EVOLUTION OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Modern or improved crop production technology has considerably raised output but has created
many problems. Major hazards of input intensive agricultural technology are:

1. Building up of insects, diseases and weeds

Insects, diseases and weed problems are now more serious than ever before. This
situation is the result of monoculture of selected crops leading to buildup of insects,
diseases and weeds. Carryover of stem borer (pink borer) and build-up of soil born
pathogens in soil of continuous cereal system and Phalaris minor weed problem in rice-
wheat system are examples of such serious problems. Farmers have to incur huge amount
on plant protection relative to traditional crop rotation.
2. Hazards of indiscriminate use of agrochemicals
Modern cultivars are not only responsive to inorganic fertilizers but also to other
chemicals (inorganic) used in plant protection. In general insects, diseases and weed
problem are more in modern cultivars compared with traditional varieties. Keeping in
view the productivity of high yielding cultivars, farmers use agrochemicals
indiscriminately. The natural enemies are thus eliminated with agrochemicals resulted in
pests and disease incidence. Excessive reliance on synthetic chemicals has also resulted
in problems such as pesticide resistance thus complicating plant protection. Insecticides,
fungicides and herbicides residues entering the environment and food chain have serious
health hazards in both humans and animals. Despite large scale use of such chemicals
more pest outbreak of boll worms and white fly in cotton, leaf folder in rice, pyrilla and
borers in sugarcane are mainly due to destruction of natural enemies. Pesticide residues
are disposable into air, soil and water and other non agricultural ecosystems, where they
are subjected to transformation. Pesticides enter the agro ecosystem via green plants
either by direct foliar absorption or by uptake from soil and water. If the pesticides taken
by humans and animals through food or feed are not voided from the system, these are
stored in internal organs such as liver. They are highly toxic at relatively low levels.
Residual toxicity contributes to elimination of vulnerable species in animals and plants.
Soluble inorganic fertilizers, particularly nitrogen, which have not been taken up by
 plants are leached out of the system. Others such as P and K are not so susceptible to
leaching losses as in N except under abnormal conditions. Over use and abuse of
chemical fertilizers harm biological power of soil. This must be prevented as all nutrient
transformation are negotiated by soil micro flora. There is mounting concern about
increasing level of NO3 in river and ground water. Nitrates have been identified as one of
the causes of fatal conditions methemoglobinemia in young babes. In addition, they are
the source of carcinogenic nitroso compounds.
3. Accelerated soil erosion/land degradation
The most deleterious impact of agriculture on environment is man induced accelerated
soil erosion. Continuous cultivation and decline in soil organic matter content has
resulted in blowing of lighter drier soil and sheet washing, rilling and gullying of heavier
soils. Once the fertile top soil is lost, the parent material will not respond to any input or
management practices for improving the crop productivity. Of the soil lost by water
erosion high proportion find its way finally into oceans beside silting up of lakes,
reservoirs and tanks leading to depletion of surface water sources.
4. Depletion of soil fertility
With increasing harvest especially in intensive cropped areas more quantities of nutrients
are removed from soil than restored through manures and fertilizers. Availability of FYM
decreases as tractors replaced the draught animals in many cases and large quantities used
as fuel. Hence use of organics is not to the desired level. There is imbalance in the use of
nutrients resulting in low use efficiency. Decline in quality and quantity of organic matter
in most soils is adversely affecting soil biodiversity and biological regulation of soil
process.
5. Deforestation and over grazing of rangelands
Perennial vegetation such as trees and grasses successfully prevent soil erosion and
runoff from fallows. Deforestation and over grazing lead to soil erosion silting up of
reservoirs and soil degradation. Forests influence climate of a region due to their effect
on wind direction and hence rainfall. Deforestation and over grazing modify the climate
and biodiversity besides valuable genetic resources used in breeding programme for
developing high yielding cultivars. While some plant or animal species can adapt to
direct or indirect of particular agro ecosystem others have been unable to do so. Habitat
 reduction or destruction inevitably accompanied by the disappearance of plant and animal
species.
6. Irrigation related problems
Inadequacies in irrigation water management resulted in serious resource degradation. In
the areas of canal irrigation without adequate drainage salinity, alkalinity and high water
table are serious constraints in enhancing the productivity. There are other areas where
unrestricted installation of tube-wells has resulted in continuous lowering of ground
water table leading to increasing costs in lifting water for irrigation. It is the misuse and
associated poor water use efficiency which leads to depriving the tail enders of the
valuable water resources and diminishing the potential of otherwise prime land which
would otherwise benefited.
7. Damage to ozone layer
Ozone concentration of stratosphere is declining at nearly half a percent per year. This is
due to release in the atmosphere of chemicals such as CFC, nitrogen dioxide and
methane.
8. CO2 content
The level of CO2 in the atmosphere has been increasing due to deforestation and
consumption of fossil fuels. In 1960s and 1970s a growing environmental agriculture
movement evolved in response to above stated problems. Simultaneously, the economic
condition of farmers started progressively decline due to low levels of farm productivity.
All these generated interest in sustainability. In 1980s Wes Jackson began using the term
sustainable agriculture to describe an alternative system of agriculture based on resource
conservation and quality of rural life.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

The word “Sustain” from the Latin word sustenere sus-from below and tenere to hold, to keep in
existence or maintain, implies to long term support.

- It is a form of agriculture aimed at the meeting the food and fiber needs of the present
generation without endangering the resource base for the future generations.
- It describes the farming systems that are capable of maintaining their productivity and
usefulness to society indefinitely. Such systems must be resource conserving, socially
supportive, commercially competitive and environmentally sound.
- Sustainable agriculture encompasses management strategies that provide the society long
and short term means to conserve an adequate supply of quality food, enhance economic
viability, improve environmental quality and conserve the resource base.
- It is an integrated system of profitable crop production with minimal dependence upon
synthetic fertilizers; pesticides etc. and are more dependent upon natural resources.
- Sustainable agriculture is a balanced and efficient management system of renewable
resources (soil, crops plant genetic resources, wild life, forests, fish, livestock and
ecosystem) without degradation to provide adequate food, other needs for present and
future generations maintaining or improving productivity and ecosystem services
(detoxification of noxious chemicals with in soil, purification of waters, favourable
weather ) of these resources.

Sustainable agriculture is also referred to by other name such as organic farming /organic
agriculture. It is wrong conception. While it is true that organic agriculture may fall under the
umbrella of sustainability it does not follow that Sustainable agriculture is always organic.
Sustainable agriculture is not possible without chemical inputs. So it is considered by some as
integrated low input and highly productive farming system.

Organic agriculture differs from sustainable agriculture because organic agriculture does not
allow the use of inorganic fertilizers or additives in the soil nor antibiotics in animal production.
Crop fields must be certified chemical free for three years before a farmer can market crop as
organic. Non of these restrictions apply to sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture is
generally regarding as an alternative to modern industrialized or conventional agriculture which
is highly specialized and capital intensive, heavily dependent upon synthetic chemicals and other
off-farm inputs.
 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Sufficient Environmental Economic Social justice Ethics

production stewardship viability

Protection of Protection of biosphere,

agricultural soil atmosphere and ground water

Conservative
resource practices Attractive countrywide

High quality of
product
________________________________________________________________________

Quality components have to be integrated to sustainable agriculture

Views in favour of conventional agriculture and against sustainable agriculture

1. Sustainable farming is inherently unprofitable. If widely adopted would not feed the
world’s expanding population.
2. Conventional agriculture is basically sound. More careful and efficient farming will
ensure its sustainability e.g., farmers should use only the amount of fertilizers and
pesticides actually needed.
3. No agriculture is sustainable if it is not first and foremost a profitable agriculture.
Practices commonly recommended by proponents (those who propose) of sustainability
are inherently unprofitable.
 4. Health, safety and environmental problems arise from the use of conventional farming
practices can be corrected by designing new and sensitive technologies.
5. Farming systems believed to be potentially the most sustainable will require the use of
much available land to produce inputs that are now manufactured and purchased off the
farm. This reasoning clearly support the argument for fine-tuning conventional
agriculture.
6. Conventional agriculture point out that highly specialized, capital-intensive, chemical
intensive methods have been widely adopted, not only because they increase production
but because they have been more profitable than practices now recommended by
proponents of sustainability. To condemn current and more profitable methods would be
to go back to hoes, hard lobour, lower yields and lower farm income.

Views in favor of sustainable agriculture

1. It can be more profitable than the conventional agriculture especially when one will do
the calculation of profit, counts all of the benefits, and cost of farming. Further resource
conservation, protection of environment, farming in partnership with nature which are
requirements of sustainability will enhance, not reduce, global food production.
2. It prevents soil erosion, pesticide pollution and other adverse effects of conventional
farming from occurring.
3. As it is more careful and efficient farming, it must be encouraged.
4. Nature and naturally occurring process beneath and above the soil are allies contributing
not only to agronomic sustainability but to economic profitability, due to the synergism
of plants, animals, soil and farmer’s stewardship that are too easily forgotten in
conventional farming.
5. Proponents of sustainable agriculture cite evidence that sustainable yields can be equal if
not exceed and be less variable than those achieved using conventional methods. Higher
and more stable yields would also be expected to come with farmer experience, the
development of cultivars that contribute to sustainability and the availability of new
information and other services for farmers using sustainable practices.

PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

1. No fight with nature but cooperation with them

 No such great or difficult modifications should be brought which nature cannot keep safe.
2. The soil must remain healthy, rather it becomes better.
3. Lessen the use of outside and distant resources

The basic requirement of a farm such as seed, manures, water etc. should be procured
locally and reuse of these resources and its waste products should be increased and their
misuse should be stopped.

4. Preservation

The use of non-renewable resources (fertilizers) should be lessen. Resources which are
renewable to a limited extent should be saved in adequate quantity, such as underground
water, organic matter etc. the use of unlimited resources such as sunlight etc. should be
increased day by day.

5. Diversity and adjustment

In case of cultivation, different kind of crops should be grown for a similar food (e.g.,
paddy, wheat, potato for carbohydrates, gram, pea, lentil, soybean, cowpea etc. for
protein, rapeseed and mustard, sesamum, groundnut, sunflower etc. for oils) as well as
different varieties of same crop.

6. Self dependence

The new knowledge and technology should be such which increases the self-confidence
by making the local knowledge and technology more active. As a result of which local
right and control measures are increased over resources, technology and planning.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

1. Input optimization

Sustainable production practices maximize on farm resources. Internally derived

inputs such as family labour, intensive grazing system, recycled nutrients, legume
nitrogen, crop rotations, use of renewable solar energy, improved management of
pests, soils and woodlands are few examples of substituted resources.
 2. Diversification

To develop healthy soils and reduced purchased inputs, sustainable agriculture

emphasizes diverse cropping and livestock systems. Diversification can lead to more
stable farm income by lowering economic risk from climate, pests and fluctuating
markets.

3. Conservation of natural capital

It is standard accounting practice to depreciate capital assets. It has not been standard
practice for farmers to depreciate natural capital that is depleted by farming methods
that do not conserve resources. Nevertheless, in sustainable agriculture, economic
value is created by maintaining the productivity of land and water resources, while
enhancing human health and the environments.

4. Capturing value added

The marketing of crops products grown is by far is the weakest link in the farmers
role in the field to table food system.
5. Community

The elements of sustainable agriculture are integral to all communities. If we are to

support sustainable agriculture, we must recognize the rural/urban interconnection,
the conflicts and tremendous opportunities. The positive of a sustainable farming
system include shared commitment to profitability, food security, food safety, open
space for water recharge, natural habitats for flora and fauna, recreation and a
cooperative and supportive social and economic community infrastructure.

Conditions/Aims

1. Sustainable agriculture system has to prevent degradation of natural resources.

2. It must be environmentally friendly i.e., protect and improve air, water and soil quality
and health.
3. It has to be economically viable both in short and long term perspective for enhancing the
productivity.
4. It has to maintain the human needs of today and tomorrow with quality food.
5. It has to replenish nutrients.
 6. It has also to control weeds, insects and diseases through biological and cultural methods.
7. Society acceptability.

Constraints in sustainable agriculture in developing countries

- High population
- Low income
- Institutional constraints
- Socio-economic factors
- Poor land tenure system
- Scarcity of forests
- Climatic factors
- Land fragmentation (use of land for industrial + residential purpose, area suitable for
agriculture is less, low soil fertility, salinity, water logging and erosion)
- Dry lands
- Desertification (water logging and salinity deteriorated ground water, lowering of ground
water)

Benefits/Advantages

Economic benefits

• Improve the efficiency and productivity of agricultural systems, thus contributing to

improvement of farmers livelihoods.
• Optimize natural resource utilization e.g., water and energy, while maintaining or
enhancing environmental services of water shed or landscape.

Environmental benefits

• Improve farmland productivity and thus create opportunities to conserve wildlife habitats
from further conversion to agriculture
• Increasingly targeted pest management and precision farming strategies
• Protect and enhance ecosystem health particularly through biodiversity conservation, soil
and water quality management

Social benefits
 • Consumer health and choice: A diverse range of high quality, affordable agricultural
product year around.
• Farmer choice: A variety of agricultural technologies appropriately adapted to local needs
and conditions.
• Public health: Managing pests that transmit human disease.
• Disadvantages: Low yield, lack of timely and effective control of pests. The conversion
process from modern agriculture to sustainable agriculture usually takes 3 to 6 years.

Key challenges for sustainable agriculture

• Satisfy food, feed and fiber needs

• Optimize natural resource utilization
• Improve productivity and profitability of existing agricultural systems
• Protect and enhance the environment
• Integrate the optimal use of available technologies
• Maintain and enhance the economic viability of farms and the rural economy
• Enhance the quality of life for farmer and society as whole
• ORGANIC FARMING/AGRICULTURE
- According to definition of USDA organic farming is a production system, which avoids
or excludes the use of synthetic inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and
livestock feed additives. This system largely depends upon crop rotations, crop residues,
animal manures, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral
bearing rocks and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity, to
supply pant nutrients and to control insects, pathogens and weeds.
- According to the definition of FAO, organic farming is successful management of
resources for agriculture to satisfy changing humans needs while maintaining or
enhancing the quality of environment and consuming natural resources. It emphasizes the
use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into
account that regional conditions require locally adopted systems. This is accomplished by
using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods as opposed to
using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system. In organic
farming major emphasis is given on recycling of recyclable organic wastes (crop
 residues, animal waste and municipal and sewage wastes). These are valuable sources of
plant nutrients and humus. When industrial waste are recycled as manure for crop
production and are subjected to degradation and assimilative capacity of soil pollution of
streams/rivers receiving these wastes is reduced to a large extent as compared to their
direct disposal in water bodies. The manurial value and quality of these wastes could be
improved by composting and enriching these organic sources alongwith inexpensive
material such as rock phosphate. There is great potential for utilization of crop
residues/straw of some of major cereals and pulses considering that about 50% of these
residues are utilized as animal feed, the rest could be very well utilized for recycling of
nutrients. Crop residues have wide C:N ratio and when applied directly nutrients may get
immobilized leading to initial adverse effect on crop growth. Hence, adequate care is
required to use residues after proper composting with efficient microbial inoculants.
Inoculation of these wastes produces enough simple sugar for growth and multiplication
of beneficial micro flora like free living nitrogen fixers and phosphate solubilizers in the
soil which ultimately increases crop yield.

CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming systems do not use toxic agrochemical inputs (insecticides, herbicides,
fungicides and fertilizers). Instead they are bases on development of biological diversity for

- Substitution of manures, farm organic resources and biofertilizers for inorganic fertilizers
to maintain and replenish soil productivity.
- Insects, diseases and weeds management instead of chemical control.

AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming system approach is based on the perception that tomorrow‘s ecology is more
important than today‘s economy. Without ecology there is no economy. The economy must
readjust to the primary production factors and not the other way round. International Federation
Of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFDAM) expressed the objectives of organic farming as
follows:
 i. To work, as much as possible, within a closed system with regard to organic matter and
nutrient elements,
ii. To maintain and increase long term fertility and productivity of soils,
iii. To stop degradation and re-establish natural balance,
iv. To avoid all form of pollutions that may result from agricultural techniques,
v. To minimize the use of fossil energy in agriculture,
vi. To work with natural system rather than seeking to dominate them,
vii. To use as far as possible, renewable sources in locally organized agricultural systems,
viii. To encourage and enhance the biological cycles with farming system involving
microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals,
ix. To give all livestock, conditions of life that allow them to perform all aspects of their
innate (natural) behavior,
x. To maintain the genetic diversity of agricultural system and its surroundings, including
the protection of plants and wildlife habitats,
xi. To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity,
xii. To allow agricultural producers an adequate return and satisfaction from their work
including a safe working environment,
xiii. To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the farming system,

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming system is based on the dynamic interaction between the soil, plant, animal,
humans, ecosystem and the environment. The system is directed towards enhancing natural life
cycles rather than suppressing nature.

Basic principles

- Health
- Ecology
- Fairness
- Care

NEED FOR ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming is the pathway that leads us to live in harmony with nature. Organic farming is
viable alternative to conventional agriculture and is the key to sound development and a
sustainable environment. It minimizes environmental pollution and the use of non-conventional
resources. It conserves soil fertility and soil erosion through the implementation of appropriate
conservation principles. Several reasons like limited land holdings, poor economic conditions of
farmers, rise in input cost etc. have been attributed for the need of organic farming. In a broad
sense, three major reasons:

- Ever increasing population demanding increased food grain production,

- Depletion of natural resource base and
- Environmental pollution stresses the need for ecofriendly technologies i.e., organic
farming.

Difference between conventional/modern and organic agriculture

Particulars Conventional agri. Organic agric.

1 Type of farming Only crops Agro-forestry, animal
husbandry
2. Plant nutrients Chemical fertilizers only F.Y.M., G.M., compost,
rotation, bio-fertilizers
3. Pest control Pesticides Cultural method, crop rotation,
biological method
4. Ecology Fragile Stable
5. Inputs High productivity and low High diversity, renewable and
diversity chemicals are used biodegrable inputs are used
6. Use of resources The rate of extraction exceeds the The rate of extraction from
rate of regeneration, forests, underground water
deforestation, overgrazing, resources and other renewable
pollution of water bodies take resources do not exceed the
place. rate of regeneration
7. Quality of food Food material contain toxic Food materials are safe
residues
STANDARDS FOR ORGANIC CROP PRODUCTION

1. Conversion period

The time between the start of organic management and certification of crops is known as
conversion period.

The whole farm, including livestock should be converted according to the standards over
a period of time as per specifications. Diversity in crop production and animal husbandry
must be arranged in such a way that all the elements of farming interplay. The standards
requirement shall be met during the conversion period. Start of conversion period may be
calculated from the date of application. To ensure a clear separation between organic and
conventional production, the certification shall inspect the production system.

2. Choice of crops and varieties

All seeds and plant material should be certified organic, well adapted to climate and
resistant to insects and diseases. When certified organic seed and plant material is not
available, chemically untreated conventional seed and plant material may be used. The
use of genetically engineered seeds, pollens, transgenic plants or plant material is not
allowed. Plant products produce annually can be certified when the national standards
requirements have been met for a minimum of twelve months before start of production
cycle.
3. Fertilization policy
Biodegradable material of microbial, plant or animal origin produced on organic farm
should be the basis of fertilization programme. Sufficient quantity of such material
should be used to improve or at least to maintain the soil fertility. Manures containing
human excreta are not allowed for use if the produce is for human consumption. Mineral
fertilizers are permitted in supplementary role to carbon based materials. Such fertilizers
can be applied in their natural composition and should not be rendered more soluble by
chemical treatment.
4. Soil and water conservation
 Soil and water conservation should be handled in a sustainable manner. Relevant
measures should be taken up to prevent erosion, salinization of soil, improper use of
water and pollution of ground and surface water. Clearing the land by burning, if required
should be minimum. Clearing of primary forests is prohibited. Excessive exploitation and
depletion of water resources is not allowed.
5. Plant protection
Organic farming system must be carried out in a way, which ensure that losses from
insects, diseases and weeds are minimized. Emphasize should be on the use of balanced
fertilizer programme, adaptable crops and varieties and resistant cultivars. Weeds, insects
and diseases should be managed by preventive, cultural techniques. Natural enemies of
pests and diseases should be protected and encouraged through proper habitat
management. Products used for plant protection, prepared at farm, local plants, animals
and microbes are allowed. Thermal weed management and physical methods of insects
and diseases are permitted. Use of synthetic agrochemicals, synthetic growth regulators
and genetically engineered organisms or products is prohibited.

Buffer zones for organic production

Once a field is eligible to produce a crop sold as organic, the farmer will need to manage the
borders of the fields if the neighboring field has had substances applied that are not allowed
under organic regulations. The National Organic Program (NOP) Section 205.202(c) states that
any field or farm parcel from which harvested crops are intended to be sold, labeled, or
represented as “organic,” must have distinct, defined boundaries and buffer zones such as runoff
diversions to prevent the unintended application of a prohibited substance to the crop or contact
with a prohibited substance applied to adjoining land that is not under organic management.

A buffer zone is defined as “an area located between a certified production operation or portion
of a production operation and an adjacent land area that is not maintained under organic
management. A buffer zone must be sufficient in size or other features (e.g., windbreaks or a
diversion ditch) to prevent the possibility of unintended contact by prohibited substances applied
to adjacent land areas with an area that is part of a certified operation.”

The federal rule does not specify that a buffer zone be a specific width, but it must be of
sufficient size to prevent drift or runoff of non-approved substances. The size of the buffer is
determined by the organic producer and approved by the certifying agent on a case-by-case
basis, depending on the risk of contamination by prohibited materials used on adjoining lands.
Typically, 25 to 30 feet is generally accepted by certifying agents as adequate to prevent most
contamination from a neighboring field.

Buffer zones can be planted to grass, permanent trees, and/or shrubs. These plantings can
provide habitat for birds, wildlife, and beneficial insects. Significant height in a buffer has the
added benefit of protecting fields and organic crops from contamination by aerial movement of
pesticides and from wind erosion. Buffer zones can be planted to a crop that is managed
organically but is sold as conventional. If a crop is taken from the buffer zone it will need to be
harvested separately from the organic crop and documented that it was harvested, stored and sold
as non-organic. If the buffer is mowed for hay, the farmer must keep a written record of the hay
harvest (name, date, location of buffer and crop harvested).

Buffer zones are only needed when there is an organic crop being grown and only needed during
the crop year when a prohibited product is being used by the neighbor. Certifying agents may
require the farmer to have a signed statement from the neighbor when they are not using
prohibited substances. Also, road crews, utilities, aerial spray companies, etc. can be notified not
to spray along an organic farmer’s field. If a no-spray agreement cannot be reached, then the
organic farmer can grow non-organic crops in the buffer zone, or leave it fallow.

While it is important to remember that organic standards are process-based, (rather than product-
based), the regulation does contain a maximum tolerance level for residues of prohibited
substances. If there is reason to suspect contamination, and tests reveal that a product contains
over 5 percent of the Environmental Protection Agency’s tolerance for a particular substance,
then the product can no longer be sold as “organic”.

References:

[1]. See the National Organic Program S205.202(c). Land Requirements.

[2]. See the National Organic Program s205.2. Terms defined for buffer zones.

Midwest Organic & Sustainable Education Service. (2006). Transitioning to Organic Crop
Production (FS604). Spring Valley, WI: MOSES.

Riddle, Jim. (2005). Good Buffers Make Good Neighbors. Kutztown, PA: The Rodale Institute.
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