water are the
primary means of seed dispersal for A. adenophora, with each plant
producing approximately 100,000 seeds per season (with 15–30% of
seeds being non-viable) [12,20]. Mikania micrantha primarily re­
produces vegetatively, allowing for easy development of new plants
from stem fragments. While seeds can also contribute to reproduction,
vegetative propagation is the primary method of procreation for this
plant species [51]. Chromolaena odorata, on the other hand, primarily
reproduces through wind-dispersed seeds [49,127].
3. Ecological impacts of banmara
3.1. Competition with native species
Banmara species display several remarkable characteristics, such as
higher photosynthetic rates, faster growth rates, increased reproductive
outputs, greater biomass accumulation, lower carbon-to-nutrient ratios
in tissue, enhanced nutrient absorption capacity, and heightened plas­
ticity levels [29]. Within forest landscapes, Banmara species replace
native species by out-competing their seeds for germination and
impeding the growth of native seedlings. Banmara species employ a
range of methods, such as enhancing the resource absorption capabil­
ities of their seedlings and promoting dense growth to provide shade and
suppress the growth of native species’ saplings [6]. Moreover, the
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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031
success of invasions is influenced by functional differences, necessitating
invading species to exhibit distinct characteristics from native species to
become invasive [3]. In environments conducive to supporting a large
number of native species, a significant number of alien species can
thrive. However, in the context of Banmara species, the net impacts of
biotic resistance and acceptance in observational studies may be
obscured, as these alien species can successfully establish themselves in
species-rich ecosystems and achieve dominance [169].
Some other notable characteristics exhibited by Banmara include
strong allelopathic capabilities, prolific seed production, long-lasting
seeds, early sexual maturation, and the ability to tolerate various envi­
ronmental conditions. Banmara harms various areas, including agri­
culture, human health and livelihood, and ecosystems [2]. They
frequently pose an economic and societal issue while significantly
negatively affecting species, communities, and ecosystems [5]. These
species impact the dynamics and composition of soil, while also
competing with crops for soil and water resources in agricultural envi­
ronments, resulting in decreased crop output and feed quality. Due to
competition, destruction, or the spread of viruses, they have a negative
influence on biodiversity, leading to the decrease or extinction of native
species as well as the disturbance of regional ecosystems and ecosystem
functions [6].
3.2. Alternation of ecosystem processes
One of the greatest contributors to biodiversity loss is the Banmara
species, which disrupt socioeconomic conditions and environmental
resources in several ways [129]. They have an irreversible impact on the
physicochemical characteristics of soils and water supplies,
plant-microbe interactions, native plant pollination, pollinator popula­
tion composition, and even plant community organization [4]. Ecosys­
tems are disrupted by the invasion of these species, which also poses a
threat to some flagship species and threatens flora and fauna [2]. Huge
environmental change causes genetic erosion, harms ecological func­
tions, and impacts people and property welfare [10]. Previous studies
have revealed that the effects of Banmara species are complex and
possess the potential to induce permanent changes in community
composition [6]. Invasion by these species has the potential to harm
many different ecosystem functions and services in response to the
regional context, in addition to displacing native plant species and
harming the local flora and biodiversity [8,34]. The degradation of the
biodiversity pool, the structure and function of the ecosystem, the
accessibility of resources, and population dynamics are the major con­
cerns of these species to native plant communities [9]. Each of these
elements helps to degrade habitats in a way that directly affects rural
livelihood, social requirements, the production and consumption of
sustainable food, and ecological complexity [4].
3.3. Habitat fragmentation and loss
Banmara species are intentionally or unintentionally introduced
outside of their normal habitats and have the potential to establish
themselves, invade, out-compete indigenous species, and take over new
settings [34]. When these species are abundant, the microhabitat
changes and become unfriendly to native species’ seed germination and
seedling growth. These species emit specific allelochemicals, or sec­
ondary metabolites, that alter the soil’s chemical environment and
prevent seeds from other species from germinating [2]. These species
can become invasive due to various factors, including plant character­
istics, invasion history, habitat characteristics, alien species ecology,
propagule pressure, and others [5]. There are several drawbacks asso­
ciated with Banmara species, such as how they endanger biodiversity by
destroying the gene pool, degrading endemic species and reducing
ecosystem functioning, causing economic loss, etc. [9].
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
3.4. Effects on biodiversity
The Banmara species spread outside of its geographic range, poses a
threat to the local biodiversity, and degrades the environment [11]. The
destruction or depletion of native biodiversity and ecological services
are directly related to biological intervention, highlighted as a key
contributor to global environmental change [129,170]. The loss of
biodiversity is mostly the result of changes in land use. However, these
species are also a significant contributor to this reduction, having a
bigger influence in the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific compared to
Africa, Europe, and Central Asia [11]. The invasion of Banmara species
is frequently linked to displacing native species, homogenizing ecosys­
tems, altering hydrological properties, and degrading gene pools
through hybridization with native species, which results in biodiversity
loss [2,5]. These species frequently displace or harm local animals and
plants, posing major dangers to the area’s biodiversity and stressing the
environment negatively [29]. The participation and significance of
Banmara species, which originate from foreign regions, are steadily
increasing in the flora of various geographical areas worldwide [171].
3.5. Implications for endangered species
Banmara species pose a serious threat to biodiversity, comparable to
habitat degradation. They contribute to species extinction and biodi­
versity loss [6]. They can disrupt relationships between plants and
consumers, resulting in population decreases and species extinction [2].
The colonization of ecosystems by Banmara species, initially with
diverse species, can later result in local extinctions of native species,
leading to a reduction in overall diversity [169]. Along with the
quickening pace of globalization, these species have become a greater
menace. Banmara species alters the species composition, fire regimes,
food webs, nutrient cycling, and hydrology, negatively impacting
ecosystem functioning and lowering agricultural, animal, and forest
productivity. They also promote land degradation and alter soil quality.
They severely threaten the diversity of native species, and some un­
common and endangered species may potentially go extinct [6].
4. Economic and social implication
4.1. Agriculture and forestry losses
Phytotoxic chemicals produced by Banmara (Ageratina adenopho­
rum) have been found to influence more than 94 metabolisms in the
plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Among these, mineral absorption, ABC
transporters, metabolic pathways, amino acid biosynthesis, and
biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites are mainly impacted [172],
facilitating inhibitory effects on native plant species. The phytotoxic
properties of Banmara have also been reported in traditional crop spe­
cies Amaranthus caudatus and Vigna unguiculata, where 64.90%
growth and 86.30% branch/plant were found reduced in V. unguiculata
when subjected to 8% aqueous solution of the undecomposed residue of
Banmara [173]. These invasive alien species have allelopathic solid
properties, and one drop of its plant extract can inhibit seed germination
in most crop and weed species [174]. Thus, it poses a severe threat to
native herbs and shrubs and a serious risk of altering the ecosystem of a
particular cropping system. Further, Ageratina adenophorum is widely
recognized as a forest killer [175], due to its phytotoxic properties that
inhibits the growth of its surrounding plant species and exhibits rapid
multiplication [173]. This invasive weed has been reported to increase
forest fire during summer due to its dense stand that wilts, dries, and dies
in summer drought [176]. Once established, Banmara hinders forest
regeneration by impeding the development of new seedlings, and
thwarting efforts at afforestation. Another detrimental effect of Banmara
is its high nutrient demand, which leads to the depletion of soil nutrient
content. Soils infected with Banmara have been found to have lower
concentrations of calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese compared
10
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031
to Banmara-free soils [175]. In a study, it was discovered that higher
concentrations of leachate (2.5% and 5%) derived from Ageratina ade­
nophorum delayed germination, emergence rate of the seeds, lower
survival rates, and decreased the dry matter accumulation of the two
widely distributed destructive weeds, Amaranthus retroflexus L. and
Chenopodium glaucum [177].
4.2. Impacts on livelihoods
The forest is the primary source for obtaining forage and fodder for
people involved in animal husbandry in Nepal. About 25.68% of the
people in the country are directly involved in animal husbandry and
highly depend on forests for grazing animals and obtaining forage and
tree fodder [178]. The invasion of Banmara suppresses the growth and
development of forage and fodder trees, resulting in a shortage of feed.
This directly impacts animal production, thereby affecting the liveli­
hoods of individuals involved in livestock production. Banmara species
are usually avoided by cattle due to its highly unpalatable nature [50].
Further, these species are toxic to various animals, and can adversely
affects multiple organs. A. adenophora has been reported to cause res­
piratory disease in horses, digestive dysfunction and photosensitive re­
action in cattle, and toxicity in the goat’s liver, spleen, and kidney [179].
Furthermore, the invasion of agricultural land by Banmara suppresses
the growth of crop species and negatively impacts soil nutrient content,
leading to nutrient depletion [175]. Many rural people in Nepal are
directly involved in collecting medicinal herbs and their processing,
aesthetic importance, and marketing, which has been linked to the
household economy and is a good source of income for rural people
[50]. The harmful and inhibitory behavior of Banmara suppresses the
growth and development of these economically important plant species,
directly influencing the socio-economic condition of rural people.
4.3. Impact on food security
The accidental and deliberate introduction of Banmara species to
agriculturally productive land ineptly challenges food security. The
allelopathic effect of A. adenophora and C. odorata lowers seed germi­
nation and inhibits the growth of food crops, leading to a reduction in
agricultural production [180]. This results in poor availability of food
for consumption. A higher density of A. adenophora reduces the yields of
maize and millet, affecting the predominant relay cropping of maize and
millet [181]. The dominance of invasive Banmara species endangers the
sustainable food security of the area. Banmara species spread widely in
anthropogenic landscapes, resulting in economic losses due to the
decline of crop production, loss of biodiversity, and the intense labor
needed for weed removal [60]. These species invade forest areas, fallow
lands, and rangelands, affecting grazing areas for livestock and soil
fertility for agricultural production [182]. Additionally, local herb spe­
cies are replaced by them [183]. This dominant invasion by Banmara
species causes higher economic losses, leading to poor accessibility to
food for local people who predominantly rely on agriculture and live­
stock for their livelihoods.
5. Management strategies
Banmara, is an invasive plant species that poses significant chal­
lenges for land managers and ecosystems. Effective management stra­
tegies are crucial to control its spread and mitigate its negative impacts.
The conceptual framework for the management of Banmara species is
well illustrated in Fig. 5.
5.1. Prevention and early detection
In the current era, there is no indication of a slowdown in the
introduction of various taxonomic groups of alien species worldwide
[184]. While the extent and distribution of invasive species differs
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
Fig. 5. Conceptual framework for the management of Banmara species encompassing management strategies like prevention and early detection, physical method,
chemical method, biological method, restoration and rehibition, policy and legal frameworks.
among countries and regions, the fortuitous and deliberate introduction
has bid various challenges to agricultural countries. Consequently,
prevention and early detection of these invasive species, including
Banmara species, are critical strategies for their effective management.
According to Joshi [139], the prevalence of Banmara is more significant
in areas adjacent to human settlements and forested regions. Therefore,
it is essential to cease activities such as logging, felling, firewood
collection, canopy opening, and forest degradation or alteration in order
to prevent the colonization of Banmara. By halting these activities in
proximity to human endeavors, we can mitigate the spread and estab­
lishment of Banmara populations. The transportation of Banmara by
local farmers and off-road vehicles leads to its high infestation in virgin
areas [139]. Thus, raising awareness about its dispersal mechanism
among people helps to prevents its augmentation. Utilizing weed-free
seeds and ensuring that agricultural equipment is cleaned before mov­
ing to new areas not yet affected by the species can effectively curb the
spread of Banmara in agroecosystems. Implementing effective quaran­
tine measures or regular monitoring for transportation at open borders,
along with adhering to introduction guidelines, can aid in preventing the
establishment of Banmara species in Nepal [60]. The profusion of Ban­
mara is in wet places, forest borders, and clearings along the banks of
rivers, agricultural and agroforestry systems, riverine forests, and
grasslands [138]. Regular observation of the species in such areas pro­
vides valuable guidance for the proper and effective management of
Banmara species.
11
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031
5.2. Control and eradication
The management measures for the precise control of Banmara spe­
cies highly depend upon factors such as the terrain, available cost and
labor, the severity of the infestation, and the presence of other invasive
species in the area. Eradicating Banmara species implies complete
removal of the species from the habitat or region. Control measures aim
to reduce the species’ abundance in the targeted area or region and
prevent its further spread. The consolidation of physical, chemical, and
biological methods proves to be more effective in controlling the inva­
sive species compared to individual methods [60].
5.2.1. Physical method
The successful physical removal of numerous invasive alien species
(IAs) from different locations such as Chitwan, Kathmandu, and Pokhara
provide evidence supporting the further integration of this method into
management strategy [60]. Adopting sickle weeding before flower and
seed setting, uprooting during the initial growth stage, and slash and
burn technique are widely practiced for the mechanical removal of
Banmara species. The physical removal technique has great potential for
controlling Banmara, along with other control methods. The integration
of cultural activities such as crop rotation, smoother crops, cover crops,
biomass harvesting and utilization, rotational grazing, and controlled
burning during farming, silviculture, and rangeland management sup­
ports the control of these species to many extents [185]. Further, other
cultural methods including mulching, tillage, planting density, space,
fertilizer application, irrigation etc. can be implemented to control
Banmara [186]. Likewise, harvesting Ageratina adenophora for use as
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
cattle bedding and green manure aids for control of Banmara species.
Adopting practices such as regular removal of ground vegetation by
community-managed forest users has proven to be a cheapest and
effective method for controlling Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena
odorata, and Mikania micrantha in Nepal [187]. These local practices
serve as effective measures for controlling Banmara species in forests.
Malla et al. [137] demonstrated the adaptation of the floor clearance
technique as a means to reduce A. adenophora in planted pine forests,
contributing to sustainable management of pine forests against
A. adenophora invasion.
5.2.2. Chemical method
The Chemical control method includes chemicals, especially herbi­
cides, for controlling IAPs. Jiang et al. [188] found that applying
Mycotoxin cytochalasin A (CA) at 58.5 μM shows excellent phytotoxicity
and potential herbicidal activity leading to leaf lesions on A. adeno­
phora. Such biological herbicides are advantageous due to their abun­
dant resources, low development cost, specific target, and
environmentally friendly nature. The elevated level of anthropogenic
CO2 is diminishing the effectiveness of herbicides in controlling invasive
plants, while the higher resistance of shrubs and vines to glyphosphate
and fluroxypr-meptyl emphasizes the need for further research on her­
bicide dosages [189]. Increasing the treatment time and dose of
picloram herbicide (from 12 to 24 g a.i ha-1 to 120 and 240 g a.i ha-1)
has been shown to reduce the tolerance mechanism of Ageratina ade­
nophora to this herbicide [143]. Such outcomes on herbicides support
the increased use of herbicides for controlling invasive alien plant spe­
cies (IAPs). Poudel et al. [130] also reported the effectiveness in
chemical control of A. adenophora by application of various herbicides
such as glyphosphate 2,4-D amine, fluroxypr, picloram +2,4-D, trichlor,
and metasulfuran methyl. Further, Negi [190] reported that, the appli­
cation of 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) during late
summer when the plant is actively growing can effectively control the
Banmara. Even though many herbicides are applied to control Banmara
species worldwide, further research is necessary to access their precise
effectiveness in achieving proper control.
5.2.3. Biological method
Biological methods integrate the controlled use of living biological
organisms to lessen the population of invasive species in the region.
Introducing natural enemies as biological control agents is environment-
friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable approach for controlling inva­
sive species. Seven biocontrol agents are known so far for controlling A.
adenophora till now which are Baeodromus eupatori (fungi), Oidae­
matophorus beneficus Yano and Heppner (Lepidoptera), Passalora
ageratine (Fungi), Procecidochares utilis (Diptera), Dihammus argen­
tatus (Coleoptera), Dorylus orientalis (Hymenoptera), and Xanthaciura
connexionis (Diptera) [130]. Additionally, a study conducted by Lu et al.
[191] reported that Procecidochares utilǐs, Cercospora euphoria, and
Alternaria alternate play a potential role in controlling the spread of these
weeds by disrupting their reproduction cycle. These insects and fungi
effectively control species in large regions, making them economically
viable and environmentally friendly methods of control.
The gall fly (Procecidochares utilis) is a widely popular biological
control method for Banmara species, and its effectiveness has been
observed in Hawaii, USA, and various regions worldwide [190]. This fly
induces gall formation in the stem of A. adenophora, leading to the
suppression of the species’ vegetative and reproductive growth. How­
ever, it’s important to note that the infestation of gall induction by the
stem gall fly depends on elevation [12]. Research conducted by Fang
et al. [145] on mature leaves and leaf litter above soil demonstrated that
the invasive species A. adenophora experienced delayed germination,
inhibited germination rate, and reduced seedling growth. This result was
because of abundant fungi (e.g., Didymella) and more virulent fungi (e.
g., Fusarium) developed during the invasion of A. adenophora. Buccel­
lato et al. [152] observed an additive interaction between two
12
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031
biocontrol agents, Procecidochares utilis (stem gall fly) and Passalora (a
leaf spot fungi) pathogen, for controlling A. adenophora by inhibiting
stem and side shoot growth, respectively.
However, effective control can only be achieved by regularly
observing and monitoring the spread and distribution of these invasive
species. Someone of the urgent strategies to control them could be: (i)
Awareness to locals about its destructive capability; (ii) Prioritizing the
conservation of native species and maintaining the overall ecosystem;
(iii) Prioritizing mechanical control of weed management along with
possible chemical, biological and cultural weed control approaches and
(iv) Collection of data and information regarding its current situation
and status on the local ecosystem.
5.2.4. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies
For the management of invasive plants like Banmara species, Inte­
grated Pest Management (IPM) has the potential to be very successful.
Unlike traditional techniques, which often rely mostly on chemical
treatments, IPM takes a comprehensive and sustainable approach. To
efficiently manage invasive plants while minimizing ecological damage,
it blends a variety of pest management techniques [47,130]. IPM stra­
tegies for invasive plant species may involve applying diseases or natural
predators tailored to the invader, and applying herbicides sparingly and
carefully [48]. Predatory insects, such as the biocontrol agent Rhino­
cyllus conicus, have been effectively used, indicating the possibility of
biological control in controlling Banmara species [17,197]. Insect
predators can be quite useful when it comes to managing Banmara
species. For instance, the introduction of herbivorous insects that spe­
cifically target Banmara, such as weevils or beetles, might impede its
growth [198]. Other cultural options include modifying the character­
istics of the soil or using cover crops. For example, growing crops that
naturally impede Banmara growth might help with control efforts [48].
Further, according to Wan et al. [20], Procecidochares utilis Stone had no
appreciable effect on weed growth. The extent of P. utilis parasitism
differed according to the habitat in which the weed was targeted; re­
gions beneath forest trees (41.2%) had lower levels of parasitism than
open fields (55.4%). In Nepal, leaf spot fungi Passalora ageratinae Crous
and stem-galling fly Procecidochares utilis Stone and A. R. Wood are used
for Ageratina adenophora [1]. Additionally, according to Muniappan
et al. [17], chemicals including 2, 4-D, Glyphosate, Picloram, Dicamba,
and MCPA are applicable for controlling Banmara species. In most na­
tions where this weed is an issue, traditional biological management has
been implemented, as these techniques are costly and only. Cultural
techniques that promote the growth of native grasses and other
competing plants have also demonstrated potential, according to Poudel
et al. [130] and Day et al. [47]. Controlled burns can aid in lowering the
quantity of Banmara seeds present in the region, preventing further
spread. These strategies can be integrated into an IPM framework, which
provides a sustainable and environmentally responsible long-term
management method for invasive plant species like Banmara.
5.3. Restoration and rehabilitation
The management actions must focus on the strategy that sustainably
restores the ecosystem. Various ecosystem is invaded by Banmara spe­
cies that needs an urgent step to conserve the ecosystem services and
benefits. Restoring the environment is challenging due to synergistic
interactions among these species, climate variables, land use change,
and human-mediated disturbances [192]. Restoration of the ecosystem
degraded by Banmara species can be achieved by recovering bio­
tic/abiotic (soil, water, and biodiversity) components. The judicial uti­
lization of indigenous knowledge and community participation can
uplift ecological restoration programs. Wan et al. [20] found that the
ecosystem can be restored by competitive replacement of A. adenophora
by forage grasses (Setaria sphacelata, Lolium perenne). The uprooting of
the A. adenophora at an early stage and moderate application of fertil­
izers and water treatment boost the competitive ability of the forage
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
grasses. Further, Chen et al. [148] reported that the supplication of
antimicrobial drugs Chlorothaloni (BJQ), Carbendazin (DJL), and
Streptomycin (LMS) decreased the reestablishment of biomass of A.
adenophora by 46.73 %,70.69% and 96.95% respectively. Furthermore,
DJL and LMS were found to increase plant community diversity and the
biomass of other plant species in the area. It is known that antimicrobial
drugs inhibit microbes that contribute to the eradication and replace­
ment of A. adenophora, thus facilitating ecosystem restoration.
5.4. Policy and legal frameworks
Every country has legal frameworks to prevent the entry of poten­
tially invasive species through its territory. Legal instruments are a
powerful tool to control, eradicate, or regulate any species in the area.
Nepal, as a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
has implemented mechanisms to prevent the entry and spread of inva­
sive species. Article 8(h) of CBD states that “Each contracting party shall
as far as possible and as appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control
or eradicate those alien species which threats ecosystem, habitats and
species” [193]. By understanding the threats posed by IAs, Nepal has
incorporated the issues of IAs in different national strategies (e.g., Nepal
Biodiversity Strategy 2002), report (Fifth National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity 2014) and legal instruments (Na­
tional Wetland Policy 2003, revised 2012) [194,195].
The Plant Protection Act [196] regulates the import of plants, plant
products, and biological control agents, which helps to control invasive
species. Several quarantine offices are opened to maintain sanitary and
phytosanitary measures. The second version of the Biodiversity Strategy,
known as the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan [140],
explicitly addresses the threats posed by invasive alien species,
including Banmara species, to the biodiversity and ecosystem functions
of wetlands, agro-ecosystems, and rangelands. It outlines a number of
activities aimed at addressing these threats. The activities encompass a
nationwide survey of the top five problematic invasive alien species,
including Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata, and Mikania
micrantha. Other initiatives involve developing an atlas for invasive
species identification, utilizing suitable biocontrol agents, and promot­
ing public education and community participation. The National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2014 designates Nepal Agricul­
tural Research Council (NARC) and the university as implementation
and supporting agencies for the biocontrol program. Additionally, Nepal
is a signatory of various international conventions, including the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and the Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade Organization, among others,
which are relevant to invasive alien species management [60].
6. Research gaps and future Directions
6.1. Understanding the future invasion
The infestation of Banmara species spreads rapidly primarily due to
their high invasion rate and certain Ecosystem properties that make
them vulnerable to colonization by Banmara [139]. The increase of
biological invasion across time and space is observed more for Banmara
species in central Nepal than in eastern and western regions [151]. This
is because of a higher presence of naturalized species and climatically
suitable regions in these areas. Changjun et al. [146] anticipated the
expansion of A. adenophora in regions with higher elevations
(3000–3500 m) under the ongoing climate change scenario. Thus,
mountain regions are expected to have more invasions of this species in
forthcoming years. According to Maxent modeling, the prediction of
Banmara species indicates a wide area of suitability in the
Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL), including all protected areas
and three physiographic regions (Siwaliks, High Mountains and high
Himalayas) for colonization of these species [12]. Further research
13
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031
should be conducted to identify the exact reasons for the invasion of
such species. This will enable the development of specific management
strategies aimed at preventing their establishment in particular regions.
6.2. Assessing long-term ecological impacts
Banmara species, due to their distinctive characteristics, have the
ability to disrupt hydrological cycles, disturb native species, homoge­
nize ecosystems, and degrade gene pools. Consequently, they contribute
to a significant loss of biodiversity [1]. In a study conducted by Bist &
Adhikari [138], it was found that the rhino habitat faces a significant
threat because of the humiliation of riverine forests and grassland
characterized by sparse trees, shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This degra­
dation is primarily attributed to the dominance of Mikania micrantha,
along with other invasive Banmara species including Ageratina adeno­
phora, and Chromolaena odorata. The invasion of exotic plants has been
found to heavily impact soil microbial communities and soil biota. Niu
et al. [147] reported a substantial increase in soil Vesicular-Arbuscular
Mycorrihizal (VAM) and fungi/bacteria ratio after the invasion of
Ageratina adenophora. It is observed that once the A. adenophora es­
tablishes itself, it further modifies the soil community in a manner that
benefits its own growth and inhibits the growth of other species, thereby
promoting invasion of nearby species.
The fresh leaves and leaf extract of Banmara species have been found
to possess inhibitory mechanism that negatively affect seedling growth,
thus resulting in issues in the establishment and survival of native tree
seedlings [199]. The allopathic effect and harmfulness of these species
depends on the specific species involved. For instances, the leachates of
A. adenophora containing O–H (hydroxyl), N–H (amines), alkynes, and
C–H stretching (aromatic) or C–O–C stretching (Ethers) have been
shown to harm Osbeckia stellate and Elshotzia blanda [14]. This leads to
a decrease in pH and an increase in organic matter, total nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium in invaded soils, revealing a potential
mechanism of invasiveness. The research conducted by Gu et al. [150]
indicates that the invasion of Ageratina adenophora alters the commu­
nity structure of ground-dwelling arthropods, specially Carabidae
(Coleoptera). However, further research and investigation are necessary
to assess the various ecological impacts of Banmara species under
different habitats and conditions. The variation in biogeographical re­
gions of Nepal presents an excellent opportunity for future research and
study to evaluate the ecological impacts of Banmara species.
6.3. Developing sustainable management approaches
The environmental restoration strategies of Banmara species furnish
prospects for its sustainable management. Further research exploration
to fully utilize Banmara species by extracting essential oils and odors can
be conducted as contact poisons or repelling agents [20]. This bio­
resource utilization is essential for developing sustainable management
approaches. Co-benefits derived from bioresources (such as bioenergy,
phytoremediation, biopolymers, and ethnomedicine) play a vital role in
enhancing sustainable management approaches [200]. Evaluating
Banmara species for its co-benefits, including its ecological economics
and ecosystem resilience, contributes to its prospects for sustainability.
Numerous research gaps exist in the ecological adaptability of Banmara
species, its population dynamics, its ability to displace native plant dy­
namics, and its position as a dominant species. Exploring these knowl­
edge gaps through research provides an opportunity to progress towards
the sustainable management of Banmara species.
6.4. Socio-economic studies and community engagement
In addition to the numerous negative impacts of Banmara species,
there are socio-economic and livelihood co-benefits associated with this
invasive species. The indigenous plant use system, practiced from the
past to the present, brings several benefits to the socio-economic
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
livelihood of humans. The conversion of Banmara species, specifically
A. adenophora, into NPK-rich organic fertilizer increases nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) content in major crops such as rice,
maize, and wheat, thereby promoting higher yields and quality [201].
The composted leaf litters of Banmara species positively impacts several
crops including ryegrass, wheat, lentil, and barley, by speeding up their
germination rate, nutrient uptake, increasing grain yield and quality of
crops [202–204]. The increase in crop yield and quality contributes to
improving people’s living standards. Technological advancements play
a vital role in expanding the usefulness of Banmara species for bio-oil
products that sustain people’s lives [149]. This assists in saving in­
comes for controlling the invasion of the species, and, on the following
hand, income from bio-oil uplifts livelihood. The rhizosphere of Ban­
mara species, a potential site for many Plant-Growth Promoting-Rhi­
zobacteria (PGPR), speeds up the germination rate of soybean, faba
bean, pea, wheat, and cabbage seeds [144]. Such PGPR from Banmara
species are bio inoculants for improving the growth and productivity of
crops. Therefore, recognizing the potential socio-economic impacts,
communities are increasingly being enrolled in the economical utiliza­
tion of Banmara species. Prioritizing the perception of agrarian and
forest-dependent communities is crucial for developing effective man­
agement strategies. A survey conducted by Shrestha et al. [185] revealed
that A. adenophora is considered a priority species for management
through community engagement. Active participation from the com­
munity forest users has the potential to facilitate the rapid eradication of
this weed from infested areas. Therefore, there is significant scope for
guiding community education programs. By exploring the perceptions of
community members, valuable insights can be gained for future policy
formulation across the country.
6.5. International cooperation and information sharing
The invasion of Banmara species is primarily attributed to their
accidental and deliberate introduction into regions where climate suit­
ability exists. Therefore, it is crucial to share proper information on their
invasive mechanisms and adaptability through collaboration. Sharing
information about the mechanisms and rates of spread, their impacts,
prevention, and control strategies enables resource managers and
decision-makers to respond more effectively to biological invasions
[205]. Nepal shares its borders with China in the north and east, and
with India in the west and south. Harmonizing approaches among
countries that share borders is essential in developing effective man­
agement strategies. This involves ensuring interoperability, data avail­
ability, funding, and technical expertise to facilitate collaboration
among invasive species networks. There is tremendous potential for
collaboration among weed scientists worldwide in research programs
that aim to develop common and effective management strategies [206].
Global efforts to collaborate and limit the transferability of this species
at local, regional, and international levels signify broader prospects for
minimizing its risks.
7. Conclusion
7.1. Summary of findings
This comprehensive review focuses on the invasive potential and
ecological consequences of the Banmara species. Our analysis un­
derscores the various ecological traits exhibited by Banmara species,
which contribute to their invasiveness. These traits include efficient
reproductive strategies, effective dispersal mechanisms, and adapt­
ability to diverse habitats. The updated report shows that a total of 30
invasive plant species are present, which negatively impact the envi­
ronment and agricultural production to date. Among these species,
A. adenophora, C. odorata, and M. micrantha are particularly problematic
in agricultural fields and national parks. The open borders and less
effective quarantine measures along the Nepal-India border pose a
14
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 15 (2024) 101031
significant concern, as any exotic species established in India can easily
spread into Nepal sooner or later. To effectively manage these invasive
species in Nepal, focusing on prevention, early detection, and reporting
of infestations is crucial. Local-level awareness programs are recom­
mended as part of the overall strategy. The invasion of these species has
resulted in significant ecological impacts, including competition with
native species, alteration of ecosystem processes, habitat fragmentation
and loss, and adverse effects on biodiversity. Moreover, the economic
and social implications of the invasion by these species, such as losses in
the agriculture and forestry sectors and impacts on livelihoods, further
emphasize the urgent need to address this issue.
7.2. Key recommendations
Based on our findings, we propose the following key recommenda­
tions for the effective management and conservation of biodiversity in
the face of Banmara species invasion.
1. Prioritize prevention and early detection efforts: Implement robust
monitoring programs and raise awareness among stakeholders to
identify and respond promptly to new Banmara species infestations.
2. Implement integrated management approaches: Combine various
control and eradication methods, such as manual removal, me­
chanical techniques, and targeted herbicide application, to effec­
tively manage Banmara species populations.
3. Explore biological control options: Investigate the feasibility of using
biological agents, such as insects or pathogens specific to Banmara
species, to control their population and limit their spread.
4. Focus on habitat restoration and rehabilitation: Develop strategies
for restoring native plant communities in areas affected by Banmara
species invasion to promote ecosystem recovery and enhance resil­
ience against further invasions.
5. Strengthen policy and legal frameworks: Enhance existing regula­
tions and develop new policies that address the prevention, control,
and management of Banmara species. Implement stricter measures
for preventing the trade and transportation of potentially invasive
species.
7.3. Importance of collaborative efforts
Successful biodiversity management and conservation require the
collective efforts of researchers, land managers, policymakers, and local
communities. Collaboration and information sharing among these
stakeholders are essential for developing and implementing effective
strategies to combat the invasion of Banmara species. By working
together, we can exchange knowledge, build capacity, and engage local
communities to ensure the long-term sustainability of our management
efforts. It is crucial to address the invasive potential and ecological
consequences of Banmara species in order to protect biodiversity.
Through the summary of our findings and the provision of key recom­
mendations, we aim to contribute to the development of robust man­
agement strategies that mitigate the impact of Banmara species invasion
and safeguard our natural ecosystems. Together, let us prioritize pre­
vention, implement integrated management approaches, explore bio­
logical control options, focus on habitat restoration, and strengthen
policy and legal frameworks. By combining our expertise and resources,
we can effectively manage and conserve biodiversity in the face of
Banmara species invasion.
Funding information
No funding was received.
Institutional/ethical approval
Ethical approval did not apply to this study as the work does not
S.P. Singh Yadav et al.
contain human or animal participants or experiments.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Shubh Pravat Singh Yadav: Conceptualization, Data curation,
Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing, Validation. Dipesh Kumar Mehata: Data
curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. Shobha Pokhrel: Data
curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. Netra Prasad Ghimire:
Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. Pramod Gyawali:
Investigation, Writing – original draft. Shambhu Katel: Data curation,
Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing.
Umesh Timilsina: Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation,
Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
We would like to extend our gratitude to G. P. Koirala College of
Agriculture and Research Centre (GPCAR), Gothgaun, Morang, Nepal,
for providing the necessary supplies and learning platforms. This
research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commer­
cial or not-for-profit sectors.
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