THE TRIKAYA: A STUDY OF THE BUDDHOLOGY OF THE EARLY

VIJNANAVADA SCHOOL OF INDIAN BUDDHISM

by

MERVIN VIGGO HANSON

M.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f Saskatchewan, 1970

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY.

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department o f R e l i g i o u s Studies

We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming

to t h e r e q u i r e d standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

August 1980

(5)Mervin Viggo Hanson, 1980

In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t

the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y .

I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s thesis

f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head o f my Department o r

by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n

o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

written permission.

Department o f R E L I G I O U S S T U D I E S

The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 Wesbrook P l a c e
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1W5

Date August 1980

 ABSTRACT

T h i s i s a study o f t h e t r i k a y a (the s o - c a l l e d " t h r e e b o d i e s o f t h e

Buddha") d o c t r i n e whereby t h e e a r l y I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a B u d d h i s t s harmonized

v a r i o u s b e l i e f s about t h e Buddha.

The most important t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s t u d i e s a r e reviewed, but a r e found

t o c o n t a i n no r e l i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e a r l y d o c t r i n e . Therefore, I

have undertaken t h i s study t o c l a r i f y and i n t e r p r e t t h e t r i k a y a . The main

t e x t u a l source i s Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha, which c o n t a i n s t h e e a r l i e s t

s y s t e m a t i c o u t l i n e o f t h e Vijfia.nava.da system. The B u d d h o l o g i c a l passages have

f i r s t been t r a n s l a t e d (from T i b e t a n and Chinese) i n l i g h t o f t h e commentaries

by Vasubandhu and Asvabhava. They have then been compared and arranged t o

expose t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f Asanga's t r i k a y a .

Why d i d Asanga i n t r o d u c e t h e t r i k a y a when o t h e r i n t e g r a t i v e Buddhologies

( e s p e c i a l l y t h e rupakaya/dharmakaya o f t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a ) were a l r e a d y a t

hand? A comparison of h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . o f the t r i k a y a with the prajnaparamita

treatment o f s i m i l a r concerns r e v e a l s t h a t t h e former i n t e g r a t e s one i d e a t h a t

the l a t t e r does n o t — t h a t o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d . The n e c e s s i t y t o i n c l u d e this

nascent d o c t r i n e appears t o have been t h e main reason f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

the t r i k a y a .

In t h e c o n c l u s i o n , t h e t r i k a y a has been a n a l y z e d f u r t h e r t o o b t a i n an

a b s t r a c t S t r u c t u r a l i s t model e x h i b i t i n g Asanga's Buddhology i n terms a c c e p t -

able t o the non-believer. I t i s a u s e f u l framework w i t h i n which t o study t h e

concept o f Buddhahood i t s e l f , and i t s r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d a dogma. It

i s a l s o a convenient way t o compare t h e r e s u l t s o f modern "".investigations.

T h i s model, d e r i v e d by an e x t e n s i o n o f Asanga's own s e a r c h f o r t h e

i m p l i c i t p a t t e r n behind d i v e r s e s c r i p t u r a l statements about Buddhahood, i s

s i m i l a r t o those used by t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s . Therefore,

v a r i o u s hypotheses were suggested by h i s w r i t i n g s .

The model i s a two-dimensional diagram which r e p r e s e n t s the encounter

between Buddha ( S v a b h a v i k a k a y a — a t the t o p ) and Man (Prthagjana—at the

bottom). They a r e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , poles of a d i a l e c t i c a l tension and

uninhabited e x i s t e n t i a l categories. The i n h a b i t e d r e g i o n in-.the middle o f the

diagram i s composed o f a continuum o f t h r e e s i t u a t i o n s along the h o r i z o n t a l

axis. Each c o n t a i n s t h r e e elements: Buddha, A s p i r a n t and Environment. The

a c t u a l encounters between Buddha and A s p i r a n t occur i n these s i t u a t i o n s . "They

i n c l u d e t h a t o f the Neophyte i n the w o r l d , f o r whom t h e Buddha i s merely a

message; t h e Sravaka who i s approached by a Nirmanakaya ( " h i s t o r i c a l Buddha")

who teaches him by p a i n , and the B o d h i s a t t v a who approaches the Sambhogakaya

(the g o d - l i k e f i gure i n a B u d d h a f i e l d ) who matures him through p l e a s u r e . In

the course o f these t h r e e , the a s p i r a n t undergoes " r e o r i e n t a t i o n , " i . e . ,

moves up the v e r t i c a l a x i s t o become a Buddha who, i n t u r n , reaches out to

another a s p i r a n t . The remainder "of the B u d d h o l o g i c a l i d e a s from the t e x t are

placed within t h i s diagram.

F i n a l l y , t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s model t o o t h e r B u d d h o l o g i c a l questions

is examined.
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

ABSTRACT i i

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi

INTRODUCTION 1

•'!• NOTES k

CHAPTER

I. REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP 5

1. W. W. R o c k h i l l , The L i f e o f t h e Buddha (1907)- . . . . 5

2. H. Kern, "Sur 1 ' i n v o c a t i o n d'une i n s c r i p t i o n

bouddhique" (.1906) 6

3. L. de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n , "The Three Bodies o f a

Buddha" (.1906) 8

k. D. T. S u z u k i , O u t l i n e s o f Mahayana Buddhism (1907) • • 10

5. M. P. Masson-Oursel, "Les t r o i s corps du bouddha"

(1913) 13

6. L. de L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , "Note s u r l e s corps du

Bouddha" (.1913) 19

J. A. Coomaraswamy, Buddha and t h e Gospel o f Buddhism

(1916) 2k

8. C. Akanuma, " T r i p l e Body o f t h e Buddha" (.1922) . . . . 25

9. L. de L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i

(1928-29) . . . . . 28
 V

CHAPTER PAGE

10. D. T. S u z u k i , S t u d i e s i n t h e L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a (1932) . 32

11. Hobogirin 3^+

12. A. K. C h a t t e r j e e , The Yogacara Idealism-(.19.62) . . . 36

13. A. Matsunaga, The B u d d h i s t Philosophy o f A s s i m i l a t i o n

(1969) 38

1^. G. P a r r i n d e r , A v a t a r and I n c a r n a t i o n (1970) . . . . ^1

15. G. Nagao, "On t h e Theory o f Buddha-Body" (.1973) . . . ^3

SUMMARY OF SCHOLARSHIP k6

CONCLUSION 60

1. MAITREYA 62

2. ASANGA 63

3. VASUBANDHU 6k

NOTES 67

II. THE TRIKAYA DOCTRINE IN THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA 70

A. SOURCES 71

B. WHAT I S THE VIJNANAVADA? 73

C. VIJNANAVADA OF THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA 80

D. A STUDY OF VIJNANAVADA BUDDHOLOGY IN THE

MAHAYANASAMGRAHA 85

1. 11:33: THE TWENTY-ONE GUNAS OF THE BUDDHA . . 87

a. The N o e t i c A b i l i t i e s 92

b. The E f f e c t i v e A b i l i t i e s 92

i. The Domain o f t h e Buddha . . . . 93

ii. The Buddha-body 95

iii. The Buddha-mind 96

 vi

CHAPTER PAGE

2. THE DHARMAKAYA 98

a. O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya 98

i. Reorientation of the Alayavijnana . 98

ii. O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya:

The E p i s t e m i c E x p l a n a t i o n . . . . 100

— By N o n - c o n c e p t u a l and

Subsequent Awareness . . . . 101

— By t h e F i v e - F o l d P r a c t i c e . . . 105

— By Amassing t h e A c c u m u l a t i o n o f

Equipment on A l l Bhumis . . . 107

— By t h e Vajropamasamadhi . . . 107

iii. The Dharmakaya as R e o r i e n t a t i o n

o f t h e Skandhas 108

b. The Dharmakaya — What I s I t ? . . . . 113

i. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Claksanas) o f

t h e Dharmakaya Ilk

ii. X:7: The Buddhadharmas . . . . 125

iii. X:9-27: Gunas A s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e Dharmakaya 128

c. The Dharmakaya as Seen by t h e

Bodhisattva . 130

d. The Dharmakaya — A Summary 133

3. THE TRIKAYA llll

a. A U n i f i e d T r i k a y a o r Three Kayas? . . . iki

b. Which Three Kayas? lk3

 vii

CHAPTER PAGE

c. The Mrmanakaya: Buddha i n t h e World . . ihQ

i. The Mrmanakaya: A Summary . . . 156

d. The Sambhogakaya — Buddha i n

the Buddhafield 159

i. The Sambhogakaya — General . . . 159

ii. The B u d d h a f i e l d l6k

iii. Bodhisattvas — Residents of

the B u d d h a f i e l d 168

— Pleasure 171

— Reorientation 172

— Sovereignty 172

— Awareness (j nana o r

n i r v i k a l p a j nana 175

— P l e a s u r e and t h e Other . . . . 177

— P l e a s u r e and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s

Maturation 178

e. The Three Kayas: I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . . 180

i . Mrmanakaya and Sambhogakaya

Compared 185

ii. The T r i k a y a and C l a s s i c a l Problems . 187

— One Buddha, o r Many Buddhas? . . 188

— I s t h e Buddha M o r t a l , o r

Immortal? 192

— Does t h e Buddha Remain i n

N i r v a n a , o r Not? 196
 viii

CHAPTER PAGE

— Conclusion 198

f. Why T h r e e K a y a s ? 198

NOTES 200

III. CONCLUSION 216

A. C R I T E R I A FOR A MODEL 220

B. ELEMENTS OF THE MODEL 221

C. STRUCTURALISM 22*1

D. DEVELOPING THE MODEL 227

1. THE PRTHAGJANA 231

2. THE NEOPHYTE 232

3. THE SRAVAKA-NIRMANAKAYA ENCOUNTER . . . . 232

k. REORIENTATION 23k

5. THE SAMBHOGAKAYA-BODHISATTVA ENCOUNTER . . . 23h

6. THE SVABHAVIKAKAYA 235

7. THE F U L L MODEL 236

8. THE MODEL A P P L I E D 2h0

a. Reorientation and S o t e r i o l o g i c a l

Progress 2^1

b. S v a b h a v i k a k a y a , Dharmakaya, and Support

f o r t h e Rupakayas 2^3

E. F I N A L COMMENTS 2^7

NOTES 252

A P P E N D I X A: BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SECONDARY SOURCES 25^

APPENDIX B: BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES . . . 262

 ix

ABBREVIATIONS

BEFEO B u l l e t i n de l ' E c o l e F r a n g a i s e d'Extreme-Orient.

Dk Dharmakaya

JAOS Journal o f t h e American O r i e n t a l Society

LC Lokesh Chandra, T i b e t a n Sanskrit Dictionary (New

D e l h i : I n t e r n a t i o n a l Academy f o r I n d i a n Culture, i960)

Mvy M a h a v y u t p a t t i and Index t o M a h a v y u t p a t t i .

C o l l e g i a t e S e r i e s , no. 3, 3rd p r i n t i n g (Kichudo:

Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y , Dept. o f L i t e r a t u r e , 1965)

Nk Nirmanakaya

Sbk Sambhogakaya

Svk Svabhavikakaya
 X

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1 223

2 229

3 231

h 238

5 2kh

6 2U8
 xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish t o thank t h o s e who have h e l p e d prepare t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n ,

e s p e c i a l l y L. H u r v i t z , my a d v i s o r , who has r e a d i t s c r u p u l o u s l y at t h e l a s t

minute. H i s d e t a i l e d suggestions have g r e a t l y eased t h e f i n a l w r i t i n g .

Many f a c u l t y and graduate students have c o n t r i b u t e d i d e a s and comments.

S p e c i a l thanks a r e due t o P r o f e s s o r G. Nagao ( P r o f e s s o r E m e r i t u s , Kyoto

U n i v e r s i t y ) and A l a n Sponberg ( P r i n c e t o n ) . P r o f e s s o r Nagao's encouragement

and a d v i c e has h e l p e d me t o f i n d , and keep t o , a p r o d u c t i v e l i n e o f enquiry.

Dr. Sponberg has p a t i e n t l y shared h i s knowledge o f t e x t u a l s o u r c e s , and g i v e n

valuable criticism.

P r o f e s s o r s N i c h o l l s , C l i f f o r d , K a s s i s and Mosca have s t r u g g l e d m i g h t i l y

to administer t h e d o c t o r a l program and m y s e l f . As a d m i n i s t r a t o r s can expect

little a p p r e c i a t i o n short o f t h e eschaton, may t h e y a l l be granted that

s p e c i a l corner o f f i c e reserved f o r those who a r r i v e w i t h t h e i r f i l e s I n Order.

Mrs. Ruby Toren has d i s p l a y e d remarkable p a t i e n c e and c o - o p e r a t i o n

through t h i s d i f f i c u l t typing job. The q u a l i t y o f h e r work speaks f o r i t s e l f .

I would a l s o l i k e t o thank those whose e x t r a o r d i n a r y a s s i s t a n c e has made

my s t u d i e s a t UBC p o s s i b l e . F i r s t mention must go t o Dr. S. I i d a , whose many

kindnesses i n the f i r s t years, i n c l u d i n g h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o vouch f o r an

inexperienced l e c t u r e r , opened t h e program to: me. A l l o f us i n t h e Buddhist

program owe Dr. I i d a an acknowledgement f o r h i s p e r s o n a l sponsorship o f

Professor'Nagao's 1976,visit.

I f Dr. K. C i s s e l l had not spent a tremendous amount o f h e r own time

t e a c h i n g me t o r e a d Buddhist C h i n e s e , t h e Chinese t e x t s would s t i l l be c l o s e d .

Thank you, Kathy.

 xii

E s p e c i a l l y warm thanks are due J . R i c h a r d s o n and N. K. C l i f f o r d who, in

a d d i t i o n t o o f f e r i n g innumerable g e s t u r e s o f p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s h i p and official

aid, have been i n s p i r a t i o n s t o t h e s c h o l a r l y l i f e . From P r o f e s s o r R i c h a r d s o n

in p a r t i c u l a r , I l e a r n e d t h a t the study o f another's f a i t h i s p r i m a r i l y an

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d act o f r e s p e c t .

The importance o f the t r i k a y a was brought t o my a t t e n t i o n by the

a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e T i b e t a n s p r u l - s k u , whose t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e i s informed and

l e g i t i m i z e d through t h i s d o c t r i n e . T h e i r Western c a r e e r s show t h a t i t i s a

p o w e r f u l mold f o r human a s p i r a t i o n s . P a r t i c u l a r thanks go t o Tarthang T u l k u ,

who gave me many days o f h i s t i m e . I must a l s o acknowledge w i t h g r e a t r e s p e c t

the examples o f the Venerable Dezhung T u l k u and K a l u Rinpoche. Both are

paragons o f the concepts s t u d i e d h e r e .

The u s u a l inadequate thanks go t o my w i f e , J u d i t h . Her capable •

a s s i s t a n c e throughout the study has a g a i n proven the t r u i s m t h a t wives of

graduate s t u d e n t s must r e a d two c a n o n i c a l languages, be e x p e r i e n c e d copy-

e d i t o r s , p u b l i s h e d authors and secure c i v i l servants. She i s ; and we made i t .

 1

INTRODUCTION

T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s a study o f t h e t r i k a y a (the s o - c a l l e d " t h r e e b o d i e s

o f t h e Buddha") d o c t r i n e — o n e o f t h e main schemes through which Mahayana

B u d d h i s t s have understood t h e concept "buddha."

Buddhahood^" i s t h e most important n o t i o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e Buddhist beliefs

and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e past two m i l l e n n i a . I t i s b o t h t h e impetus f o r , and t h e

goal o f , the r e l i g i o u s l i f e . The Buddhist t r a d i t i o n o f f e r s a s a v i n g message t o

those enmeshed i n a p a i n - f i l l e d w o r l d . T h i s message o r i g i n a t e d from a Buddha,

who c l a i m s t o be a r t i c u l a t i n g the method by which he p e r s o n a l l y found r e l e a s e

from p a i n , and works t o convert the a s p i r a n t , who has a c c e p t e d t h e message,

i n t o a Buddha. T h i s new Buddha then r e f o r m u l a t e s a message f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n

of others. While these are two d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o f a r as t h e y possess

d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e y share t h e same Buddhahood i n s o f a r as

the e f f i c a c y o f t h e i r t e a c h i n g i s concerned.

The e a r l y I n d i a n community s p l i t i n t o s e v e r a l s c h o o l s which developed

numerous b e l i e f s about Buddhahood. While t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s p e r i o d i s murky,

it i s s a f e t o say t h a t many l e a d i n g masters o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. were

a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a broad spectrum o f b e l i e f s i n every a r e a o f dogma and were

attempting t o f o r m u l a t e c a t h o l i c systems w i t h i n which t h e s e c o u l d be

accommodated. The broadest o f t h e r e s u l t i n g s c h o o l s was t h e V i j n a n a v a d a (or

Yogacara ) whose development c o n t i n u e d i n b o t h T i b e t and t h e F a r E a s t .

The founders o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a d i v i d e d Buddhist t h e o r y i n t o several

c a t e g o r i e s o f concerns and developed a comprehensive t h e o r y , capable o f i n c o r -

p o r a t i n g a wide range o f o p i n i o n s , around each. The c a t e g o r y which i n c l u d e d

the v a r i o u s e a r l y i d e a s about Buddhahood was o r g a n i z e d around t h e hew., t r i k a y a

theory. In a d d i t i o n t o harmonizing the e a r l y i d e a s , t h e t r i k a y a has s i n c e

 2

proven c a p a b l e o f s t i m u l a t i n g t h e development o f new B u d d h o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s :.

i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s , and i n h a r m o n i z i n g them w i t h t h e I n d i a n ones.

D e s p i t e i t s importance, no s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a i s

available. Modern i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have f a i l e d i n a t l e a s t one o f t h r e e ways:

— Many s c h o l a r s , working o n l y from t h e t r i k a y a passages o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d i n

t r e a t i s e s , have produced i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which c o n t r a d i c t o t h e r key a s p e c t s

o f t h e system.

— Many have produced narrow i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the d o c t r i n e i n one classical

t e x t , which are i n a p p l i c a b l e t o l a t e r developments grounded i n t h e c l a s s i c a l

3
t r i k a y a and e x p l a i n e d by r e f e r e n c e t o it.

— The few s c h o l a r s who have worked from t h e l a t e r t r a d i t i o n s (e.g., H. V.

Guenther) have o f t e n produced i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which appear t o be anachro-

n i s t i c when a p p l i e d t o t h e e a r l i e r texts.

In t h i s study I attempt t o develop an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which w i l l be appli-

c a b l e t o t h e e n t i r e range o f I n d o - T i b e t a n Buddhology. The study i n c l u d e s a

survey o f p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p , an i n t e n s i v e examination o f t h e t r i k a y a

d o c t r i n e as i t appears i n Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha, the d e r i v a t i o n o f a s t r u c -

t u r a l model t h r o u g h which t o i n t e r p r e t t h e d o c t r i n e , and a b r i e f commentary o f

the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s model t o o t h e r t e x t s . In a d d i t i o n , a b i b l i o g r a p h y

o f p r i m a r y sources f o r an expanded study i s included ' i n Appendix B.

-
While the

arrangement and a n a l y s i s o f the d a t a from t h e Mahayan as amgr aha c o n s t i t u t e s t h e

b u l k o f t h e s t u d y , i t s f o c u s i s the new structural model.

•While f o r m u l a t i n g t h i s model , i t became obvious t h a t - t h e ' a n a l y s i s o f the

:

f a c t o r s which l e d B u d d h i s t s t o r e p l a c e a two-kaya-by a t r i k a y a t h e o r y , and t o •

 3

defend the l a t t e r even w h i l e a d o p t i n g f u r t h e r m u l t i - k a y a t h e o r i e s , illuminates

the broader q u e s t i o n o f how the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s p i r a n t and o t h e r g i v e s

r i s e t o v a r i o u s two, t h r e e and f o u r - t e r m d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r e l i g i o u s experience.

One o f the next stages i n an extended e n q u i r y would be t o b e g i n a comparative

study o f t r i n i t a r i a n i s m on the b a s i s o f t h e s e insights.

 k

NOTES

^ Western emphasis on t h e h i s t o r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l has degraded t h e symbolic

"buddha" t o a proper noun, a p e r s o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n which i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y read
as "a Buddha" or "the Buddha." In o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e some p o l y v a l e n c e , this
term which would simply be "buddha" i n the t e x t s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l l be
rendered by "Buddhahood" i n t h i s study. P l e a s e note t h a t "Buddhahood" i s not
a state of being i n which an i n d i v i d u a l Buddha may exist.

2
The l a c k o f agreement on a name f o r t h i s s c h o o l i s due t o the many
t r a d i t i o n s descending from the e a r l y masters (who u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e i r message
simply the "Mahayana"). L a t e r adherents t o t h i s t r a d i t i o n i n I n d i a , T i b e t ,
China and Japan understood the t e a c h i n g i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t ways, accepted
d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s about i t , and c a l l e d i t by d i f f e r e n t names. In a d d i t i o n ,
some saw t h e e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a as s e v e r a l t r a d i t i o n s and applied a different
name t o each. Most o f the names are v e r s i o n s o f t h r e e l a b e l s : V i j n a n a v a d a
(those who speak about v i j n a n a ) , V i j n a p t i m a t r a or C i t t a m a t r a ("Ideation-only"
or "Mind-only"), Yogacara ( " P r a c t i t i o n e r s o f Yoga") or F a - h s i a n g ("Dharma-
marks"—a Far-Eastern term).
In the present study t h e e a r l y t r e a t i s e s a s c r i b e d t o Maitreya-Asanga-
Vasubandhu are regarded as one l o o s e "Vijnanavada" system. T h i s term was
chosen over "Yogacara" because i t s t r e s s e s the s y s t e m a t i c r a t h e r than the
meditative aspect.

An example i s the T i b e t a n i n s t i t u t i o n o f "'.sprul-sku" in- which a c e r t a i n

monastic r o l e i s c o n t i n u o u s l y f i l l e d by the same i n d i v i d u a l v i a the official

r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s or her s u c c e s s i v e r e i n c a r n a t i o n s . This i n s t i t u t i o n i s

d e r i v e d from the t r i k a y a (";spr.ui-sku" i s simply the T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n of

''Mrmanakaya," one o f the t h r e e kayas o f the t r i k a y a ) and can be understood

o n l y through the parent doctrine. I f that i s i n t e r p r e t e d i n the usual way

( i . e . , the Mrmanakaya i s an i n c a r n a t i o n o f a r e a l transcendent Buddha), many

d e t a i l s o f the '. s p r u l r s k u ' s s t a t u s and* f u n c t i o n s remain-incomprehensible.

 CHAPTER I

REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP
 5

The l a c k o f any adequate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a i s not due to

n e g l e c t o f the t o p i c . As e a r l y as 1939 Lamotte had spoken o f the "immense"

l i t e r a t u r e on the t o p i c , ^ and s e v e r a l s t u d i e s have been p u b l i s h e d s i n c e .

New r e s e a r c h must b e g i n w i t h a c a r e f u l review o f the e a r l i e r work. In

t h i s s e c t i o n I s h a l l present such a review and attempt t o d e f i n e those

approaches which have been most (and l e a s t ) s u c c e s s f u l . A complete survey of

s c h o l a r s h i p i s unnecessary. The. f o l l o w i n g review d e a l s o n l y w i t h t h e major

twentieth-century studies. No mention has been made o f n o t i c e s from the

nineteenth century (Burnouf, E d k i n s , B e a l , S c h l a g i n t w e i t and Kern a l l touched

on i t ) , or o f p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e s i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l l a t e r p o p u l a t i z a t i o n s of

the Mahayana. In a d d i t i o n t o the primary scholarly investigations, a few

I n d i a n , Japanese and B r i t i s h works have been i n c l u d e d because they represent

the p o p u l a r modern u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the d o c t r i n e i n those countries. The

e n t r i e s are i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r .

As s e v e r a l o f these s t u d i e s are s p r i n k l e d w i t h non-standard, i n c o n s i s t e n t

r e s t o r a t i o n s o f S a n s k r i t terms and o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s , I have not marked

specific errors within quotations.

1. W. W. Rockhill. The L i f e o f the Buddha. London: Kegan P a u l & Co., 1907

( a c t u a l t r a n s l a t i o n s done i n 188^).

T h i s p a s t i c h e o f T i b e t a n t e x t s i n c l u d e s the a b b r e v i a t e d s u t r a on the
^ 2
t r i k a y a c a l l e d the 'phags-pa sku-gsum shes-bya-ba theg-pa chen-po'i mdo.

R o c k h i l l ' s t r a n s l a t i o n reads as f o l l o w s :

Once I heard the f o l l o w i n g d i s c o u r s e ( s a i d Ananda), w h i l e

the B l e s s e d One was s t o p p i n g at R a j a g r i h a , on the V u l t u r e ' s
Peak, t o g e t h e r w i t h an innumerable number o f b o d h i s a t t v a s ,
devas, and nagas who were doing him homage. Then from out
t h i s company, the B o d h i s a t t v a K s h i t i g a r b h a ( S a ' i - s n y i n g - p o ) ,
who was ( a l s o ) t h e r e , arose from h i s seat and spoke as f o l l o w s
 6

to the B l e s s e d One: 'Has the B l e s s e d One a body?' The B l e s s e d

One s a i d , ' K s h i t i g a r b h a , the B l e s s e d One, the Tathagata, has
t h r e e b o d i e s : the body o f the law (Dharmakaya), the body o f
p e r f e c t enjoyment (Sambhogakaya), the a p p a r i t i o n a l body
(Nirmanakaya). Noble s i r ( K u l a p u t r a ) , o f t h e t h r e e b o d i e s
of the T a t h a g a t a , the Dharmakaya i s a p e r f e c t l y pure n a t u r e
(svabhava), the Sambhoghakaya i s a p e r f e c t l y pure samadhi;
a p e r f e c t l y pure l i f e i s the Nirmanakaya o f a l l Buddhas.
Noble s i r , the Dharmakaya o f the Tathagata i s the p r e r o g a -
t i v e o f b e i n g without svabhava l i k e space; the Sambhogakaya
i s the p r e r o g a t i v e o f b e i n g v i s i b l e l i k e a c l o u d ; the
Nirmanakaya b e i n g the o b j e c t o f a l l Buddhas, i s the p r e r o g -
a t i v e o f permeating a l l t h i n g s as does a r a i n . ' . . .

The B o d h i s a t t v a K s h i t i g a r b h a s a i d t o the B l e s s e d One,

'Make v i s i b l e these d e f i n i t i o n s o f the t r u e b o d i e s o f the
B l e s s e d One.' Then the B l e s s e d One s a i d t o the B o d h i s a t t v a
K s h i t i g a r b h a : 'Noble s i r , the t h r e e b o d i e s o f the Tathagata
w i l l be d i s c e r n e d t h u s : the Dharmakaya i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n the
whole a i r o f the Tathagata; the Sambhogakaya i s d i s c e r n i b l e
i n the whole a i r o f a b o d h i s a t t v a ; t h e Nirmanakaya i s
d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e a i r o f d i f f e r e n t pious'men. Noble s i r ,
the Dharmakaya i s the nature i n h e r e n t t o a l l buddhas; the
Sambhogakaya i s the samadhi i n h e r e n t t o a l l buddhas; the
Nirmanakaya i s the o b j e c t o f a l l buddhas. Noble s i r ,
p u r i t y i n the abode o f the s o u l , the s c i e n c e l i k e a m i r r o r
(adarsadjnana), i s the Dharmakaya; p u r i t y i n the abode o f
the s i n f u l mind i s t h e s c i e n c e o f e q u a l i t y (samatajnana);
p u r i t y i n the p e r c e p t i o n s o f the mind, the s c i e n c e o f
t h o r o u g h l y a n a l y s i n g , i s the Sambhogakaya; p u r i t y i n the
abode o f the p e r c e p t i o n s o f the f i v e doors, the s c i e n c e o f
the achievement o f what must be done, i s the Nirmanakaya'
(pp. 200-202).

While R o c k h i l l made no attempt t o e x p l a i n t h i s l i t t l e passage, l a t e r

r e f e r e n c e s show t h a t i t p r o v i d e d a s u c c i n c t statement o f the d o c t r i n e which

enabled everyone t o d i s c u s s the same t h i n g , no s m a l l matter i n the e a r l y days

of widespread c o n f u s i o n about Mahayana t e x t s and d o c t r i n e s .

2. H. Kern. "Sur.1'invocation d'une i n s c r i p t i o n bouddhique de Battambang."

T r a n s l a t e d by La V a l l e e P o u s s i n from an a r t i c l e i n Dutch, 1899- Museon,

T (1906): i+5-66. ' . :

This begins:
 7

namo s t u paramarthaya vyomakalpaya yo dadhau

dharma-sambhogi-nirmana-kayam ( l ) t r a i l o k y a m u k t a y e :

Nous t r a d u i s o n s : "Hommage a l a supreme v e r i t e ,

semblable a. l ' e s p a c e v i d e , q u i pour d e l i v r e r l e t r i p l e
monde, a p r i s un Dharmakaya, un Sambhogakaya, un
Nirmanakaya.' (p. k9).

Kern b e g i n s by a s k i n g how " l a supreme v e r i t e " (paramartha) beyond t h e

r e a l m o f t h o u g h t , can c l o t h e i t s e l f i n a t r i p l e body f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e

world. He proposes (somewhat d o u b t f u l l y ) t h a t t h e t h r e e are c o n v e n t i o n a l

( s a m v r t i ) b o d i e s as i s t h e w o r l d which t h e y save. Hence t h e u l t i m a t e does

not r e a l l y become or assume form.

What r e a l l y i n t e r e s t s Kern i s t h e p l a c e o f t h i s d o c t r i n e i n I n d i a n

thought. Is i t merely a Buddhist v e r s i o n o f t h e Hindu t r i m u r t i ? He notes

t h a t t h e t r i m u r t i r e f e r s t© b o t h : p a s t - p r e s e n t - f u t u r e , and t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n

o f t h e supreme being--through t h e t h r e e • gunas. F o r t h e t r i k a y a t o be

r e l a t e d t o t h e s e , i t would have t o e x h i b i t a s i m i l a r meaning. To determine

whether or not such a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s , he d e f i n e s t h e terms dharma,

sambhoga and nirmana. H i s d e f i n i t i o n s , and consequent i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

t r i k a y a t h e o r y w i t h t h e Samkhya, a r e simply t o o i l l - i n f o r m e d t o be seriously

considered. However, h i s major c o n c l u s i o n s t i l l s t a n d s , a l t h o u g h we might

q u e s t i o n why he chose t h e h o r i z o n t a l t r i m u r t i r a t h e r t h a n a v e r t i c a l triad

such as Brahma-Visnu-Krsna:

De ce q u i precede, i l s u i t qu'entre l a T r i m u r t i et l e
T r i k a y a i l y a seulement c e c i de commun q u ' i l s d i s p o s e n t en
t r i a d e s l a s e r i e des phenomenes.

F i n a l l y , Kern a s k s ,

Pour q u e l l e r a i s o n l e s Mahayanistes o n t - i l s i n t r o d u i t
dans l e u r systeme i d e a l i s t e , et y o n t - i l s adapte, t a l i t e r
 8

q u a l i t e r , une d o c t r i n e a fondements m a t e r i a l i s t e s et
r e a l i s t e s comme l ' e s t evidemment l a d o c t r i n e des t r o i s
corps? Nous ne l e savons pas. On peut c o n j e c t u r e r que
c e r t a i n e condescendance a l ' e g a r d d ' a d v e r s a i r e s p o r t e s a
l'accommodement, avec l e s q u e l s on se s e n t a i t apparente
sous beaucoup de r a p p o r t s et qu'on se s e r a i t v o l o n t i e r s
a s s o c i e s c o n t r e un p u i s s a n t et commun ennemi, a eu pour
consequence l a c o n c i l i a t i o n de deux systemes p r i m i t i v e m e n t
d i v e r g e n t s : mais l e s donnees n e c e s s a i r e s nous manquent
pour v e r i f i e r c e t t e hypothese (p. 57)-

Although there i s l i t t l e v a l i d f . i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s a r t i c l e , Kern's :

approach', i s v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . . ^e^does^hot"" s i m p l y q u o t e - d e f i n i t i o n s from a

s a s t r a , but bases h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n on the f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :

— As Buddhism developed v i s - a - v i s o t h e r I n d i a n systems, a d o c t r i n e s h o u l d

be e x p l a i n e d i n i t s I n d i a n context.

— C e r t a i n l o g i c a l problems are obvious t o the European s c h o l a r . An attempt

to r e s o l v e them w i l l shed l i g h t on the theory.

— F i n a l l y , the r a i s o n d ' e t r e o f the t h e o r y must be considered.

Kern's a r t i c l e i s the l a s t o f the "remarks" by the o l d e r s c h o l a r s . A more

informed debate was i n i t i a t e d i n the same year by two d i s s i m i l a r and aggressive

young men: L o u i s de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n and D. T. Suzuki.

3. L. de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n . " S t u d i e s i n Buddhist Dogma: The Three Bodies of

a Buddha ( T r i k a y a ) . " JRAS (1906): 9U3-9TT.

M. La V a l l e e P o u s s i n connects the t r i k a y a w i t h the "Mahayana s c h o o l , "

paying l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between a c t u a l s c h o o l s i n

I n d i a , China, Japan and T i b e t * He d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e phases:

— an e a r l y s p e c u l a t i v e d o c t r i n e o f Buddhahood drawn from Sunyavadin sources.

— a broadening o f t h i s e a r l y d o c t r i n e t o cover the e n t i r e f i e l d o f dogmatics

 9

(the Yogacara d o c t r i n e — a l t h o u g h La V a l l e e P o u s s i n understands Yogacara as

the system o f Asvaghosa),./

— a concluding t a n t r i c phase.

He i s i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n the f i r s t two phases. He knew, and wished t o

know, n o t h i n g whatsoever about the t a n t r a s ;

The T a n t r i c authors . . . are more obscure and a b s t r u s e

the more v u l g a r and obscene are the f a c t s t h a t t h e y have made
the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f t h e i r insane or f r a n t i c l u c u b r a t i o n s . .

U s i n g the above d i v i s i o n s , La V a l l e e P o u s s i n examines each o f the three

kayas i n t u r n . Unfortunately, h i s understanding o f Mahayana t h e o r y was incom-

p l e t e and few o f h i s comments are a c c e p t a b l e . I t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o quote

his summary:

I. The d o c t r i n e o f the T r i k a y a as Buddhology, a f t e r i t s com-

p l e t i o n , but y e t f r e e from the " o n t o l o g i c a l " and cosmogonic
speculations.

(A) The v e r y nature o f a Buddha i s the Bodhi ( E n l i g h t e n m e n t ) ,

o f P r a j n a p a r a m i t a ( P e r f e c t Wisdom), or knowledge o f the
Law (Dharm'a), i . e . , o f the a b s o l u t e T r u t h . By a c q u i r i n g
t h i s knowledge, n i r v a n a i s r e a l i z e d i n p o t e n t i a or i n
actu. The Dharmakaya, Body o f the Law, o f a Buddha i s
the Buddha i n n i r v a n a or i n n i r v a n a - l i k e r a p t u r e
(samadhikaya = dharmakaya).
(B) A Buddha, as l o n g as he i s not y e t merged i n t o n i r v a n a ,
possesses and e n j o y s , f o r h i s own sake and f o r o t h e r s '
w e l f a r e , the f r u i t o f h i s c h a r i t a b l e b e h a v i o r as a
Bodhisattva. The second body i s the Body o f Enjoyment
or B e a t i f i c Body (sambhogakaya).
(C) Human beings known as Buddhas are m a g i c a l c o n t r i v a n c e s
(nirmanakaya) c r e a t e d at 'random by r e a l Buddhas, i . e . , by
Buddhas possessed o f b e a t i f i c b o d i e s , s o v e r e i g n s o f c e l e s -
t i a l worlds , Tusita-heavens or ' P a r a d i s e s ' ( S u k h a v a t i s ) .

II. The d o c t r i n e o f T r i k a y a as an o n t o l o g i c and cosmologic

system.

(A) By Body o f Law one has t o understand the v o i d and perma-

nent r e a l i t y t h a t u n d e r l i e s every phenomenon (dharma),
 or t h e s t o r e o f the dharmas,' o r more e x a c t l y t h e
1

uncharacterized I n t e l l e c t (vijnana).
(B) Body o f Enjoyment i s the Dharmakaya e v o l v e d as B e i n g ,
B l i s s , C h a r i t y , Radiance, o r t h e I n t e l l e c t as f a r as i t
i s i n d i v i d u a l i z e d as Buddha o r B o d h i s a t t v a .
(C) M a g i c a l o r r a t h e r T r a n s f o r m a t i o n Body i s t h e same I n t e l -
l e c t when d e f i l e d , when i n d i v i d u a l i z e d as 'common p e o p l e '
( p r t h a g j a n a ) , i n f e r n a l b e i n g , e t c . (pp. 9^5-9^+6).

While t h i s p i o n e e r i n g study h e l p e d t o open t h e s u b j e c t t o Western

scholarship, i t contains l i t t l e acceptable information. I n t h i s e a r l y phase

of h i s c a r e e r L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h o n l y a few Buddhist texts,

and l a c k e d the overview o f Mahayana Buddhism n e c e s s a r y t o make h i s t o r i c a l and

d o c t r i n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s w i t h i n the "Mahayana s c h o o l . " H i s t h r e e - s t a g e model

is confused and, s h o u l d the r e a d e r supply more a c c u r a t e d i s t i n c t i o n s , t h e

argument disintegrates.

Above a l l , t h e author i s not d e a l i n g w i t h the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e b u t w i t h

a d o c t r i n e o f t h r e e separate kayas, each s t u d i e d i n an h i s t o r i c a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a l

manner.

k. D. T. S u z u k i . O u t l i n e s o f Mahayana Buddhism. London: Luzac, 1907-

The s o l e s i m i l a r i t y between the approaches o f L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n and

Suzuki i s t h e f a c t t h a t both d e s c r i b e a Mahayana s c h o o l i r r e s p e c t i v e o f time

and c u l t u r e . L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n was t h e European s c h o l a r f o r whom Buddhism was

an e x t e n s i o n ( v i a S a n s k r i t ) o f c l a s s i c a l s t u d i e s — a complex t e x t u a l p u z z l e .

He seems not t o have e n t e r t a i n e d the s l i g h t e s t suspicion that a continuing

Mahayana t r a d i t i o n might be e x t a n t , o r t h a t adherents t o i t c o u l d throw l i g h t

3

on t h e i r own s c r i p t u r e s .

Suzuki's a p o l o g e t i c i s a b r e a t h o f l i f e amidst t h i s a r i d arrogance. His

Mahayana i s not a p h i l o l o g i c a l game but a d e v e l o p i n g faith:

 I t i s naught "but an i d l e t a l k t o q u e s t i o n the h i s t o r i c a l
v a l u e o f an organism, which i s now f u l l o f v i t a l i t y and a c t i v e
i n a l l i t s f u n c t i o n s , and t o t r e a t i t l i k e an a r c h e o l o g i c a l
o b j e c t , dug out from the depths o f the e a r t h , or l i k e a p i e c e
of b r i c - a - b r a c , d i s c o v e r e d i n the r u i n s o f an a n c i e n t r o y a l
p a l a c e . Mahayanism i s not an o b j e c t o f h i s t o r i c a l c u r i o s i t y .
I t s v i t a l i t y and a c t i v i t y concern us i n our d a i l y l i f e . It
i s a g r e a t s p i r i t u a l organism; i t s moral and r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s
are s t i l l e x e r c i s i n g an enormous power over m i l l i o n s o f s o u l s ;
and i t s f u r t h e r development i s sure t o be a v e r y v a l u a b l e
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the w o r l d - p r o g r e s s o f the r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s -
ness. What does i t matter, t h e n , whether or not Mahayanism
i s t h e genuine t e a c h i n g o f the Buddha? (p. 15)-

T h i s a t t i t u d e u n d e r l i e s the e n t i r e book. Suzuki a c c e p t s the Japanese

t r a d i t i o n , as i t reached him, as "Mahayana." He shows c o m p a r a t i v e l y little

interest i n i t s h i s t o r y , p r e f e r r i n g t o p r e s e n t a d o c t r i n e p a l a t a b l e t o West

tastes. The f a c t t h a t t h i s w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be a m o d i f i e d form o f t h e

d o c t r i n e he h i m s e l f has r e c e i v e d b o t h e r s him not at a l l . After a l l , i t has

been c o n t i n u o u s l y a d a p t i n g f o r more than two m i l l e n n i a — w h y stop now? In

b r i e f , Suzuki i s a m i s s i o n a r y .

From h i s Western c o n t a c t s (e.g., P a u l C a r u s ) , Suzuki seems t o have

concluded t h a t the modern c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y Hegelian and

d e v o u t l y C h r i s t i a n , and has p r e s e n t e d Buddhism i n terms drawn from both.

Two c h a p t e r s o f the O u t l i n e s are e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t : c h a p t e r IX, "The

Dharmakaya," and chapter X, "The Doctrine of Trikaya." Suzuki views the

Dharmakaya as t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f h i s M a h a y a n a - H e g e l i a n - C h r i s t i a n i t y (with

some Vedanta thrown i n f o r u n i v e r s a l i t y ) :

The Dharmakaya may be compared i n one sense t o the God

of C h r i s t i a n i t y and i n another sense t o the Brahman or
Paratman o f Vedantism. I t i s d i f f e r e n t , however, from the
former i n t h a t i t does not stand t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l y above the
u n i v e r s e , which, a c c o r d i n g t o the C h r i s t i a n view, was c r e a t e d
by God, but which i s , a c c o r d i n g t o Mahayanism, a. m a n i f e s t a -
t i o n o f the Dharmakaya h i m s e l f . I t i s a l s o d i f f e r e n t from
Brahman i n t h a t i t i s mot a b s o l u t e l y i m p e r s o n a l , nor i s i t
 a mere b e i n g . The Dharmakaya, on the c o n t r a r y , i s capable
o f w i l l i n g and r e f l e c t i n g , o r , t o use Buddhist p h r a s e o l o g y ,
i t i s Karuna ( l o v e ) and Bodhi ( i n t e l l i g e n c e ) , and not the
mere s t a t e " o f b e i n g .

T h i s p a n t h e i s t i c and at the same time e n t h e i s t i c Dharma-

kaya i s working i n every s e n t i e n t b e i n g , f o r s e n t i e n t b e i n g s
are n o t h i n g but a s e l f - m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e Dharmakaya.
I n d i v i d u a l s are not i s o l a t e d e x i s t e n c e s , as imagined by most
people. I f i s o l a t e d , t h e y are n o t h i n g , t h e y are so many
soap-bubbles which v a n i s h one a f t e r another i n the v a c u i t y
o f space. A l l p a r t i c u l a r e x i s t e n c e s a c q u i r e t h e i r meaning
o n l y when t h e y are thought o f i n t h e i r oneness i n the Dharma-
kaya. The v e i l o f Maya, i . e . , s u b j e c t i v e i g n o r a n c e , may
t e m p o r a l l y throw an o b s t a c l e t o our p e r c e i v i n g the u n i v e r s a l
l i g h t o f Dharmakaya, i n which we are a l l one. But when our
Bodhi o r i n t e l l e c t , which i s by the way a r e f l e c t i o n o f the
Dharmakaya i n the human mind, i s so f u l l y e n l i g h t e n e d , we
no more b u i l d the a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r o f egoism b e f o r e our
s p i r i t u a l eye; the d i s t i n c t i o n between the meurn and t e m i s
o b l i t e r a t e d , no d u a l i s m throws the nets o f entanglement over
us; I r e c o g n i s e m y s e l f i n you and you r e c o g n i s e y o u r s e l f i n
me; t a t tvam a s i . . .

T h i s s t a t e o f enlightenment may be c a l l e d the s p i r i t u a l

expansion o f the ego, o r , n e g a t i v e l y , the i d e a l a n n i h i l a t i o n
o f t h e ego. A n e v e r - d y i n g stream" o f sympathy and l o v e which
i s the l i f e o f r e l i g i o n w i l l now spontaneously f l o w out o f
the f o u n t a i n h e a d o f Dharmakaya (pp. k6-kl,).

Suzuki sees the " D o c t r i n e o f T r i k a y a " as a somewhat d i f f e r e n t doctrine,

which he does not r e a l l y understand. He quotes from the Suvarnaprabhasa but

does not seem to.'.utilize i t s i d e a s . Suzuki has no d i f f i c u l t y w i t h the two-

kaya model, i n t o which he q u i c k l y s l i p s . The Dharmakaya i s God o r B e i n g ,

which i s m a n i f e s t e d i n the phenomenal e a r t h l y Nirmanakaya. Suzuki realizes,

w i t h some embarrassment, t h a t t h i s does not r e a l l y t o u c h the t h r e e k a y a

d o c t r i n e , and t r i e s t o e x p l a i n away the Sambhogakaya as an interloper:

But the c o n c e p t i o n o f Sambhoghakaya i s a l t o g e t h e r too

m y s t e r i o u s t o be fathomed by a l i m i t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . .
the most p l a u s i b l e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t suggests i t s e l f t o modern
s c e p t i c a l minds i s t h a t the Sambhogakaya must be a mere
c r e a t i o n o f an i n t e l l i g e n t , f i n i t e mind, which i s i n t e n t l y
bent on r e a c h i n g the h i g h e s t r e a l i t y , b u t , not b e i n g a b l e ,
 on account o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s , ' t o grasp t h e o b j e c t i n i t s
a b s o l u t e n e s s , t h e f i n i t e mind f a b r i c a t e s a l l i t s i d e a l s
a f t e r i t s own f a s h i o n i n t o a s p i r i t u a l - m a t e r i a l b e i n g , which
i s l o g i c a l l y a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , but r e l i g i o u s l y an o b j e c t
d e s e r v i n g v e n e r a t i o n and worship. And t h i s b e i n g i s no more
than t h e Body o f B l i s s . I t l i e s h a l f way between t h e pure
b e i n g o f Dharmakaya and t h e e a r t h l y form o f Nirmanakaya," the
Body o f T r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I t does not b e l o n g t o e i t h e r , but
p a r t a k e s something o f b o t h . I t i s i n a sense s p i r i t u a l l i k e
t h e Dharmakaya, and y e t i t cannot go beyond m a t e r i a l l i m i t a -
t i o n s , f o r i t has a form, d e f i n i t e and determinate. When t h e
human s o u l i s t h i r s t y a f t e r a pure b e i n g o r an a b s o l u t e which
cannot be comprehended i n a p a l p a b l e form, i t c r e a t e s a
h y b r i d , an i m i t a t i o n , o r a r e f l e c t i o n , and t r i e s t o be s a t i s -
f i e d w i t h i t , j u s t as a l i t t l e g i r l has h e r i n n a t e and not
yet f u l l y developed m a t e r n i t y s a t i s f i e d by t e n d e r l y embracing
and n u r s i n g t h e d o l l , an inanimate i m i t a t i o n o f a r e a l l i v i n g
baby. And t h e Mahayanists seem t o have made most o f t h i s
c h i l d i s h humanness. They produced as many s u t r a s as t h e i r
s p i r i t u a l y e a r n i n g s demanded, q u i t e r e g a r d l e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l
f a c t s , and made t h e Body o f B l i s s o f t h e T a t h a g a t a t h e author
of a l l t h e s e works... . (pp. 267-268).

Modern Mahayanists i n f u l l accordance w i t h t h i s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f t h e D o c t r i n e o f T r i k a y a do.not p l a c e much
importance on t h e o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e Body o f B l i s s
(Sambhogakaya). They c o n s i d e r them a t b e s t t h e f i c t i t i o u s
p r o d u c t s o f an i m a g i n a t i v e mind . . . modern B u d d h i s t s l o o k
w i t h d i s d a i n on t h e s e e g o t i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n s
of r e l i g i o u s l i f e (pp. 268-269).

In b r i e f , Suzuki s h i f t s t o a two-kaya t h e o r y i n t e r p r e t e d o n t o l o g i c a l l y , A

f i n a l attempt t o d e a l w i t h t h e t r i k a y a by h o m o l o g i z i n g i t t o t h e C h r i s t i a n

t r i n i t y founders on t h e f a c t t h a t he understands t h e Holy S p i r i t no b e t t e r

-than t h e Sambhogakaya...

5- M.. P. Masson-Oursel. . "Les t r o i s corps du bouddha." Journal Asiatique

series 2, 1 (1913): 58I-618.

M. Masson-Oursel had t h e f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l s a t h i s d i s p o s a l : two i n -

s c r i p t i o n s , Stael-Holstein's Tibetan version o f the Trikayastava, R o c k h i l l

t e x t , L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s 1906 a r t i c l e , Suzuki's O u t l i n e s , t h e t e x t o f t h e

Aphisamayalankara (which he had r e a d w i t h S. L e v i ) , and a related portion of

an u n i d e n t i f i e d m a n u s c r i p t . He proposes a t e n t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e

m a t e r i a l s , e s p e c i a l l y o f the d a t a o f f e r e d by La V a l l e e P o u s s i n and Suzuki.

The a r t i c l e i s i n three parts:

— an examination o f each kaya.

— a d i s c u s s i o n o f the h i s t o r i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l r o o t s o f the doctrine.

— e x t r a c t s from the Abhisamayalankara and the u n i d e n t i f i e d m a n u s c r i p t .

He b e g i n s by d e f i n i n g kaya as "organism" or "system" r a t h e r than "body,"

p o i n t i n g out t h a t i n Buddhist t h e o r y , the o n l y s t a b i l i t y i s t o be found i n the

r e l a t i o n s h i p s which o c c u r between phenomena: "Kaya designe une l o i de ce genre,

par o p p o s i t i o n a l a f i x i t e r i g i d e d'une substance ou d'une p e r s o n n a l i t e . "

The author m a i n t a i n s t h a t "dharma" i n "Dharmakaya" has a dual significa-

t i o n : the sense o f a moral r u l e or law (as i n the P a l i dhammakaya), and the

sense o f e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y , r e a l i t y , t r u e n a t u r e . As the p r o t o t y p e o f

morality i t i s the first religious principle. As the supreme a b s t r a c t i o n i t

i s the f i r s t metaphysical p r i n c i p l e .

While La V a l l e e P o u s s i n has c r i t i c i z e d Suzuki f o r a c c e p t i n g the former,

Masson-Oursel c a s t i g a t e s him f o r i g n o r i n g the l a t t e r . F u r t h e r , he p o i n t s out

the i n c o n s i s t e n c y between La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s r e j e c t i o n o f the Dharmakaya as

o n t o l o g i c a l substrate and the o n t o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d e x p l a n a t i o n in his 1906

article.

Masson-Oursel goes on t o i d e n t i f y the t a t h a g a t a g a r b h a w i t h the

alayavijnana and t a c k l e s the problem which t o La V a l l e e P o u s s i n had presented

a "cosmic" dimension:

II peut sans doute sembler etrange que l e Dharmakaya

 15

d'un Bouddha ( c a r tous l e s Bouddhas p o s s i b l e s possedent,

theoretiquement, l e s t r o i s kaya) s o i t proclame l a m a t r i c e
des a u t r e s Bienheureux; mais c ' e s t simplement .urie f a c o n
d ' i n d i q u e r que l e Dharmakaya a p p a r t i e n t en commun a tous
l e s T a t h a g a t a s , c ' e s t - a - d i r e d ' a f f i r m e r l ' u n i t e du
bouddhisme, l ' i d e n t i t e de s a p h i l o s o p h i e e t de s a morale
a t r a v e r s l ' i n f i n i e m u l t i p l i c i t e des Bouddhas concevables
(pp. 58^-585).

He a l s o mentions t h e m y t h i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the Dharmakaya w i t h such

f i g u r e s as V a i r o c a n a . He concludes t h a t , "en r a i s o n de ses a t t r i b u t s a l a

f o i s metaphysiques et moraux, e s t proprement l a c o n c e p t i o n Mahayaniste de

l'absolu." As such, i t i s somehow "above" t h e o t h e r t w o — they a r e a s p e c t s

of i t .

The author t r a n s l a t e s "Sambhogakaya" l i t e r a l l y as "body o f b e a t i t u d e , "

of "body o f sympathy," b u t admits t h a t t h i s h e l p s v e r y l i t t l e . He begins

w i t h L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t , "un Bouddha, t a n t q u ' i l n ' e s t pas

encore plonge d a n s - l e N i r v a n a , j o u i t , pour son propre avantage e t pour

l'avantage d ' a u t r u i , du f r u i t de s a c o n d u i t e c h a r i t a b l e comme B o d h i s a t t v a . "

But, o b j e c t s Masson-Oursel, i f t h e Sambhogakaya i s a stage p r i o r t o f u l l

Buddhahood, how can i t be a body o f t h e Buddha? L a V a l l e e Poussin's second

e x p l a n a t i o n was t h a t " l e Dharmakaya evolue a l ' e t a t d ' e t r e , de b e a t i t u d e , de

c h a r i t e , d ' e c l a t lumineux ou 1 ' i n t e l l e c t ( v i j n a n a ) en t a n t q u ' i l e s t i n d i v i d u -

a l i s e comme Bouddha ou B o d h i s a t t v a . " To t h i s Masson-Oursel a s k s , "Nous

a i m e r i o n s a s a v o i r q u e l e s t l e r a p p o r t e n t r e l a j o u i s s a n c e qu'a l e Dharmakaya

lui-meme, e t son e x t e r i o r i s a t i o n en d'autres e t r e s . " Presumably t h i s i s an

honest q u e s t i o n and not a r h e t o r i c a l r e f u t a t i o n l i k e t h e l a s t . Certainly i t

has been a key q u e s t i o n f o r t h e B u d d h i s t s themselves.

Masson-Oursel's own u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t h a t t h e Sambhogakaya i s an i n t e r -

mediate kaya, s h a r i n g t h e n a t u r e s o f b o t h Dharmakaya and Nirmanakaya. It i s

 16

manifested f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s , whose n a t u r e explains the

character of the manifestation. To t h i s i d e a he t i e s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e

samadhikaya, t h e vipakakaya o r punya-sambhara, and o f t h e marks o f t h e Buddha.

But a l l o f t h i s does not e x p l a i n how o r why t h e t o t a l l y transcendent

Dharmakaya m a n i f e s t s itself. Masson-Oursel notes La V a l l e e Poussin's dual

explanation:

— t h a t t h e Buddha's s t o r e o f m e r i t a u t o m a t i c a l l y g i v e s r i s e t o a Sambhogakaya

for the s a l v a t i o n o f a l l beings.

— t h a t t h e Sambhogakaya r e p r e s e n t s a compassionate response on t h e p a r t o f

the Buddha.

But, Masson-Oursel a s k s , i f t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n i s m e c h a n i c a l o r automatic,

why i s t h e concept o f compassion necessary? These two a r e , he f e e l s , contra-

dictory. We may remark here t h a t Masson-Oursel seems t o be unacquainted with

the B o d h i s a t t v a vow and i s p r o b a b l y t r a p p e d by Western c o n n o t a t i o n s o f

"compassion."

To answer t h e q u e s t i o n o f how a Buddha may possess a Sambhogakaya, t h e

author r e f e r s t o a passage o f t h e Suvarnaprabhasa quoted by S u z u k i : t h e s i m i l e

o f moon, water and v i s u a l p a t c h , a l l t h r e e o f which a r e r e q u i r e d t o c o n s t i t u t e

an image, The moon r e p r e s e n t s t h e Dharmakaya, t h e water t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , t h e

v i s u a l p a t c h t h e Sambhogakaya which u n i t e s them. T h i s t a p e r s o f f i n t o an

obscure argument from Spinoza. F i n a l l y , he says:

La p r i n c i p a l e d i f f i c u l t e que nous eprouvons a nous f a i r e

une i d e e du Sambhogakaya r e s i d e dans son c a r a c t e r e a l a f o i s
o b j e c t i f , comme m a n i f e s t a t i o n , e t s u b j e c t i f , comme b e a t i t u d e .
Mais t o u t e metaphysique a e t e f o r c e e , bon g r e , mal g r e , de
r e c o n n a i t r e a l ' a b s o l u ces deux c a r a c t e r e s ; l e Dharmakaya
n ' e t a i t - i l pas d e j a e t r e e t bodhi? Nous ne nous f l a t t o n s
pas, d i a i l l e u r s de d i s s i p e r l e s i n c e r t i t u d e s q u i f l o t t e n t
 17

autour du concept de Sambhogakaya: l e rendre pleinement

i n t e l l i g i b l e s e r a i t se meprendre sur sa s i g n i f i c a t i o n authen-
t i q u e , p u i s q u ' i l f a u d r a i t e t r e B o d h i s a t t v a pour p e n e t r e r
v e r i t a b l e m e n t son sens, de meme que l e Dharmakaya n'est
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e — a supposer qu'on a i t encore l e d r o i t .•c~
d'employer ce mot—qu'aux s e u l s Bouddhas (p. 590)-

Although t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s c e r t a i n l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , Masson-Oursel has

brought out two important points:

— t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Sambhogakaya and Bodhisattva.

— the i n t e r m e d i a t e , r e l a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f the Sambhogakaya.

Both o f these must be r e t a i n e d i n any future discussion.

The author i s much more c e r t a i n about the Nirmanakaya:

Dans l e Dharmakaya l.Vessence du Bouddha e t a i t t e l l e m e n t

i n t e r i e u r e a elle-meme, qu'.'elle se r e n f e r m a i t en une i n d i v i -
s i b l e u n i t e , s u p e r i e u r e a t o u t e c o n s c i e n c e ; dans l e Sambho-
gakaya c e t t e essence se rend a c c e s s i b l e , sans t o u t e f o i s se
d i v i s e r , aux e t r e s devenus l e s p l u s proches d'elle-meme;
dans l e Nirmanakaya e l l e s'.'exteriorise en apparences impar-
faites, individuelles, multiples. . . .

Nirmanakaya designe avant t o u t l e s Bouddhas sous l a

forme ou i l s ont apparu ou a p p a r a i t r o n t sur c e t t e t e r r e . Au
l i e u de r e s t e r i n d i f f e r e n t s . dans l ' e t e r n i t e , i l s envoient en
ce monde de misere des r e f l e t s ( p r a t i b i m b a ) d'eux-memes. . .
(p. 591).

T h i s seems r e a s o n a b l e . However, he continues:

Le nom de Nirmanakaya s ' a p p l i q u e en o u t r e , en un sens

p l u s l a r g e , a t o u t e s apparences s e n s i b l e s , aux phenomenes
du monde du d e s i r (kamaloka). A u s s i ce kaya e s t - i l p r e s e n t
p a r t o u t ( s a r v a t r a g a ) ; i l e s t l e c r e a t e u r ( n i r m a t a r ) de cet
u n i v e r s , t h e a t r e de n o t r e v i e (p. 591)•

The author accounts f o r t h e s e two i d e a s (Nirmanakaya as Sakyamuni and

Nirmanakaya as samsara) by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y r e f e r t o o p p o s i t e views o f the

 18

same r e a l i t y , t h a t the Nirmanakaya i s an ambiguous concept, "La meme idee se

retrouve i c i sous une forme p l u s imagee, dans c e t t e i d e n t i t e du c r e a t e u r et du

saveur a u s e i n du Nirmanakaya." Should t h i s s u g g e s t i o n r e a l l y h o l d up, i t would

p r o v i d e an a l t e r n a t i v e t o La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s h i s t o r i c a l stages s e p a r a t i n g the

B u d d h o l o g i c a l from the cosmological.

A f t e r h i s review o f each kaya, the author surveys the h i s t o r i c a l and

p h i l o s o p h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the d o c t r i n e . He says f r a n k l y ,

I I e s t r e g r e t t a b l e que 1 ' i n s u f f i s a n c e des documents dont

nous disposons nous a i t c o n t r a i n t de r e s t i t u e r c e t t e a b s t r u s e
t h e o r i e des t r o i s corps au moyen de t e x t e s des provenances et
des epoques l e s p l u s d i s p a r a t e s . Le sens de l a d o c t r i n e ne
s e r a vraiment connu que l o r s q u e nous pourrons determiner dans
q u e l l e s c i r c o n s t a n c e s e l l e est nee, dans q u e l l e mesure e l l e
a v a r i e (p. 592).

A f t e r a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l sketch,:of the L o k p t t a r a i d e a , Masson-Oursel

summarizes:

A i n s i , l e probleme des t r o i s corps n a q u i t d'un e f f o r t

s p e c u l a t i f pour c o n c i l i e r l e s t r a i t s c o n t r a d i c t o i r e s de l a
p e r s o n n a l i t e du Bouddha: l a v a l e u r absolue de son e n s e i g n e -
ment et l e s c o n t i n g e n c e s de sa v i e humaine. La s o l u t i o n
c o n s i s t e a poser dans l ' e t e r n e l un Dharmakaya a b s o l u , et a
p r o j e t e r dans l e temps, dans l ' e s p a c e , dans l e monde, une
ombre de ce d i e u , l e Nirmanakaya. . . . l a d o c t r i n e prend
une forme metaphysique b i e n p l u s a b s t r a i t e chez Asanga.
. . . E l l e r e v e t a u s s i l a forme d'un c u l t e p o p u l a i r e ; des
exvoto sont consacres au Sambhogakaya ou au Nirmanakaya
comme chez nous au Sacre-Coeur. Le dogme nouveau s'etend
au T i b e t , a l a Chine, a l a M o n g o l i e , au Japon, i l s'y
perpetue j u s q u ' a nos j o u r s . Au cours du moyen age, l e
t a n t r i s m e m u l t i p l i a s e l o n sa f a n t a i s i e l e s corps du Bouddha,
qui f u r e n t q u a t r e , c i n q , ou p l u s nombreux encore (p. 59^)-

T h i s , o f c o u r s e , does not r e a l l y e x p l a i n the t r i k a y a system, o n l y a two-

kaya i d e a , p l u s an added p o p u l a r c u l t . - Masson-Oursel a l s o speaks of. the influence

o f 'Tpopula;*"' Hinduism: "Le t r i k a y a - f a i t , " en quelque . s o r t e pendant a. . l a t r i m u r t i , "

 19

but does not go so f a r as t o suggest t h a t the t r i a d i c p a t t e r n was simply a

c u l t u r a l g i v e n which c o u l d account f o r the t r i k a y a i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f .any logic

i n t e r n a l t o the d o c t r i n e .

Two S a n s k r i t t e x t s and t r a n s l a t i o n s d e a l i n g . w i t h the'-kayas:. are" appended

to this article. The f i r s t i s an e x t r a c t from t h e Abhisamay&lankara. The

second i s an u n t i t l e d Vijffanavadin manuscript. From t h e s e he reaches the

following conclusions:

Pour c o n c l u r e , en ce q u i concerne l a t h e o r i e des c o r p s ,

l a c o n t r i b u t i o n p r i n c i p a l e que l e s t e x t e s c i t e s a p p o r t e n t a
n o t r e enquete, c ' e s t que l e Svabhavikakaya et l e Dharmakaya
sont des systemes d'ideaux (dharma, dharmata), c o n d i t i o n s
a b s t r a i t e s de l a connaissance supreme, sans d u a l i t e , sans
m u l t i p l i c i t y , sans developpement; que l e Sambhogakaya e s t
un systeme de s i g n e s ( l a k s a n a , anulaksana) par l e s q u e l s un
Bouddha se m a n i f e s t e aux B o d h i s a t t v a s | e n f i n que l e N a i r -
manikakaya est.un systeme d ' a c t i o n s (karmani) par l e q u e l un
Bouddha se r e v e l e d'une fagon phenomenale aux Cravakas, e t c .
. . . Quant a f i x e r l e sens p r e c i s de l a m u l t i t u d e de con-
cepts auxquels i l e s t f a i t a l l u s i o n dans ces t e x t e s , c ' e s t
pour 1 ' i n s t a n t une e n t r e p r i s e peu a b o r d a b l e , c a r nous n'avons
guere pour l a p l u p a r t d'entre eux d'autre p o i n t de comparai-
son que l e Mahayana-SutraUamkara d'Asanga, . . (pp. 6 l 7 - 6 l 8 ) . ,

6. L. de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n . "Note sur l e s Corps du Bouddha." Museon,- 32

(1913): 257-29 0.,

La Vallee." .Poussin. rejoins:' the ' d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a f l o u r i s h . :

Pour se f a i r e une i d e e exacte des Corps du Bouddha,

c ' e s t - a - d i r e d'un c h a p i t r e important de l a "bouddhologie," •
i l f a u t embrasser t o u t e l ' h i s t o i r e du Bouddhisme, depuis
l e s o r i g i n e s jusqu'aux mythologies et aux t h e o s o p h i e s s i
penetrees de Civaisme q u ' e l l e s m e r i t e n t a p e i n e l e nom de
bouddhiques. I I f a u t a u s s i p a s s e r en revue d i v e r s e s
philosophies. . . . Et c ' e s t l a n o t r e ambition (p. 257)-

Although t h e notes which f o l l o w f a l l s h o r t o f t h i s grand i n t e n t i o n , t h e y

r e v e a l the author's growing awareness o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f Buddhist doctrine.

 20

He m a i n t a i n s h i s e a r l i e r p e r s p e c t i v e hut s u b d i v i d e s h i s t h r e e stages and

i n t e r p r e t s them i n a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d manner. He f i r s t discusses "Archaic

Buddhism," which r e c o g n i z e d a - v i s i b l e form (rupakaya), and t h e l i v i n g embodi-

ment o f t h e d o c t r i n e (Dharmakaya). He does not e x p l a i n h i s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e

n o t i o n t h a t t h e "kaya" i n Dharmakaya i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e was t h e l a t e r

representative o f the charismatic Buddha.

He then t u r n s t o " S c h o l a s t i c i s m , " i n which t h e Buddhists r e t a i n e d t h e word

"Dharmakaya" but s h i f t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f "dharma" t o an Abhidharmic sense.

Hence, Dharmakaya came t o mean:

. . . l e Bouddha lui-meme, c ' e s t l a c o l l e c t i o n , l ' a g g r e -

gat et l a s e r i e des elements p s y c h i q u e s e t m a t e r i e l s q u i
c o n s t i t u e n t l ' i n d i v i d u qu'on a p p e l l e un Bouddha, son ame et
son c o r p s , dans n o t r e langage o c c i d e n t a l . — Mais dharmakaya
s'entendra au propre des "elements" q u i f o n t que c e t i n d i v i d u
e s t un Bouddha.

Le Bouddha, en t a n t q u ' i l e s t v i s i b l e , l e rupakaya,

"corps v i s i b l e , " c o l l e c t i o n des dharmas v i s i b l e s ou
m a t e r i e l s , n'est qu'une p o r t i o n du Bouddha. Ces dharmas
v i s i b l e s , p l u s l e s dharmas i n v i s i b l e s , s e n s a t i o n s , pensees,
e t c . , sont t o u t l e Bouddha (p. 2 5 8 ) .

However, he r e a l i z e s t h a t f i n e r d i s t i n c t i o n s must be made:

3. Mais i l f a u t d i s t i n g u e r t r o i s ecoles.

A. L ' e c o l e d'Abhidharma ou du P e t i t V e h i c u l e . . . .
C e t t e e c o l e c r o i t a l a r e a l i t e s u b s t a n t i e l l e des dharmas, e t
sa c r i t i q u e s ' a r r e t e a l a n e g a t i o n de l ' i n d i v i d u (pudgala-
nairatmya).

B. -C. L ' e c o l e Madhyamika ou n i h i l i s t (premier s i e c l e

de n o t r e e r e ? ) e t l ' e c o l e V i j n a n a v a d i n ou i d e a l i s t e (un peu
p o s t e r i e u r e ? ) n i e n t . 1 ' e x i s t e n c e en s o i des dharmas: c'est l a
 21

these du dharmanairatmya, q u i c a r a c t e r i s e l e s p h i l o s o p h i e s du
Grand V e h i c u l e . Ces deux e c o l e s t i e n n e n t que tous l e s corps
et t o u t e s l e s pensees sont " v i d e s " (gunya). La r e e l l e nature
( t a t h a t a ) des choses comme des i n d i v i d u s , des Bouddhas comme
de tous l e s e t r e s , c ' e s t l a " v a c u i t e " (guriyafa); et 1'expres-
s i o n dharmakaya peut e t r e comprise dans l e sens de " r e e l l e
n a t u r e , " "corps e s s e n t i e l " (svabhavika kaya) (pp. 258-259).

The author now s h i f t s t o t h e t r i k a y a . He examines each i n t h e l i g h t o f

each o f the two Madhyamika p e r s p e c t i v e s . From the c o n v e n t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e

they appear m y t h o l o g i c a l :

. . . l e s Bouddhas sont de grands personnages d i v i n s ,

entoures de grands s a i n t s q u i sont de f u t u r s Bouddhas; t o u s
l e s e t r e s d o i v e n t , pour p a r v e n i r au N i r v a n a , p a s s e r d'abord
par l ' e t a t de Bouddha.

On d i s t i n g u e r a done t r o i s corps du Bouddha.

1. Le Dharmakaya, d o n t - l a d e f i n i t i o n se superpose a
peu pres a c e l l e de 1'Abhidharma. C'est 1'ensemble des
connaissances et des q u a l i t e s morales du Bouddha, a u s s i
b i e n c e l l e s q u i se r a p p o r t e n t au monde que c e l l e s q u i sont
p r o d u c t r i c e s du N i r v a n a : d'une p a r t , l a compassion, l e pou-
v o i r de d e t r u i r e l e s p a s s i o n s de ceux q u i v o i e n t l e Bouddha;
d'autre p a r t , l e s m e d i t a t i o n s a b s t r u s e s q u i a b o u t i s s e n t a
1 ' i n c o n s c i e n c e : t e l l e p a r exemple l a m e d i t a t i o n du neant.

2. Le Sambhogakaya, corps g l o r i e u x , l e Bouddha en t a n t

que v i s i b l e , " l e corps orne des t r e n t e - d e u x marques": c ' e s t
l e rupakaya, l a "forme v i s i b l e " de l a v i e i l l e t r a d i t i o n . —
Mais ce c o r p s , comme nous a l l o n s l e d i r e , e s t i n v i s i b l e aux
simples m o r t e l s . Ceux-ci n'en a p e r g o i v e n t que des doubles
magiques, p l u s ou moins ressemblants a 1 ' o r i g i n a l .

3. Le Nirmanakaya, "corps cree par magie," sur l e q u e l

nous i n s i s t e r o n s davantage.

.Cakyamuni, dans leBouddhisme du P e t i t V e h i c u l e , e s t un

homme. . . . Cet homme o b t i n t l a q u a l i t e de Bouddha, r e v e l a
l e chemin, et e n t r a dans l e N i r v a n a , desormais i n v i s i b l e aux
dieux et aux hommes: c a r i l e s t d e l i v r e de 1 ' e x i s t e n c e .

La s e c t e des V e t u l y a k a s que l a t r a d i t i o n p l a c e avant

Agoka, e t que j e c r o i s t r e s ancienne, congut une i d e e p l u s
haute de Qakyamuni et du Bouddha. . . . gakyamuni e s t
devenu Bouddha i l y a t r e s longtemps; i l regne dans l e c i e l
des dieux T u s i t a s d'ou on c r u t faussement q u ' i l e t a i t
 descendu pour s ' i n c a r n e r et c o n q u e r i r i c i l a q u a l i t e de
Bouddha; l e Qakyamuni que l e s hommes ont T U n'est qu'un
fantome cree p a r l e v r a i Cakyamuni, un "corps magique" ou un
"corps c r e e " (nirmanakaya).

Ce docetisme a b o u t i t , dans l e Grand V e h i c u l e . . . a l a

c o n c e p t i o n de Bouddhas presque e t e r n e l s , i n t e r v e n a n t i c i - b a s
par des a p p a r i t i o n s magiques q u i prechent et donnent aux
hommes l e s p e c t a c l e e d i f i a n t e t i n s t r u c t i f de t o u t e l a geste
d'un Bouddha, de t o u t e l a genese de l a q u a l i t e de Bouddha.
Les Bouddhas sont de grands dieux mythologiques, t r o n a n t
dans quelque p a r a d i s ou de grands s a i n t s l e s e n t o u r e n t . A
l a s e u l e a p p a r i t i o n ' magique dont p a r l a i e n t l e s premiers
d o c e t e s , du moins a en c r o i r e nos s o u r c e s , beaucoup •d.'autres
sont a j o u t e e s : pendant l a longue p e r i o d e de son regne, et
dans 1'univers q u i e s t son "champ," un Bouddha e s t l ' u n i v e r -
s e l l e p r o v i d e n c e : p a r son c o r p s magique, d i v i s e a l ' i n f i n i ,
il " m u r i t " l e s e t r e s pour l e s a l u t (pp. 277-278).

From t h e u l t i m a t e p e r s p e c t i v e :

Nous a r r i v e r o n s au N i r v a n a en p r o f i t a n t de l ' e n s e i g n e -
ment que donnent l e s corps magiques (nirmanakaya, en contem-
p l a n t l e corps g l o r i e u x . l o r s q u e nous serons devenus des
s a i n t s ( b b d h i s a t t v a s ) ; en devenant nous-memes des Bouddhas,
c ' e s t - a - d i r e des dharmakayas, c o l l e c t i o n s de dharmas t r e s
purs q u i c o n s t i t u e n t des e t r e s d e j a i l l u m i n e s (buddha) et
t r e s proches du N i r v a n a . — E t i l n'y a pas d'autre moyen
d ' a r r i v e r au N i r v a n a .

Cependant, au p o i n t de vue metaphysique, l a p o s i t i o n

des N i h i l i s t e s n'est pas exactement c e l l e d e s ' I d e a l i s t e s .

Pour l e s N i h i l i s t e s , l e s deux premiers c o r p s (dharma° .

et sambhogakaya) forment un s e u l e t r e , l e Bouddha, e t r e r e e l
au p o i n t de vue de 1'experience, mais " v i d e " au p o i n t de vue
metaphysique: c a r l e s dharmas q u i l e composent n ' e x i s t e n t
pas en s o i .

Pour l e s I d e a l i s t e s , l e dharmakaya e s t l e Bouddha t e l

q u ' i l s ' a p p a r a i t a lui-meme, t e l q u ' i l a c o n s c i e n c e de s o i :
connaissances p r o d u c t r i c e s de N i r v a n a et pensees mondaines,
tournees v e r s l e s a l u t du monde: l e s p r e m i e r e s , l o r s q u ' e l l e s
sont t r e s p u r e s , se confondent avec ce que nous avons appele
" l a pensee sans p l u s " (p. 273); ce sont des connaissances
d'ou 1 ' o p p o s i t i o n de " c o n n a i s s a b l e " et "connaissance" e s t
exclue e t , p a r consequent, des connaissances q u i sont des
non-connaissances; l e s secondes sont "imaginees" dans l a
mesure, t r e s r e d u i t e , ou e l l e s comportent c e t t e o p p o s i t i o n :
car l a c h a r i t e du s a i n t e s t v i d e de l ' i d e e de "donneur," de
 23

don e t de "receveur"; — l e corps g l o r i e u x est l e Bouddha t e l

q u ' i l a p p a r a i t aux s a i n t s ( b o d h i s a t t v a s ) , qui c r o i e n t encore
a 1 ' e x i s t e n c e de l a m a t i e r e ( r u p a ) ; — l e corps magique est
l e Bouddha t e l q u ' i l a p p a r a i t aux e t r e s i n f e r i e u r s (gravakadi )
q u i ne peuvent encore v o i r que des formes t r e s p a r t i c u l a r i s m s .
Les deux d e r n i e r s corps a p p a r a i s s e n t aux s a i n t s e t aux e t r e s
i n f e r i e u r s par l ' e f f i c a c e de l a pensee mondaine qui est une
p a r t i e du dharmakaya, par l ' e f f i c a c e a u s s i du m e r i t e a c q u i s
par l e s s a i n t s e t l e s e t r e s i n f e r i e u r s eux-memes.

On peut, e n f i n , c o n s i d e r e r comme l e v r a i corps (kaya)

du Bouddha, ce que l e Bouddha e s t au p o i n t de vue de l a
v e r i t e absolue. L a nature v r a i e (dharmata) d'un Bouddha s e r a
appelee son dharmakaya, en termes p l u s c l a i r s , son s v a b h a v i -
kakaya ou dharmatakaya, son corps v r a i . — Nous sommes r e n -
seignes sur l a n a t u r e v r a i e des dharmas qui c o n s t i t u e n t l e
Bouddha: ces dharmas ne sont pas p r o d u i t s "en s o i " ; i l s ne
sont pas p r o d u i t s , au p o i n t de vue de l a v e r i t e absolue; i l s
sont " v i d e s " ; i l s ont pour n a t u r e l a " v a c u i t e " (gunyata).

On peut en d i r e autant de tous l e s dharmas, e t de l a

f o u l e des e t r e s que c o n s t i t u e n t l e s dharmas: t o u s l e s e t r e s
ont done l e meme v r a i corps (svabhavikakaya = dharmatakaya
= dharmakaya) que l e s Bouddhas.

T o u t e f o i s , dans l e s Bouddhas predominent l e s dharmas

p r o d u c t e u r s ^ d e N i r v a n a ( l o k o t t a r a ) , a 1 ' e x c l u s i o n des dharmas
mondains. Les Bouddhas ont done, a peu p r e s , p u r i f i e l e u r
v r a i corps: i l s sont v i d e s , ou a peu p r e s , au "point. '.;de .-.vue.'
meme de l a v e r i t e d'apparence (pp. 279-281)..

F i n a l l y , the author notes v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y the tathagatagarbha,

which he c o n s i d e r s t o be p a r t o f the "immanentise"Buddhology o f the Mantrayana,

and speculates on p a r a l l e l s between Mahayana Buddhism and Vedanta. He c l e a r l y

wishes t o see the t r i k a y a w i t h i n the g e n e r a l context o f the development o f

I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s thought but does not have t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t i s e t o do more

than draw a t t e n t i o n t o a few s i m i l a r i t i e s .

T h i s a r t i c l e has been quoted i n d e t a i l because, d e s p i t e shortcomings i n

the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i t o f f e r s the f i r s t summary o f the major f e a t u r e s which

l a t e r s c h o l a r s came t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r prime data.

 2h

7. A. Coomaraswamy. Buddha and the Gospel o f Buddhism. New York: G. P.

Putnam's Sons, 1916.

T h i s hook i s important because i t e s t a b l i s h e s the p o s i t i o n found i n most

l a t e r p o p u l a r I n d i a n works. Like Suzuki, Coomaraswamy sees the t r i k a y a as an

o n t o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e , but draws p a r a l l e l s t o Vedanta r a t h e r t h a n C h r i s t i a n i t y .

The Mahayana i s thus d i s t i n g u i s h e d by i t s m y s t i c a l

Buddha t h e o l o g y . . . . The Mahayana Buddha t h e o l o g y , as
remarked by Rhys D a v i d s , " i s the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e c o n t r a -
d i c t i o n t o the A g n o s t i c Atheism," which i s the c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c o f Gautama's system o f p h i l o s o p h y . But t h i s o p p o s i t i o n
i s simply the i n e v i t a b l e c o n t r a s t o f r e l i g i o n and philosophy,
r e l a t i v e and a b s o l u t e t r u t h , and those who are i n t e r e s t e d i n
the s c i e n c e o f t h e o l o g y , or are touched by a r t , w i l l not be
l i k e l y t o agree i n denouncing the Buddha gods as the i n v e n t i o n s
"of a s i c k l y s c h o l a s t i c i s m , h o l l o w a b s t r a c t i o n s without l i f e
or r e a l i t y " : i n t h i s c o n t i n g e n t w o r l d we l i v e every day by
r e l a t i v e t r u t h s , and f o r a l l t h o s e who do not w i s h t o a v o i d
the w o r l d o f Becoming at the e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e moment t h e s e
r e l a t i v e t r u t h s are f a r from l a c k i n g : ' i n l i f e or r e a l i t y . The
Mahayana as a t h e i s t i c f a i t h i s so o n l y t o the same extent as
the Vedanta, t h a t i s t o say i t has an e s o t e r i c aspect which
speaks i n n e g a t i v e terms o f a Suchness and a V o i d which cannot
be known, w h i l e on the other i t has an e x o t e r i c and more
e l a b o r a t e p a r t in.which the A b s o l u t e i s seen through the g l a s s
o f time and space, c o n t r a c t e d and i d e n t i f i e d i n t o v a r i e t y .
T h i s development appears i n the d o c t r i n e o f the T r i k a y a , the
Three Bodies o f the Buddha. These t h r e e are ( l ) the Dharma-" -
kaya, or Essence-body; (2) i t s heavenly m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n the
Sambhogakaya, or Body o f B l i s s ; and (3) the emanation, t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n , or p r o j e c t i o n t h e r e o f , c a l l e d Nirmanakaya, apparent
as the v i s i b l e i n d i v i d u a l Buddha on e a r t h . T h i s i s a system
which h a r d l y d i f f e r s from what i s i m p l i e d i n the C h r i s t i a n
doctrine of Incarnation. . . .

Thus the Dharmakaya may be compared t o the F a t h e r ; the

Sambhogakaya t o the f i g u r e o f C h r i s t i n g l o r y ; the Nirmanakaya
t o the v i s i b l e Jesus who announces i n human speech t h a t 'I and
my F a t h e r are One.' Or again w i t h the Vedanta: the Dharmakaya
i s the Brahman, t i m e l e s s and u n c o n d i t i o n e d ; the Sambhogakaya
i s r e a l i z e d i n the forms o f I s v a r a ; the Nirmanakaya i n every
avatar. The essence o f a l l t h i n g s , the one r e a l i t y o f which
t h e i r f l e e t i n g shapes remind us, i s the Dharmakaya. The Dhar-
makaya i s not a p e r s o n a l b e i n g who r e v e a l s h i m s e l f t o us i n a
s i n g l e i n c a r n a t i o n , but i t i s the a l l - p e r v a d i n g and t r a c e l e s s
ground o f the s o u l , which does not i n f a c t s u f f e r any
 25

m o d i f i c a t i o n ' b u t appears t o us t o assume a v a r i e t y o f forms:

we r e a d t h a t though t h e Buddha ( a t e r m w h i c h we must here
u n d e r s t a n d as i m p e r s o n a l ) does not d e p a r t from h i s seat i n
the tower ( s t a t e o f Dharmakaya), y e t he may assume a l l and
every form, whether o f a brahma, a god, o r a monk, o r a
p h y s i c i a n , o r a tradesman, o r an a r t i s t ; he may r e v e a l
h i m s e l f i n e v e r y form o f a r t and i n d u s t r y , i n c i t i e s o r i n
v i l l a g e s : from t h e h i g h e s t heaven t o t h e l o w e s t h e l l , t h e r e
i s t h e Dharmakaya, i n w h i c h a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s a r e one.
The Dharmakaya i s t h e p e r s o n a l ground o f Buddhahood from
w h i c h t h e p e r s o n a l w i l l , thought and l o v e o f innumerable
Buddhas and B o d h i s a t t v a s e v e r p r o c e e d i n response t o t h e
needs o f t h o s e i n whom;, t h e p e r f e c t n a t u r e i s not y e t r e a l -
i z e d . I n some o f t h e l a t e r phases o f t h e Mahayana, however,
the Dharmakaya i s p e r s o n i f i e d as Adi-Buddha (sometimes
V a i r o c a n a ) who i s t h e n t o be r e g a r d e d as t h e Supreme B e i n g ,
above a l l o t h e r Buddhas, and whose s a k t i i s P r j n a p a r a m i t a .

Dharmakaya i s commonly t r a n s l a t e d 'Body o f t h e Law,'

but i t must n o t b e ' . i n t e r p r e t e d m e r e l y as e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e
sum o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s (pp. 237-239).

I t i s h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t out t h a t t h e s e remarks, w h i c h a r e grounded

i n a t h o r o u g h r e d u c t i o n o f Buddhism t o V e d a n t a , a r e an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o o l f o r

i n t e r p r e t i n g a V i j n a n a v a d i n t h e o r y t o t h e modern Westerner. They a r e u s e f u l

as a c l e a r and e l e g a n t i n t r o d u c t i o n • o f • an • u n s a t i s f a c t o r y answer w h i c h , i s met.,

many t i m e s i n l a t e r w r i t i n g s , f r e q u e n t l y i n an o b s c u r e d form.-

8. Akanuma, C h i z e n . " T r i p l e Body o f t h e Buddha." E a s t e r n B u d d h i s t , 2 (1922):

1-29-

Akanuma, l i k e S u z u k i , was a b e l i e v e r , b u t one w i t h g r e a t e r knowledge and

l e s s w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t f a c i l e comparisons. He r e f e r s t o a wide range o f

Indian Buddhist t e x t s .

Akanuma b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e Dharmakaya was t h e f i r s t a s p e c t o f t h e t r i k a y a

to appear. He sees t h e Dharmakaya d o c t r i n e as t h e r e s u l t o f t h r e e f a c t o r s :

The s t r o n g f a i t h o r i e n t a t i o n o f Buddhism.
 There i s no doubt t h a t t h e r a p i d growth o f Buddhism i n
I n d i a was c h i e f l y due t o t h e greatness o f t h e Buddha's own
p e r s o n a l i t y which demanded f a i t h and l o v e i n h i s d i s c i p l e s .
They were u n c o n s c i o u s l y drawn towards t h e i r l e a d e r and took
i n a l l h i s words w i t h a b s o l u t e f a i t h . . . . T h i s a t t i t u d e
. . . n a t u r a l l y r e f l e c t e d i t s e l f i n t h e i r conception o f the
p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e Master, r e a d i l y p r e p a r i n g the way f o r h i s
d e i f i c a t i o n by t h e l a t e r B u d d h i s t s (pp. 1 - 3 ) .

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Buddha and dharma.

By "Dharma," o r "Dhamma" ( i n P a l i ) , i s meant f i r s t o f

a l l t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e Buddha. . . . And as t h e d o c t r i n e
taught by t h e Buddha i s t h e t r u t h , u n i v e r s a l and a b s o l u t e ,
which was r e v e a l e d i n h i s inmost c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e term
n a t u r a l l y came t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Law; and then t h e
Law and t h e D o c t r i n e were c o n c e i v e d t o have u n i t e d themselves
i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e Buddha. The Buddha t h e r e f o r e was
not a body which was o n l y apparent t o our p h y s i c a l eye, but
a s p i r i t o r a moral person i n whom t h e Dharma o r Law was
i n c a r n a t e d . . . t h e D o c t r i n e i s what c o n s t i t u t e s t h e Body
o f t h e Buddha, and he who sees t h e D o c t r i n e and t h e T r u t h as
r e v e a l e d i n i t i s he who sees t h e Buddha. Buddhahood c o n s i s t s
i n h i s s p i r i t u a l i t y and not i n h i s p h y s i c a l b e i n g , however
m a j e s t i c i t may be. To i n t e r v i e w him, t h e r e f o r e , means t o
understand t h e T r u t h through t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e Buddha.
When t h i s i d e a was f u r t h e r developed by the l a t e r B u d d h i s t s
as one o f t h e i r m e t a p h y s i c a l problems t h e Buddha-Body came L:
t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Law o r T r u t h o r T a t h a t a (suchness)
. . . (pp. k; 6-7; 8-9).

The t r a n s c e n d e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e dharma.

I f a l l t h e Buddhas and Bhikkhus and i n f a c t any Buddhist

f o l l o w e r s were enabled t o a t t a i n i l l u m i n a t i o n by means o f t h e
one v e h i c l e (ekayana) o f t h e Dharma, i t was q u i t e n a t u r a l f o r
Buddhists t o assume t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e x i s t e n c e o f one T r u t h ,
which was d e s i g n a t e d by them as Dharmata o r T a t h a t a meaning
the essence o r suchness o f t h i n g s . T h i s i t was t h a t would -
e x i s t f o r ever r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e appearance o r disappearance
o f t h e T a t h a g a t a , and t h e Dharmakaya which had been understood
as meaning one who e x p e r i e n c e d o r was i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e
Dharma o r T r u t h , came t o mean one i n whom t h e T r u t h i t s e l f
was embodied o r one whose body was t h e Dharma i t s e l f . ' The
i d e a o f t h e Buddha as t h e Dharmakaya thus came t o be e n t e r -
t a i n e d by h i s d i s c i p l e s as time went on a f t e r h i s entrance
i n t o P a r i n i r v a n a (p. 9 ) .
 27

These t h r e e s t r a n d s converged around a d e v o t i o n a l i s t i c core t o form the mature

Dharmakaya.

As y e a r s r o l l e d on, the d i s c i p l e s grew more and more

c o n v i n c e d o f the e t e r n a l i t y and s u p e r n a t u r a l p e r s o n a l i t y o f
the Buddha. While he was w a l k i n g among them on e a r t h , the
l o v e and r e v e r e n c e t h e y f e l t f o r him was r e a d i l y s a t i s f i e d ,
hut w i t h h i s p a s s i n g t h e i r emotional l i f e would not he
p a c i f i e d w i t h empty i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m (p. 1 0 ) .

Akanuma t r a c e s the r i s e o f multi-body t h e o r i e s from t h i s s i n g l e numinous

Dharmakaya. He sees the J a t a k a s t o r i e s , the t r a d i t i o n o f t h e t h i r t y - t w o

marks, and the l o k o t t a r a t e n d e n c i e s , as elements which were l a t e r s y s t e m a t i z e d

as the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e . He b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n f i r s t appeared

i n those Mahayana s u t r a s ( e s p e c i a l l y the P r a j n a p a r a m i t a ) which r e v e a l e d a

p l u r a l i t y o f Buddhas and c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e " N a g a r j i a n " two-kaya system o f the

Ta Chih Tu Lun.

Akanuma:..realizes t h a t the l o g i c a l gap between the two and the t h r e e - k a y a

systems cannot be b r i d g e d by the s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t the two just naturally

developed i n t o the t h r e e . Furthermore, he r e j e c t s the p i o u s s o l u t i o n o f sup-

p o s i n g t h a t Nagarjuna h i m s e l f f o r m u l a t e d t h e t r i k a y a . In d o i n g so" he i s drawn

i n t o another important problem — Why d i d n ' t Nagarjuna do so? He must'have

been a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the f i g u r e o f Amitabha i n the Pure Land s u t r a s . Why did

he not r e a l i z e t h a t Amitabha would not f i t w i t h i n a two-kaya system, a realiza-

t i o n which would f o r c e him t o some type o f t r i k a y a ? Akanuma concludes t h a t

Nagarjuna must never have grasped t h i s d i f f i c u l t y . b e c a u s e - i t i s a - h i s t o r i c a l

f a c t t h a t the t r i k a y a , f i r s t a p p e a r i n g i n such t r a n s i t i o n a l s u t r a s as the

M a h a p a r i n i r v a n a and Samdhinirmocana, p o s t d a t e s Nagarjuna. Akanuma m a i n t a i n s

t h a t t h e f u l l t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e was first s t a t e d by Asanga i n t h e Mahayanasam-

graha. He paraphrases:
 28

The Body o f S e l f - n a t u r e (svabhavakakaya) c o r r e s p o n d i n g

to t h e Dharmakaya, and t h e Body o f Enjoyment (sambhogakaya)
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e Vipakakaya (Recompense Body) t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e Body o f T r a n s f o r m a t i o n (nirmanakaya), have f i n a l l y
come t o e s t a b l i s h t h e dogma; o f t h e T r i p l e Body o f t h e
Tathagata. The b a s i s and reason o f t h e T r i p l e Body i s t h e
Dharmakaya, through which t h e o t h e r two Bodies a r e capable
of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r e x i s t e n c e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e t h r e e
s e p a r a t e b o d i e s a r e i n f a c t t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f one essence
i n which we c o n c e i v e Tathagatahood. The o b j e c t o f worship
or f a i t h has thus now been t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e h i s t o r i c a l
and n a t u r a l Buddha t o t h e Vipakakaya Buddha o r Recompense
Body o f Tathagatahood.

In conclusion:

. . . t h e dogma o f t h e T r i p l e Body f i r s t s t a r t e d from

the w o r s h i p f u l a t t i t u d e o f t h e e a r l i e r Buddhists towards
t h e i r Master, which r e s u l t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e Law
Body (Dharmakaya), and how t h i s l a t t e r c o n c e p t i o n , once
f i n d i n g an a r t i c u l a t e e x p r e s s i o n b o t h i n t h e S u t r a s and t h e
s a s t r a s , s t e a d i l y grew up so as t o make Nagarjuna formulate
h i s t h e o r y o f t h e Two Bodies (dvikaya) o f t h e T a t h a g a t a ,
and f i n a l l y how t h i s Nagarjuna d o c t r i n e developed i n t o
Asang'a's • T r i n i t y where t h e t h i r d Body, t h e Vipakakaya o r
the Body o f Recompense, came t o f i n d i t s l e g i t i m a t e p l a c e .
The T r i n i t y , thus complete as dogma, has now put t h e V i p a -
kakaya Buddha i n t h e p l a c e o f t h e n a t u r a l Buddha as t h e
Buddhist o b j e c t o f f a i t h , making i t s content ever deeper and
ever more enhancing. This r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the theory o f
the Buddha-body marks one o f t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e s between t h e
Mahayana and Hinayana (pp. 28-29).

9. L. de L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n . V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i : l a s i d d h i de Hiuan-tsang.

P a r i s : P a u l Geuthner, 1928-29.

T h i s i s an annotated t r a n s l a t i o n o f Hsuan-tsang's seventh-century

compendium o f V i j n a n a v a d i n thought, t h e Ch'.'.eng Wei S h i h Lun. The p e n u l t i m a t e

s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h t h e t r i k a y a , and t h e appendix c o n t a i n s L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s

mature study o f t h e t o p i c . Having t r a n s l a t e d b o t h t h i s t e x t and t h e Abhidhar-

makosa and s t u d i e d much o f t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e , he has r e p l a c e d t h e v i t r i o l

of h i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s with concrete references. While no n e a r e r t o h i s •

 29

grand p l a n o f 1913, he has a more r e a l i s t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the problem.

1. Ces notes sur l e s corps du Bouddha sont presque

exclusivement d'ordre dogmatique. De t o u t e e v i d e n c e , l a
s p e c u l a t i o n et l e s i n v e n t i o n s de l ' e c o l e ont l e u r s causes
l o i n t a i n e s ou proches dans l e s r e l i g i o n , c u l t e , m y t h o l o g i e ,
i c o n o g r a p h i e . En p l u s i e u r s r e n c o n t r e s , l a c h r o n o l o g i e ne
t r o u v e d'appui que dans l e s monuments f i g u r e s . La d e s c r i p -
t i o n des t h e o r i e s a b s t r a i t e s n'est qu'une p a r t i e , non
n e g l i g e a b l e , d ' h i s t o i r e de l a bouddhologie.

Ces notes ne sont pas meme un s a s t r a . N ' e c r i t pas un

s a s t r a q u i veut. De graves l a c u n e s : l e Sraddhotpada
deliberement exclu.. ( v o i r p. *j6k, 788); l e s grands S u t r a s ,
t e l s l e L o t u s , l e L a n k a v a t a r a , a p e i n e examines; l e s v a r i -
antes des S a s t r a s f o r t imparfaitement resumees, et 1'echeveau
des s e c t e s c h i n o i s e s insoupconne ( v o i r D e m i e v i l l e , Sur
1 ' a u t h e n t i c i t y . . . ) ; sans p a r l e r de l a t h e o r i e des corps
a p p l i q u e . au pantheon. Notre propos e t a i t d ' e t u d i e r l e s
antecedents des d o c t r i n e s de l a S i d d h i , c a r r i e r e du B o d h i -
s a t t v a , T a t h a t a et l e r e s t e . I I e s t a t t e i n t s i nous avons
montre qu'Asahga e s t au bout d'une l i g n e s p e c u l a t i v e t o u t e
bouddhique.

2. F a u t - i l a j o u t e r que c e t t e l i g n e e s t , a u s s i b i e n ,
i n d i e n n e ? — S i Gaudapada emprunte des e x p r e s s i o n s bouddhiques,
b i e n p l u s , s'empare des t e x t e s p r i s dans l e s C o r b e i l l e s ,
Mahamati s ' i n q u i e t e s i l e Bouddha du Lankavatara ne v e d a n t i s e
pas. On p o u r r a i t d i r e que l e L o k o t t a r a v a d a k r i s h n a i s e .

La d o c t r i n e des t r o i s corps nous a p p a r a i t comme e x c l u -

sivement f a i t e de materiaux bouddhiques: mais e l l e a ete
e l a b o r e e dans un pays ou l ' o n a d o r a i t des A v a t a r s , ou l ' o n
e t a i t anxieux de L'Absolu. Le cocher d'Arjuna e s t un
nirmanakaya: l e corps sublime q u ' i l montre a A r j u n a , corps
v i s i b l e aux s e u l s Y o g i n s , ' e s t l e sambhogakaya q u i • e s t v i s i b l e
aux s e u l s B o d h i s a t t v a s ; et 1 ' i n e f f a b l e Brahman correspond au
svabhavikakaya ou, mieux encore, a l a t a t h a t a . La comparaison
des deux systemes s'impose.

3. Je s e r a i p l u s r e s e r v e en ce q u i c o n c e r n e . l e s i n f l u -
ences i r a n i e n n e s , o c c i d e n t a l e s , j u d e o - c h r e t i e n n e s q u ' a u r a i e n t
subies l e Bouddhisme (pp. 8 l l - 8 l 2 ) .

La V a l l e e P o u s s i n b e g i n s w i t h an e x c e l l e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y (which has been

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the p r e s e n t study) and then surveys the v a r i o u s kaya t h e o r i e s

t o be found i n Buddhist t e x t s . T h i s survey may be summarized as f o l l o w s :

 30

a. P a l i Canon t h e o r i e s

The Nikayas d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e kayas:

— caturmahabhumikakaya: t h e c o r r u p t i b l e body composed o f the f o u r elements.

— manomayakaya: the body i n which t h e Buddha v i s i t s the Brahma w o r l d or i n

which he appears as Mara i n the Mara realm.

— dharmakaya: the body o f t e a c h i n g . Only m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a "body."

b. Sarvastivadin theories

The Abhidharmakosa mentions t h r e e kayas:

— Dharmakaya: the c o l l e c t i o n o f anasrava but samskrta dharmas which form a

Buddha.

— Vipakakaya o r Rupakaya: t h e body, born i n Lumbini' p o s s e s s i n g the t h i r t y - t w o

laksanas.

— Nirmanakaya: the a p p a r i t i o n a l body c r e a t e d by the Buddha.

c. Lokottaravadin theory

The L o k o t t a r a v a d i n s h e l d the Buddha t o be composed o f dharmas unconnected

w i t h the t h r e e dhatus (e.g., o f t a t h a t a and t a t h a t a j n a n a ) w h i l e a p p e a r i n g i n

the w o r l d by an a r t i f i c i a l body.

d. The B o d h i s a t t v a and Buddha o f the Ta Chih Tu Lun

Although La V a l l e e P o u s s i n was unable t o e x t r a c t a coherent system from

t h i s t e x t he has summarized the v a r i o u s i d e a s i t c o n t a i n s . As we now have

i+ 5
Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n and a s y s t e m a t i c study i t i s c l e a r t h a t a two-kaya

model i s b a s i c t o t h i s t e x t . However, i t a l s o c o n t a i n s , i n a v e r y d i s o r g a n i z e d
 31

s t a t e , most o f the elements which f e d i n t o the t r i k a y a theory.

e. Theories o f Asanga-Dharmapala

These i n c l u d e the mature t h r e e and f o u r - k a y a t h e o r i e s o f such t e x t s as

the Y o g a s a s t r a , the Ahhisamayalankara and the Mahayanasamgraha. La V a l l e e

P o u s s i n t h i n k s t h a t a l l o f t h e s e t e a c h the same d o c t r i n e i n d i f f e r e n t ways.

f. Variant theories

A number o f t e x t s i n t r o d u c e v a r i a t i o n s on Asanga's s t a n d a r d system. These

i n c l u d e Vasubandhu's Saddharmapundarikasastra, the Suvarnaprabhasa, the

Lankavatara and the Avatamsaka. He surveys, v e r y b r i e f l y the kayas mentioned

i n each t e x t .

g. The E t e r n a l Buddha

T h i s survey o f v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s about the duration o f a Buddha's existence

r a i s e s p o i n t s r e l e v a n t t o our study, but La V a l l e e P o u s s i n f a i l s t o r e l a t e i t

to h i s other comments.

In b r i e f , La V a l l e e P o u s s i n r e t a i n s the h i s t o r i c a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a l approach

of h i s e a r l i e s t w r i t i n g s . He continues t o view the t h e o r y o f the early

V i j n a n a v a d a masters as " t h e " t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e and t o c o n s i d e r later develop-

ments as new i d e a s or d e v i a t i o n s from the b a s i c d o c t r i n e . 'He does not review

or r e p u d i a t e h i s notes o f 1 9 1 3 , so we may assume t h a t t h e s e s t i l l represent

his basic interpretations.

 32

10. D. T. S u z u k i . Studies i n the Lankavatara S u t r a . London: Routledge &

Kegan Paul L t d . , 1932, pp. 308-338.

T h i s e x p o s i t i o n o f the t r i k a y a i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t i n Suzuki's

1906 Outlines. Not o n l y has he l e a r n e d more about the d o c t r i n e , "but he

r e a l i z e d t h a t a developmental study i s a b e t t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r Western

r e a d e r s than a simple C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n . He quotes e x t e n s i v e l y from t h r e e

s o u r c e s : the L a n k a v a t a r a s u t r a , the Suvarnaprabhasasutra and t h e Mahayana-

sraddhotpada. In the f i r s t he f i n d s many elements o f the d o c t r i n e but no

actual trikaya. In the second he f i n d s the f u l l t r i k a y a , and i n the t h i r d he

f i n d s the mature t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e o f the Sino-Japanese tradition.

Most o f t h i s passage i s devoted t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the s e p a r a t e e l e -

ments found i n the L a n k a v a t a r a . These a r e : a Dharmakaya and a Dharmata-Buddha

which were t o become t h e Dharmakaya o f the t r i k a y a , a Nirmana-Buddha which was

to become the Nirmanakaya, and Nisyanda-Buddhas and Vipaka-Buddhas which were

the f o r e r u n n e r s o f the Sambhogakaya and the Nirmanakaya.

Suzuki t a k e s v e r y s e r i o u s l y the q u e s t i o n o f why each o f t h e s e concepts

a r o s e , a l t h o u g h h i s answers are n a i v e . The Dharmakaya d e r i v e s from an " i n n a t e

i d e a " t h a t g r e a t men are immortal (p. 31^). A major reason f o r the Sambhoga-

kaya i s man's

. . . deep human l o n g i n g f o r a body o f t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n .

We are not s a t i s f i e d w i t h our c o r p o r e a l e x i s t e n c e , we are a l l
the time oppressed by the f e e l i n g o f imprisonment, our s p i r i t
soars away from t h i s w o r l d o f p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s , we l o n g
f o r e v e r f o r a manomayakaya ( w i l l - b o d y ) . T h i s p h y s i c a l body
does not f u l l y express the meaning o f t h e s p i r i t , i t deranges,
i t tyrannises. In f a c t a l l the r e l i g i o u s s t r u g g l e s and
a s p i r a t i o n s we e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s l i f e are c e n t e r e d on the
c o n t r o l o f t h i s body.-.(p. 331).

Suzuki's p r i m a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n here i s h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e mechanism

 33

whereby t h e Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya (or e q u i v a l e n t Lankavatara terms)

appear i n the w o r l d . He understands t h a t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n must remain f o c u s s e d

on the B o d h i s a t t v a vow (p. 233). He a l s o r e a l i z e s t h a t t h i s vow s e t s i n motion

a s e r i e s o f c a u s a l l y - r e l a t e d events w i t h i n the w o r l d , r a t h e r than an irruption

o f s a c r e d r e a l i t y i n t o the w o r l d .

The n a t u r e o f a Vipaka-Buddha i s t h a t o f a Nishyanda-

Buddha when t h i s i s understood i n the sense o f a r e s u l t
f l o w i n g from an antecedent cause, t h a t i s , as one o f t h e f i v e
e f f e c t s ( p a n c a p h a l a ) , .and not i n t h e sense o f something
secondary w h i c h i i s s u e s out o f a more p r i m a r y substance; . . .
(p. 330).

Suzuki does not e x p l o r e a l l the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s p o i n t ; he does mention

the major one. The a s p i r a n t cannot be a p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t o f the Buddha's a i d

but i s h i m s e l f n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e d i n the appearance o f t h e Buddha i n the

world. That i s , the Nirmana-Buddha i s a r e l a t i o n a l concept.

Thus, the e x i s t e n c e o f the Nirmana-Buddha can be under-

stood i n two ways: one from the s t a n d p o i n t o f the Buddha
h i m s e l f , whose l o v i n g h e a r t cannot h e l p r e s o r t i n g t o every
p o s s i b l e means o f s a l v a t i o n , and the o t h e r from the s t a n d -
p o i n t o f s i n f u l m o r t a l s who d e s i r e every p o s s i b l e h e l p from
a power h i g h e r than themselves. T h i s m u t u a l i t y has f i l l e d
the w o r l d w i t h N i r m i t a - n a i r m a n i k a Buddhas * Wherever we t u r n
we come a c r o s s one o f t h e s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , and i f we are
earnest and s i n c e r e and l o n g i n g from the depths o f the h e a r t ,
we can see even the r e a l Buddha h i m s e l f i n and through them
(p. 333).

A s i d e from t h i s v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t , t h i s work i s s t i l l b a d l y flawed by

appeals t o human n a t u r e , r a t h e r than t o V i j n a n a v a d i n theory.- F o r example,

The r e l a t i o n o f the t h r e e Buddhas t o one another may

be understood i n the analogy o f an i n d i v i d u a l person; That
t h e r e i s something u l t i m a t e making up t h e reason o f t h i s
i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t e n c e i s t o be g r a n t e d , because the v e r y
c o n c e p t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y i s i m p o s s i b l e without p o s t u l a t i n g
something b e h i n d i t . . . . T h i s corresponds t o the concep-
t i o n o f the Dharmata, or when p e r s o n i f i e d , t o the Pharma'ta-
Buddha.
 3^

Now t h i s i n d i v i d u a l person stands i n every p o s s i b l e

manner o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s f e l l o w - b e i n g s , human o r o t h e r -
wise. . . . In t h e case o f a l i v i n g person t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y ,
temporal and c o n s t a n t , reaches i t s l i m i t s . The person him-
s e l f has not a p p a r e n t l y changed b u t he assumes o r seems t o
assume d i f f e r e n t forms t o h i s neighbours, May not t h i s
aspect o f h i s b e i n g be c a l l e d h i s Nirmana value? In s p i t e
o f a l l t h e s e e x t e r n a l and r e l a t i o n a l m u t a t i o n s , t h e i n d i -
v i d u a l has not at a l l changed t o h i s own c o n s c i o u s n e s s . That
he i s h i m s e l f he at a l l times knows and he enjoys h i s p e r -
sonality. T h i s corresponds t o t h e Vipaka-Buddha, o r
Sambhogakaya.

Every c o n s c i o u s b e i n g may thus f i g u r a t i v e l y or r a t h e r

m e t a p h y s i c a l l y be s a i d t o be t h e owner o f t h e T r i p l e Body.
In t h e case o f the Buddha, t h e d o c t r i n e i s f i l l e d w i t h
r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e and i t has p l a y e d a most important
r o l e i n t h e development o f Mahayana Buddhism. One t h i n g we
have t o n o t i c e here i s the r e p l a c i n g o f t h e B u d d h a - t r i n i t y
by t h a t o f t h e Body (kaya). That Buddhist p h i l o s o p h e r s have
come t o t a l k o f t h e T r i k a y a i n s t e a d o f Buddhatraya. I t i s
not a matter o f mere change o f t e r m i n o l o g y , i t i n v o l v e s a
deeper meaning. The r e a s o n i s t h a t Kaya has a more synthe-
s i s i n g v a l u e , w h i l e Buddha suggests more o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
The t h r e e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f Buddhahood make one t h i n k o f
t h r e e d i f f e r e n t , separate i n d i v i d u a l s , but t h e T r i k a y a means
one p e r s o n a l i t y w i t h t h r e e a s p e c t s . In t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f
the T r i p l e Body we t r a c e a s y s t e m a t i s i n g thought (pp.- 3 3 3 - 3 3 M .

T h i s analogy i s not o n l y vague, b u t , as we s h a l l see l a t e r , i t i s i n c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h Asanga's f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a doctrine.

11. Hobogirin: D i c t i o n n a i r e encyclopedique du bouddhisme, s.v. " B u s s h i n , " n.d.,

f a s c . 2: lT"+-l85.

This a r t i c l e i s a wide-ranging examination o f a l l Buddhakaya (Japanese:.

Busshin) t h e o r i e s i n c l u d i n g t h e t r i k a y a . Most o f t h e a r t i c l e i s a survey o f

Buddhist t e x t s which mention the v a r i o u s Buddhakayas. A b r i e f statement of

t h e p l a c e o f each t e x t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f Buddhism i s f o l l o w e d by a summary o f

r e l e v a n t passages. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e b i b l i o -

graphy o f t h e p r e s e n t study.
 35

In a d d i t i o n , i n the "Apergu G e n e r a l , " t h e a u t h o r ^ proposes a simple t h e o r y

o f t h e development o f v a r i o u s Buddhakayas. He suggests t h a t the d i v e r s e conno-

t a t i o n s o f "Buddhakaya" developed from an ambiguity i n the term kaya. I t meant

both:

— an o r g a n i z e d body or organism, i n t h e sense o f n i k a y a .

— a m a t e r i a l o r c o n c r e t e mass.

The e a r l y Buddhist community, needing an o b j e c t o f worship, substituted

the t e a c h i n g (= Dharmakaya) f o r the d e p a r t e d Buddha.

Others developed more complex Buddhologies, The Mahasamghikas h e l d t h a t

the Buddha was e n t i r e l y transcendent. Others s a i d t h a t the p u r e l y human Buddha

d i s a p p e a r e d at the p a r i n i r v a n a , but t h a t the "buddha elements" p e r s i s t e d . This

d i v i s i o n i n t o a form-body and dharma-body harmonized w i t h the t w o - t r u t h i d e a

and and c o n t i n u e d i n the e a r l y Mahayana s c h o o l s , based on t h e M a h a p a r i n i r -

v a n a s u t r a and the P r a j n a p a r a m i t a s u t r a s . The Avatamsaka, on t h e o t h e r hand,

m u l t i p l i e d bodies u n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .

The V i j n a n a v a d i n master Asanga f o r m u l a t e d the d e f i n i t i v e t r i k a y a doctrine

on the b a s i s o f i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n such s u t r a s as the L a n k a v a t a r a . In the mid-

s i x t h c e n t u r y , Paramartha a r r i v e d l i n China and announced t h a t I n d i a had fixed

the d o c t r i n e . T h i s was included i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the Sraddhotpadasastra

and i n the c h a p t e r added t o the Suvarnaprabhasasutra. The T ' i e n - T ' a i and

-other groups b u i l t on this.

The author concludes w i t h a warning t h a t i n s u f f i c i e n t documentation is

a v a i l a b l e f o r a p r o p e r h i s t o r y o f the t r i k a y a t o be w r i t t e n .

This a r t i c l e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l essay on the p r i m a r y t e x t u a l

sources. As such i t i s a p r i m a r y r e f e r e n c e work f o r t h i s study, but c o n t a i n s

few i d e a s which c o u l d be a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a .

12. A. K. Chatterjee. The Yogacara I d e a l i s m . V a r a n a s i : Benaras Hindu

University, 1962.

T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the V i j n a n a v a d a seems t o r e p r e s e n t contemporary

I n d i a n s c h o l a r s h i p on the s u b j e c t . C h a t t e r j e e sees t h e Tathagata as the

u n i f y i n g Buddhological concept:

The Tathagata o c c u p i e s t h e same-place i n Buddhism as

I s v a r a does i n A d v a i t a Vedanta. He i s the God o f r e l i g i o n ,
an o b j e c t o f worship and v e n e r a t i o n . He has a l s o i n f i n i t e
compassion f o r the s u f f e r i n g mankind but f o r Whose grace
t h e i r redemption would not be p o s s i b l e (p. 223).

C h a t t e r j e e d i s c u s s e s the n e c e s s i t y and the l o g i c a l t e n a b i l i t y o f t h i s

concept, and then expounds h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t h r e e kayas o f t h e

Tathagata. He draws a l l s u p p o r t i n g r e f e r e n c e s from the Mahayahasutralankara

The concept o f the Tathagata i s c o n s t i t u t e d by d i f f e r e n t

metaphysical p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s f a c t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the
t h e o r y o f the t h r e e kayas o f the Buddha. I t i s one o f the
most important d o c t r i n e s i n t h e whole o f Mahayana r e l i g i o n
and i t i s n o t h i n g p e c u l i a r t o the Yogacara who a c c e p t e d the
traditional doctrine.

There are t h r e e a s p e c t s o f the God-head, t e c h n i c a l l y

known as the t h r e e kayas o f the T a t h a g a t a . They a r e :
1. The Svabhavika kaya. 2. The Sambhoga kaya and
3. The Nairmanika kaya.

1. The Svabhavikakaya o f the Buddha i s the p r i n c i p l e o r

pure W i l l (visuddha T a t h a t a ) which i s t h e . u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y .
-

As such He i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the A b s o l u t e . It i s also called

dharma-kaya, b e i n g the dharmata (essence) o f t h i n g s . I t s
e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r ( l a k s a n a ) i s a s r a y a p a r a v r t t i , i . e . , the
withdrawing or r e t r a c t i n g o f t h e Kl&ya. When under the i n f l u -
ence o f A v i d y a , the i l l u s i o n o f o b j e c t i v i t y , t h e A l a y a i s
compelled i n t o a forward movement. I t goes on c r e a t i n g forms
o f o b j e c t i v i t y which i n t h e i r t u r n f u r t h e r r e p l e n i s h i t . On
the s u b l a t i o n o f t h i s d i s t u r b i n g i l l u s i o n a r e t r a c t i n g move-
ment o f t h i s A l a y a i s s t a r t e d . I t no l o n g e r p o s i t s an o t h e r
but r e s t s i n i t s e l f . T h i s i s the s t a t e o f V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a ,
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s as pure A c t . I t i s the dharmakaya o f the
Buddha and i s His n a t u r a l a s p e c t .
 37

Being e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h the A b s o l u t e , the

q u e s t i o n o f the number o f Buddhas has no meaning. . . .
The dharmakaya o f a l l the Buddhas i s i d e n t i c a l , as a l l are
i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e A b s o l u t e . I t i s a l s o beyond thought as
t h i s i d e n t i t y cannot be grasped, w i t h mere c o n c e p t s .

2. The second aspect o f the Buddha i s H i s Sambhogika

kaya — His body o f B l i s s . I t i s t h i s body w i t h which the
Buddha enjoys H i s c r e a t i o n (dharmasambhoga). Strictly
s p e a k i n g , t h i s i s the concept o f God par e x c e l l e n c e . A l l
the g l o r i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the Buddha found i n the
s c r i p t u r e s , e.g., r a y s emanating from the innumerable pores
o f H i s s k i n and p e n e t r a t i n g t o the remotest c o r n e r s o f t h e
u n i v e r s e , p e r t a i n t o t h i s kaya. The Buddha d w e l l s i n the
A k a n i s t h a Heaven, surrounded by a host o f B o d h i s a t t v a s and
o t h e r minor personages. Sambhoga kaya i s the p e r s o n a l i t y
o f the supreme God, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a l l powers and e x c e l -
lences. I t i s comparable t o the concept o f God i n the
Brahmanical systems which f i n d s the b e s t i l l u s t r a t i o n i n
the e l e v e n t h c h a p t e r o f the Bhagavad G i t a .

3. The Nairmanika Kaya i s t h e a p p a r i t i o n a l body o f the

Buddha. Hence one i s e x p l i c i t l y warned t h a t the human form
which the L o r d might t e m p o r a r i l y assume s h o u l d by no means
be mistaken f o r H i s r e a l body. T h i s assumption i s s o l e l y
f o r the purpose o f l e n d i n g succour t o mankind. The forms
assumed can be i n f i n i t e i n number. . . . Whereas the body
o f B l i s s c h a r a c t e r i s e s such q u a l i t i e s e x i s t i n g f o r the sake
of others. . . .

In s h o r t , the human Buddha who i s o r d i n a r i l y seen i n

the v a r i o u s worlds and e x e m p l i f i e d i n d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s
i s the nirmanakaya o f the Buddha. I t i s o f t h i s kaya t h a t
any h i s t o r i c i t y can be a s c r i b e d . That body which i s v i s i b l e
t o some heavenly b e i n g s i s H i s Sambhogakaya which o b v i o u s l y
has no h i s t o r i c i t y . But b o t h the Kayas are h i s f r e e assump-
tions. The u t t e r i n d i v i s i b i l i t y . . . o f any form i s H i s
Dharmakaya. T h i s i s H i s r e a l essence. The Sambhogakaya i s
the supreme God w h i l e the Nirmana kaya i s the Sakyamuni who
a c t u a l l y took b i r t h amongst us (pp. 230-232).

C h a t t e r j e e o f f e r s l i t t l e more than d i d Coomaraswamy i n 19l6. The inter-

v e n i n g developmental s t u d i e s have been i g n o r e d and the d o c t r i n e t r e a t e d as

r e v e a l e d dogma. H i s t o r i c a l a s s e r t i o n s , i . e . , t h a t the t r i k a y a was a general

Buddhist d o c t r i n e , not a V i j n a n a v a d i n development, are not j u s t i f i e d . All

i n f o r m a t i o n i s drawn from a s i n g l e e a r l y t e x t which i s not one seen as c e n t r a l

 38

by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s . The g r e a t e x e g e t i c a l t r e a t i s e s i n which such t e x t s

were d i s c u s s e d and c l a r i f i e d are i g n o r e d i n f a v o r o f t h e b l i n d assumption t h a t

the V i j n a n a v a d a i s a l l but i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e Vedanta. The r e s u l t i n g e x p l a n a -

t i o n i s simple and p r e d i c t a b l e but u s e l e s s as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r studies.

13. Matsunaga, Alicia. The Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y o f A s s i m i l a t i o n . Tokyo:

Monumenta l i p p o n i c a Monograph, 1969.

T h i s book i s t y p i c a l o f modern p o p u l a r works on Buddhism i n E n g l i s h -

.published from Japan. I t promises to-be p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t " t© our

e n q u i r y as i t t a k e s a developmental approach, showing how certain doctrines

became i n t e g r a t i v e c e n t e r s around which new i d e a s c o a l e s c e d as t h e s e - d o c t r i n e s

developed and as Buddhism s p r e a d t o C h i n a and Japan.

The book does not l i v e up t o i t s " i n i t i a l promise.

-
While t h e passages on

the h i s t o r y o f t h e Buddhology are c l e a r ( a l t h o u g h adding n o t h i n g t o t h e

H o b o g i r i n a c c o u n t ) , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which the authors d e r i v e from i t i s , '.,

at least to this writer, u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . Each e x p l a n a t i o n i n v o l v e s an a p p e a l

to some ambiguous, u n d e f i n e d European term. While t h e s e terms may not be

ambiguous w i t h i n t h e modern Japanese academic community, t h e Western r e a d e r o f

a work w r i t t e n i n E n g l i s h expects a shared t e r m i n o l o g y . F o r example, the

trikaya section opens:

H i s t o r i c a l l y , i n Buddhism t h e r e have always been at l e a s t

t h r e e p o i n t s o f view i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e 'Buddha'; f i r s t , as a
human b e i n g , second as a s p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e , and l a s t l y , as
something i n between t h e two former views. The a c t u a l h i s t o r -
i c a l e x i s t e n c e o f Gotama (Skt. Gautama) Buddha has never had
a tremendous s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e Buddhist f a i t h , as' he has
been p r i m a r i l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be an a r c h e t y p e , and s e c o n d l y
a h i s t o r i c a l personage (p. 78).

" S p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e " — s u r e l y the l e a s t m e a n i n g f u l term p o s s i b l e — i s not

 39

explained. The statement c o n c e r n i n g the h i s t o r i c a l e x i s t e n c e o f Gautama would

require an e n t i r e chapter o f development b e f o r e i t would be a c c e p t e d (or even

rejected). What i s meant by "archetype"? That term was popularized by C. G.

Jung, but h i s use o f i t cannot be s t r e t c h e d t o cover the manner i n which

ancient B u d d h i s t s r e g a r d e d the Buddha. Even the n o t i o n t h a t the t r a d i t i o n had

a concept o f a " h i s t o r i c a l " Buddha i s q u e s t i o n a b l e ( C a r o l i n e Rhys-Davids n o t -

withstanding). I f i t d i d , s u r e l y t h i s i n d i v i d u a l was j u s t t h a t Gautama^ "Buddha

who, our author- maintains, was

-
p r i m a r i l y an a r c h e t y p e , not a historical indi-

vidual. But more b a s i c a l l y , i n s e p a r a t i n g a r c h e t y p e and historical individual,

is the author:' not d i v i d i n g the e s s e n t i a l from the e x i s t e n t i a l , the one move

which many o t h e r s c h o l a r s agree i s t o t a l l y a g a i n s t the spirit o f the trikaya

doctrine?

The remainder o f the exposition i s i n two p a r t s : the t r i k a y a as r e l i g i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e and the t r i k a y a as p h i l o s o p h i c a l d o c t r i n e . The d i s t i n c t i o n between

t h e s e , or even the grounds f o r making the d i s t i n c t i o n , i s not stated. Both

seem t o i n v o l v e t h e o r y a l t h o u g h the "philosophical" discussion seems t o involve

more Madhyamika and the " r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e " s e c t i o n seems t o i n v o l v e more

Vijnanavada.

The p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u s s i o n opens as follows:

P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , the Dharma-kaya i s e q u i v a l e n t t o sunyata,

the u n i v e r s a l t r u t h d e c l a r i n g t h a t a l l s u b j e c t - o b j e c t d i f f e r -
e n t i a t i o n based upon d i s c r i m i n a t i v e knowledge i s i n v a l i d . In
more p o s i t i v e terms t h i s can be equated w i t h the essence o f
Enlightenment ( n i r v a n a ) which merely c o n s i s t s o f an under-
s t a n d i n g o f P r a t f t y a samutpada ( r e l a t i v i t y ) or the a b i l i t y t o
view t h a t - w h a t - i s - a s - i t - i s ( t a t h a t t ) . We can t h e r e f o r e say
t h a t the Dharma-kaya. i s a l s o the system o f cosmic u n i t y or
o r d e r t h a t e x i s t s everywhere but i s unable t o be grasped by
reasoning.

S i n c e the Dharma-kaya f u n c t i o n s as a u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , i t
cannot remain a mere p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e , but c o n s t a n t l y
 1+0

appears i n r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . Such an appearance o r reali-

z a t i o n o f t h i s t r u t h i s the Sambhoga-kaya.,

... In essence, the Sambhoga-k.aya i s a l s o the e x p e r i -

ence o f 'enjoyment' o f the t r u t h o f stonyata, o r the r e a l i z a t i o n
o f A b s o l u t e T r u t h . . . t h e Sambhoga-kaya i s not a s t a t i c s t a t e .
From t h i s r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e t h e r e comes the n a t u r a l d e s i r e
t o e n l i g h t e n o t h e r s and hence t h e Nirmana-kaya o r system o f
t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the essence o f Enlightenment (sunyata)
i s s u e s forth'.to a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . T h i s l a s t f u n c t i o n or
aspect o f Enlightenment i s s i m i l a r t o the concept o f sunyata
a r t h a or f e a t u r e o f r e c o g n i z i n g the phenomenal w o r l d as based
upon d i s c r i m i n a t i v e knowledge and u s i n g upaya t o l e a d s e n t i e n t
b e i n g s from d i s c r i m i n a t i v e knowledge t o Enlightenment (pp. 8 l -
82).

Comment i s h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y . Every major problem i s brushed aside. The

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the Dharmakaya t o sunyata i s one o f " e q u i v a l e n c e . " The

Sambhogakaya i s the r e a l i z a t i o n o f the A b s o l u t e T r u t h , and the Nirmanakaya i s

due t o a " n a t u r a l d e s i r e . " I can see o n l y the s l i g h t e s t c o n n e c t i o n between

all o f t h i s and the c l a s s i c a l V i j n a n a v a d a theory.

As r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , the t r i k a y a i s d e s c r i b e d by a confused scattering

of Vijnanavada ideas:

I t was the Yogacara" w i t h t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s - '

ness ( v i j n a n a ) as the b a s i s o f Enlightenment t h a t gave a
s y s t e m a t i c form t o the d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i k a y a , and i t was
t h i s form t h a t permeated a l l l a t e r Mahayana. The e a r l i e s t
stage o f t h e Yog&c&fa c o n c e p t i o n can be found i n .the Lanka-
vatara Sutra. . . .

In t h e f i n a l form o f t h e T r i k a y a t h e o r y t h e Dharma-kaya
became t h e aspect o f Buddhahood as A b s o l u t e T r u t h or r e a l i t y ,
w h i l e the Sambhoga-kaya and Nirmana-kaya were upaya or mani-
f e s t a t i o n s o f the Dharma-kaya t a i n t e d by degrees o f i l l u s i o n
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the phenomenal w o r l d ,
hence h a v i n g form. We can compare b o t h the Sambhoga-kaya
and Nirmana-kaya t o m i r r o r s r e f l e c t i n g the p u r i t y o f l i g h t
from the U n c o n d i t i o n e d Dharma-kaya. The former i s a l i g h t
and g l o r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n , but i t i s s t i l l a m i r r o r a t t e m p t i n g
t o c a p t u r e the r a y s o f the i n f i n i t e and i n d e s c r i b a b l e at an
i d e a l l e v e l o f r e l i g i o u s r e a l i z a t i o n , i t i s f a r removed from
i t s source. The l a t t e r tends t o be a dark r e f l e c t i o n , .since
i t i s c l o u d e d by i t s appearance i n the phenomenal w o r l d t h a t
 Ill

can o n l y f a i n t l y glimpse the dim r e f l e c t i o n i t c a r r i e s o f

the Absolute Truth.

From the sphere o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , the Yogacara

were a b l e t o t e a c h t h a t the Sambhoga-kaya and Nirmana-kaya
r e p r e s e n t e d mind-made emanations from the Dharma-kaya o r one
e t e r n a l Buddha. Both t h e s e l a t t e r forms a p p e a r i n g i n t h e
i l l u s i v e w o r l d were u n r e a l , j u s t as a l l phenomenal e x i s t e n c e
i s u n r e a l . . . . From such a b a s i s o f r e l i g i o u s understand-
i n g i t i s easy t o comprehend t h e source o f Mahayana m y s t i c i s m .
The Yogacara emphasis.upon.the r e l i g i o u s .experience o f E n l i g h t -
enment symbolized as the T r i k a y a as w e l l as the importance
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s as the b a s i s f o r the movement towards
Enlightenment n a t u r a l l y p l a c e d a h i g h e r v a l u e upon m y s t i c a l
e x p e r i e n c e than e m p i r i c a l knowledge (pp. 83-85).

Wot o n l y does a l l o f t h i s a v o i d the r e a l q u e s t i o n s but i t l e a v e s a

s u s p i c i o n t h a t the authors may not be w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l Vijna-

navadin t h e o r y . Was t h e r e ever a s c h o o l which d i d not r e g a r d c o n s c i o u s n e s s

Q

as the b a s i s o f enlightenment? S u r e l y Suzuki i s correct i n saying that

V i j n a n a v a d a i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by i t s t h e o r y o f the mechanics o f the e n l i g h t e n -

ment p r o c e s s ( i . e . , the asraya-paravrtti).

However, the most s e r i o u s doubts a r i s e from the constant use o f o n t o l o g -

i c a l models. Such phrases as " t a i n t e d by degrees of i l l u s i o n i n r e l a t i o n to

t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the phenomenal w o r l d " seem i n c o n s i s t e n t with'the

t r i s v a b h a v a b a s i s o f the system. T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be taken up l a t e r when

examining Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha.

1^. Geoffrey Parrinder. A v a t a r and I n c a r n a t i o n : The Wilde L e c t u r e s i n N a t u r a l

and Comparative R e l i g i o n i n the U n i v e r s i t y o f Oxford. London: Faber

and Faber, 1970.

The p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e s have been the work o f s c h o l a r s o f Buddhism or

Buddhist a p o l o g i s t s . I t might be argued t h a t t h e i r p r i m a r y t a s k was not t o

produce an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n but t o p r e s e n t the l i t e r a t u r e and c o n s t r u c t a h i s t o r y

 o f i t s development* The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e data might he c o n s i d e r e d a

t a s k f o r the g e n e r a l i s t such as the student o f comparative religion, history

o f r e l i g i o n , and so on.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , few g e n e r a l i s t s have d e a l t w i t h the t o p i c . The present

work by P a r r i n d e r i s the most p r o m i s i n g treatment. As he b e g i n s the s i x t y - p a g e

s e c t i o n devoted t o Buddhism by n o t i n g the apparent anomaly o f a Nirmanakaya

r e s e m b l i n g an a v a t a r or i n c a r n a t i o n i n t h i s - n o n - t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n , i t i s

r e a s o n a b l e t o expect him t o speak d i r e c t l y t o our concern — t o d e r i v e a frame

o f r e f e r e n c e broad enough t o accommodate b o t h Western t h e i s t i c and Buddhist

ideas. T h i s would be t h e key t o i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e t r i k a y a .

No such d e r i v a t i o n i s f o r t h c o m i n g . The b u l k o f the r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s i s

simply a s y n o p s i s o f the Buddha myth from v a r i o u s s u t r a s . P a r r i n d e r seems

unaware o f the s a s t r a s and b a d l y informed about the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e — n o t one

o f the s t u d i e s i n t h i s p r e s e n t survey o f s c h o l a r s h i p appears in his bibliog-

raphy. With the e x c e p t i o n o f Lamotte's H i s t o i r e du bouddhisme i n d i e n , h i s

secondary sources are the l e a s t r e l i a b l e o f a l l the p o p u l a r i z e r s . From them

he has a c c e p t e d a s t a r t l i n g assortment o f misunderstandings as s i m p l e d a t a :

. . . t h e Buddha was. a c t u a l l y a l l the Buddhas o f the

p a s t . . . . The c o r p o r e a l l i f e o f a Buddha was i l l u s o r y
anyway . . . a l l the Buddhas have the same essence . . .
t h e y can appear i n v a r i o u s forms t o many b e i n g s . These are
acts of grace. . . . So the i d e a o f Buddhahood was d e v e l -
oped i n t o a u n i v e r s a l pantheism, or r a t h e r pan-Buddhism . . .
(p. 178).

These sources a l s o s u p p l i e d him w i t h a v e r y d i s t o r t e d v e r s i o n o f the

t r i k a y a , o r r a t h e r w i t h t h e view t h a t the t r i k a y a was not important. Parrinder

d i d not take the t r i k a y a s e r i o u s l y at a l l : "The b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n was between

the p h y s i c a l body and Dharma-body, i t i s t h e s e two t h a t are u s u a l l y compared

 ^3

and contrasted" (p. 177).

From these i d e a s he draws a few g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s , t h e most important

h e i n g t h a t the Buddha t h e o r i e s are merely a "weak" (p. 2^0) form o f the avatar

d o c t r i n e and can he d i s m i s s e d along with i t .

A l l o f t h i s i n i t i a l l y appears as a p u z z l i n g n e g l i g e n c e on the p a r t of

such a r e s p e c t e d scholar. The p i c t u r e becomes c l e a r e r when, i n c h a p t e r s 17

and 19, P a r r i n d e r throws a s i d e h i s s c h o l a r l y g u i s e and r e v e a l s the polemical

t h e o l o g i a n who, on the b a s i s o f the e a r l i e r c o n c l u s i o n s , f i n d s a l l a l i e n

r e l i g i o n s wanting and exalts Christianity i n a ringing a l t a r . c a l l .

Although n e i t h e r Matsunaga nor P a r r i n d e r h e l p s us d i r e c t l y , their

books have been i n c l u d e d t o demonstrate how little o f the r e s e a r c h which has

been done has p e n e t r a t e d the p o p u l a r level. As most o t h e r w r i t e r s are f a r

more n a i v e than t h e s e , no o t h e r p o p u l a r works w i l l be reviewed.

15. Wagao, G a d j i n . "On the Theory o f Buddha-Body." T r a n s l a t e d by Hirano

Umeyo. E a s t e r n Buddhist, 6 (May, 1973): 25-53.

P r o f e s s o r Nagao approaches the t r i k a y a w i t h great sympathy, profound

knowledge o f the t e x t s , and a cautious a t t i t u d e .

In s e c t i o n one, he d i s c u s s e s the v a r i o u s i d e a s which f e d i n t o the t r i k a y a .

The section concludes:

I t was i n the p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Yogacara s c h o o l (or t h e

V i j n a n a - v a d a s c h o o l ) r e p r e s e n t e d by Asafiga and Vasubandhu
t h a t the two-body t h e o r y developed u n t i l i t was consummated
i n t o a three-body t h e o r y . The i d e a s and f a i t h s t h a t became ...
the m a t e r i a l s f o r the three-body t h e o r y must have been
e s t a b l i s h e d i n v a r i o u s forms b e f o r e t h a t time. There was
a l r e a d y a tendency toward the u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f the con-
cept o f Buddha. I t was thought t h a t Gautama Buddha was not
the o n l y Buddha; t h a t t h e r e had been many Buddhas i n the
p a s t , and t h e r e would be many Buddhas i n the f u t u r e ; and
 hk

t h a t a c t u a l l y t h e r e e x i s t e d innumerable Buddhas i n the

innumerable Buddha-lands i n the t e n d i r e c t i o n s . Thus, names
o f Buddhas, such as V a i r o c a n a , Aksobhya, Amitabha, Amitayus,
B h a i s a j y a - g u r u , and c o u n t l e s s o t h e r s had a l r e a d y been con-
ceived. I t was the Y o g a c a r a - v i j n a n a s c h o o l t h a t o r g a n i z e d
the three-body ( t r i - k a y a ) t h e o r y by s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e s e
c o n c e p t i o n s o f the Buddha (p. 3 0 ) .

S e c t i o n two d e a l s w i t h the Yogacara t r i k a y a . Nagao pays particular

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e Sambhogakaya and asks why t h e Sambhogakaya, s h a r i n g i n t h e

n a t u r e s o f b o t h Dharmakaya and Nirmanakaya, d i d not r e p l a c e b o t h o f them:

The sambhoghika-kaya, through t h i s double c h a r a c t e r ,

l i e s between the svabha*vika-kaya and nairmanika-kaya, s e r v -
i n g as a l i n k between t h e two. No, the sambhogika-kaya
r a t h e r o c c u p i e s the c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n the t r i p l e - b o d y doc-
t r i n e ; e s p e c i a l l y , the s o t e r i o l o g y i n Buddhism i s developed
r e v o l v i n g around the a x i s o f t h i s double c h a r a c t e r o f the
sambhogika-kaya. In t h i s sense, t h e sambhogika-kaya can be
c a l l e d the Buddha par e x c e l l e n c e . However, i f i t i s so, i t
might be p o s s i b l e t o say t h a t the one Buddha-body o f sambho-.
g i k a ^ k a y a i s s u f f i c i e n t , and n e i t h e r the svabhavika-kaya nor
the nairmanika-kaya i s n e c e s s a r y . I n f a c t , such a p o s i t i o n
i s p o s s i b l e , and i t might have been supported e s p e c i a l l y from
the s t a n d p o i n t o f r e l i g i o u s m o n o t h e i s t i c demand. But t h e
s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the Mahayanic d o c t r i n e o f Buddha-
body, l i e s i n the p e r s i s t e n t maintenance o f the t r i a n g u l a r
p o s i t i o n o f the t h r e e Buddha-bodies. For i n that respect
t h e r e i s something f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from e i t h e r the
one-body or the two-body t h e o r y . . . . The t h e o r e t i c p e r f e c -
t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e o f Buddha-body l i e s ' i n the t r i a n g u l a r
concept o f the t h r e e Buddha-bodies; the two-body t h e o r y
would be i n s u f f i c i e n t , and the four-body and o t h e r many-body
t h e o r i e s would be p l e t h o r i c i n p r i n c i p l e (pp. 3 7 , 3 8 - 3 9 ) .

Nagao b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s t r i a d i c scheme i s the key t o V i j n a n a v a d i n

Buddhology:

A l l the a t t r i b u t e s and v i r t u e s o f the Buddha were a l s o

c l a r i f i e d i n the system o f the trikaya,. As i t i s i m p o s s i b l e
t o d e s c r i b e them here one by one, I s h a l l o n l y g i v e a few
examples: the Buddha's wisdom was r e g a r d e d as an a t t r i b u t e
e s p e c i a l l y b e l o n g i n g t o t h e svabhavika-kaya; h i s w i l l
(asaya, vow) was e s p e c i a l l y t r e a t e d i n the sambhogika-kaya;
and h i s a c t s (buddha karman) e s p e c i a l l y i n the n a i f m a n i k a -
 kaya. But at the same t i m e , s i n c e the t h r e e Buddha-bodies
are not independent o f each o t h e r but are i n the r e l a t i o n
o f a b a s i s and a t h i n g based on i t , t h e s e v i r t u e s are a l s o
c o n s i d e r e d t r a n s f e r a b l e t o each o t h e r . S i m i l a r l y , the
e l u c i d a t i o n o f such q u e s t i o n s as whether t h e r e i s o n l y one
Buddha or o t h e r Buddhas numerous i n number, or f o r what
reason the Buddha i s s a i d t o be e v e r l a s t i n g and always
a b i d i n g , and so f o r t h , has been attempted through the s y s -
tem o f the t r i k a y a . I w i l l not go i n t o t h e s e problems h e r e ,
but I would say t h a t , i n s h o r t , t h e s e problems w i l l not
l i k e l y be answered t h o r o u g h l y without the t r i k a y a t h e o r y
(p. 3 8 ) .

In s e c t i o n t h r e e , Nagao develops h i s methodology through a c r i t i q u e o f

Coomaraswamy and C h a t t e r j e e ' s attempts t o r e l a t e the t r i k a y a t o C h r i s t i a n and

Hindu concepts. He concludes:

The t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e developed as a system w i t h a back-

ground o f t h e s e Mahayana c o n c e p t s , which i n t h e i r t u r n became
ever more s o l i d i f i e d by h a v i n g r e c o u r s e t o the t r i k a y a doc-
trine. T h e r e f o r e , we must say t h a t the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e i s
f a i r l y d i f f e r e n t from the T r i n i t y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y o r the
t r i m u r t i o f Hinduism (p. h2).

F i n a l l y Nagao p o i n t s out t h a t w h i l e the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e may explain a

Buddha's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t does not e x p l a i n how a-Buddha comfesf into', e x i s t e n c

I t i s t r u e t h a t by t h i s t r i k a y a t h e o r y the n a t u r e o f
the Buddha and a l l h i s v i r t u e s has been d e l i n e a t e d . But as
f o r how Gautama, a human b e i n g , was a b l e t o become a Buddha
p o s s e s s i n g v i r t u e s e q u a l t o those o f a d i v i n e b e i n g , almost
n o t h i n g has been s a i d i n t h e s e t h e o r i e s . How can a l e a p
from t h e r e l a t i v e w o r l d t o the a b s o l u t e w o r l d be made? S i n c e
Gautama was an e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s o n , as h i s d i s c i p l e s thought,
i t might have been p o s s i b l e f o r him t o become a Buddha by
d i n t o f h i s innumerable v i r t u o u s deeds accumulated i n t h e
past. But i f o n l y t h a t , Gautama would have o n l y been a
d i v i n e e x i s t e n c e from the b e g i n n i n g , and not a human b e i n g .
Moreover, t h a t would be a unique case f o r Gautama a l o n e , and
would not e x p l a i n a n y t h i n g about the e x i s t e n c e o f a l l the
Buddhas i n the t e n d i r e c t i o n s . In Mahayana Buddhism, i t i s
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o l d t h a t a l l l i v i n g b e i n g s are expected t o
a t t a i n Buddhahood, but t h e n , i t must be asked: In what way
i s i t p o s s i b l e f o r a common l i v i n g b e i n g t o become a Buddha?
 1+6

The p o s s i b i l i t y o f a l l l i v i n g b e i n g s a t t a i n i n g Buddha-
hood i s a problem t h a t seems t o have been answered from two
sides. One i s the i d e a t h a t i s m a i n l y advocated by the
tathagata-garbha (tathagata-matrix) theory. The other i s
the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s r a y a - p a r a v r t t i (the r e v o l v i n g o f the
b a s i s ) . . . (p. kk).

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s c o n s t i t u t e s the b u l k o f the article.

While t h i s s h o r t a r t i c l e o n l y touches upon each i s s u e , i t e s t a b l i s h e s a

r e a s o n a b l e model f o r a study. Nagao's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t the t r i k a y a i s an

i n t e g r a t i v e scheme w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a , and hence should be i n t e r p r e t e d by

reference t o the ideas i t i n c o r p o r a t e s , w i l l prevent much premature compar-

ative religion. His separation of questions about the s t r u c t u r e and function

o f the t r i k a y a from q u e s t i o n s about i t s o r i g i n s h o u l d p r e v e n t the historical

questions from o b s c u r i n g the f u n c t i o n a l ones.

The b i b l i o g r a p h i c information on Chinese t e x t s c o n t a i n e d in his footnotes

has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the b i b l i o g r a p h y o f the p r e s e n t study.

SUMMARY OF SCHOLARSHIP

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a by the r e m a i n i n g important "scholar,

H. V. Guenther, w i l l be examined l a t e r i n l i g h t o f the f o l l o w i n g summary. As

the c o n t r i b u t i o n s made by t h e s e d i v e r s s c h o l a r s over n e a r l y a c e n t u r y are

still v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o compare, I w i l l now summarize the p r e v i o u s articles to

obtain a basis f o r planning future research.

La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s 1906 a r t i c l e , w i t h i t s d i v i s i o n o f the t r i k a y a i n t o a

Buddhological and an o n t o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e , began t o r e v e a l the complexity of

the concept and marked the end o f r e d u c t i o n i s t i c t r e a t m e n t s . L a t e r workers

g e n e r a l l y t r e a t e d i t as a symbolic or open-ended scheme f o r o r g a n i z i n g a

 1*7

v a r i e t y o f i d e a s r a t h e r than as a t i g h t l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d dogma.

By 1913 he had extended h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the

t r i k a y a c o u l d not be understood i n i s o l a t i o n from the h i s t o r y o f I n d i a n

Buddhism ( t a n t r i c developments, exempted) and made some p r o g r e s s toward s e e i n g

it i n that perspective. To do t h i s he r e v i v e d Kern's use o f the distinction

between c o n v e n t i o n a l and a b s o l u t e t r u t h t o r e s o l v e a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y

n o t i o n s w i t h i n the d o c t r i n e . While t h i s i d e a w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , i t i s

s a f e t o say t h a t La V a l l e e Poussin's.. 1913-..understanding o f the distinction

between Madhyamika and V i j n a n a v a d a was so incomplete that-it s h o u l d not be-

taken seriously.

La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s f i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i

(1928) c o n t a i n s l i t t l e interpretation. I t i s an expanded s e l e c t i o n o f I n d i a n

t e x t u a l sources (still a v o i d i n g the t a n t r i c ) and a b i b l i o g r a p h y o f s c h o l a r s h i p .

Both are s t i l l u s e f u l .

In the 1913 a r t i c l e Masson-Oursel c o n s o l i d a t e s the p r e v i o u s conclusions

and examines a c l a s s i c a l V i j n a n a v a d i n t e x t , from which he i s a b l e t o formulate

two advances. F i r s t , he s t a t e s e x p l i c i t l y what La V a l l e e . P o u s s i n has recog-

nized i m p l i c i t l y — t h a t the term kaya i n the t r i k a y a i s o n l y m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a

"body" but a c t u a l l y d e s i g n a t e s a s e t o f o r g a n i c a l l y - r e l a t e d f a c t s about Buddha-

hood. The p r e f i x (e.g., Dharma-) i d e n t i f i e s the p a r t i c u l a r c l u s t e r o f f a c t s .

Second, he c l a r i f i e s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Sambhogakaya, although he

f a i l s t o e x p l a i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the o t h e r two kayas. It i s clear that

Masson-Oursel c o u l d have r e s o l v e d h i s dilemma r e g a r d i n g the Sambhogakaya as

compassionate response, had he possessed s u f f i c i e n t g e n e r a l knowledge o f the

Vijnanavada t o r e a l i z e the r o l e o f the B o d h i s a t t v a vow.

 1+8

While Suzuki's i n t e n t i o n may not have a l t e r e d between the O u t l i n e s (1906)

and the S t u d i e s (1930), h i s knowledge i n c r e a s e d and h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (or

presentation) changed almost beyond r e c o g n i t i o n . While the O u t l i n e s contains

few u s e f u l i d e a s , the ease w i t h which S u z u k i , as a b e l i e v e r , m o d i f i e s the

concept o f kaya supports La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s and Masson-Oursel's i d e a t h a t i t

i s not a f i x e d "body." The works o f t h e s e t h r e e w r i t e r s appear t o have

discouraged others from w a s t i n g e f f o r t on a s e a r c h f o r the " r e a l " o r "original

pure" t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e . Most c o n c e n t r a t e d on the i d e a s t h a t i t systematizes

i n any p a r t i c u l a r t e x t or system.

Suzuki's major c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the S t u d i e s i s the i n s i s t e n c e t h a t the

Nirmana-Buddha o f the Lankavatara (and by i m p l i c a t i o n , a l l t h r e e o f the kayas

t h a t emerged from the t r i - B u d d h a system o f t h a t t e x t ) i s a r e l a t i o n a l concept.

While I doubt t h a t the i d e a should be pushed as f a r as Suzuki does, i t w i l l be

a key t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Mahayanasamgraha.

Akanuma (1922) and Nagao (.1973) have adopted s i m i l a r approaches. As Nagao

has the advantage o f the i n t e r v e n i n g h a l f - c e n t u r y , h i s a r t i c l e may be regarded

as the c u l m i n a t i o n o f Akanuma's work. T h e i r approach i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a

p r i m a r y l o y a l t y t o the Buddhist sources r a t h e r than t o the Western or Indian

analogs. T h i s l o y a l t y l e a d s to" more a p p l i c a b l e c a t e g o r i e s and more r e l e v a n t

1

primary questions.

The b a s i c message o f Nagao's a r t i c l e appears i n the p o r t i o n s quoted.

A l t h o u g h i t may be u n f a i r t o c a l l t h e s e p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s " c o n c l u s i o n s , "

t h e y are the most s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s i n t h i s s e t o f articles.

The other s t u d i e s may be set a s i d e j u s t as were those o f P a r r i n d e r and

Matsunaga. Coomaraswamy and C h a t t e r j e e b o t h i g n o r e any historical development

or v a r i a t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e which t h e y simply r e g a r d as a t h e i s m . They have

not used t h e i r knowledge o f the I n d i a n m i l i e u . T h e i r sources are restricted,

 h9

t h e i r methods u n c r i t i c a l and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r e d u c t i o n i s t i c . Rockhill's

little s u t r a and the H o b o g i r i n a r t i c l e have been important sources but n e i t h e r

suggests an interpretation.

The b u l k o f t h e s e s t u d i e s a c t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s d a t a f o r a h i s t o r y o f the

V i j n a n a v a d a , i . e . , i n f o r m a t i o n about t e x t s and c o n t e n t s , comments on their

h i s t o r y , and i n s i g h t s i n t o the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system. Incorporation of these

data i n t o a h i s t o r i c a l account i s a straightforward process. Interpretation

of them i s more d i f f i c u l t . A few g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s can be

d e r i v e d from t h e s e studies.

The first i s t h a t the word "kaya" i s . not a simple o b j e c t but an open

concept which has a t t r a c t e d a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . I would suggest

t h a t t h i s n o t i o n can be m a i n t a i n e d by r e g a r d i n g kaya as a symbolic r a t h e r than

a d e n o t a t i v e concept.

The g e n e r a l Buddhakaya, i n p a r t i c u l a r , has been found t o c o n t a i n s e v e r a l

general categories of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t i s o b v i o u s l y the r e s u l t o f r e l i g i o u s

p r a c t i c e , i . e . , i t i s something o b t a i n e d by f o l l o w i n g the p r e s c r i p t i v e message,

.I.e., the Buddha i s , i n some sense, a r e o r i e n t e d a s p i r a n t . The l o g i c a l possi-

b i l i t y o f t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s accounted f o r by the t a t h a g a t a g a r b h a t h e o r y ,

and the a b s t r a c t mechanical q u e s t i o n o f how i t occurs i s answered by the

asrayaparavrtti theory. T h i s aspect o f Buddhahood does not appear t o r a i s e

any problems whose answer i s not touched upon i n the articles.

However, the Buddha i s a l s o what La V a l l e e P o u s s i n c a l l s an "ontological

or c o s m o l o g i c a l " concept which, as a form o f t h e "dharma" o r u n i v e r s a l norm,

t r a n s c e n d s the p e r s o n a l and a c c i d e n t a l . When seen a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a l l y as an

o b j e c t o f r e l i g i o u s d e v o t i o n , t h i s may be t h e aspect which Masson-Oursel

understood as the cosmogonic Buddha.

The c l e a r e s t agreement i s on the h i s t o r i c a l development o f the t r i k a y a .

An o r i g i n a l d o c t r i n e c e n t e r e d on Sakyamuni q u i c k l y developed i n t o a two-kaya

form as t h e need was f e l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h between Sakyamuni t h e t e a c h e r and

o t h e r ways o f v i e w i n g him ( e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r the p a r i n i r v a n a ) . The two-kaya

model was t h e e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n u n d e r l y i n g many o f t h e multi-Buddha or m u l t i -

kaya t h e o r i e s o f the e a r l y s e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y those based on the prajnaparami-

tasutras.

The t r i k a y a was an i n n o v a t i o n o f the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n masters M a i t r e y a -

Asanga-Vasubandhu. I t became the b a s i s f o r l a t e r m u l t i - k a y a t a n t r i c develop-

ments i n I n d i a n and f o r v a r i o u s Sino-Japanese e l a b o r a t i o n s . The detailed

h i s t o r y o f the appearance o f the t r i k a y a i n the w r i t i n g s o f the Vijnanavadin

masters i s more obscure and the h i s t o r y o f the l a t e r Indo-Tibetan and Sino-

Japanese developments has a t t r a c t e d even l e s s a t t e n t i o n .

Kern's desideratum, t h a t the t r i k a y a s h o u l d be understood i n r e l a t i o n to

t h e g e n e r a l development o f I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s thought, is still impractical.

S c h o l a r s became more d i f f i d e n t as they became b e t t e r a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the

problem. The g r e a t modern surveys o f I n d i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y ( i . e . , Renou

and F i l l i o z a t ' s L'Inde c l a s s i q u e and Dasgupta's H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n Philosophy)

have simply drawn a t t e n t i o n t o the magnitude o f the remaining t a s k and p a u c i t y

of reliable sources. At p r e s e n t no s c h o l a r o f Buddhism can be expected to

produce a d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y o f the r e l e v a n t a r e a o f I n d i a n thought and then f i t

the t r i k a y a i n t o i t .

While i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y i s s t i l l a long-

term desideratum, the f a c t t h a t our authors have produced s i g n i f i c a n t results

based o n l y on the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e suggests that

such a h i s t o r y i s not i n d i s p e n s a b l e .

F o r our purposes, the more important q u e s t i o n i s why each o f t h e s e d e v e l -

opments o c c u r r e d . Suggested reasons f o r the s h i f t from one t o two-kaya models

 51

i n c l u d e : need t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e human from t h e a b s t r a c t Buddha; need f o r a

c u l t focus a f t e r the p a r i n i r v a n a ; need t o a p p l y the Madhyamika t w o - t r u t h model

to the Buddhology, e t c . At l e a s t some o f t h e s e sound reasonable.

The d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n i s why the two kayas (which c o u l d a c t u a l l y accom-

modate v a r y i n g number's o f kayas under a two-term-model) were t u r n e d i n t o a

trikaya. S i n c e o n l y a few o f our authors have noted the f o r c e o f t h i s question

and none has produced a s a t i s f a c t o r y answer, t h i s i s one o f the b a s i c questions

for f u r t h e r study.

An answer t o the above q u e s t i o n w i l l p r o v i d e the context f o r c o n s i d e r i n g

the c e n t r a l one: What i s the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e ? While a l l w r i t e r s agree t h a t

the t h r e e kayas p r o v i d e a framework by which a p p a r e n t l y d i v e r s e a s p e c t s of

Buddhahood may be a f f i r m e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e r e i s l i t t l e agreement on how

t h e d i v i s i o n s s h o u l d be understood. Kern's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t the

u l t i m a t e and c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t s i s expanded by Masson-Oursel and the

o t h e r s t o encompass an i d e a o f t h r e e t r u t h s , i . e . , t h a t t h e t h r e e are t h e same

Buddha seen from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s .

However, t h i s n o t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y inadequate as i t throws a l l t h e respon-

s i b i l i t y on t h e a s p i r a n t and i g n o r e s t h e mechanics o f h i s B o d h i s a t t v a vow.

Suzuki's r e l a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n seems more s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Once the fundamental nature o f the t h r e e d i v i s i o n s i s s e t t l e d , the. f i n a l

two q u e s t i o n s can be r a i s e d : What i s each kaya, and what are t h e relationships

among t h e t h r e e ? S i n c e each i s an open-ended symbolic concept, the "What" can

be answered o n l y by a t a b u l a t i o n o f the aspects a t t r i b u t e d t o each. While a

c e r t a i n number o f t h e s e are found i n the a r t i c l e s reviewed, a g l a n c e at a

major t r i k a y a t e x t (e.g., c h a p t e r X o f the Mahayanasamgraha) r e v e a l s many more.

The study o f t h e s e s h o u l d be s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .

The q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the t h r e e s h o u l d be answered

 52 .

l a s t , as i t -will "be l a r g e l y determined by the answers t o the p r e v i o u s questions.

We need o n l y note the tremendous v a r i e t y o f i d e a s i n the a r t i c l e s . Those who

saw the b a s i c p a t t e r n as a t w o - r e a l i t y model had t r e a t t r o u b l e . f i n d i n g any

room f o r the Sambhogakaya, l e t alone d e c i d i n g how i t was r e l a t e d t o the others.

Nagao, however, s e r i o u s l y wonders why any kaya o t h e r than the Sambhogakaya

is necessary!

Many o f the b a s i c but e l u s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Buddhahood, such as

t a t h a t a and t a t h a t a j n a n a , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Buddhaland, and the

a c t i o n s o f the Nirmanakaya, a l s o seem t o be bound up w i t h the q u e s t i o n of

r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; and have been d e a l t w i t h as such.

Although none o f the p r e c e d i n g works c o n t a i n s a b r o a d , s o l i d framework

w i t h i n which any r e a s o n a b l e v e r s i o n o f the t r i k a y a may be understood, we must

c o n s i d e r one f i n a l s c h o l a r who appears t o o f f e r j u s t t h a t . H. V. Guenther's

understanding o f the d o c t r i n e i s the most p r o m i s i n g , and most idiosyncratic,

o f any examined so f a r .

Although he has p u b l i s h e d o n l y short a r t i c l e s on the t r i k a y a , this

d o c t r i n e i s c e n t r a l t o h i s v i s i o n o f Buddhism and i s mentioned i n most o f h i s

numerous p u b l i c a t i o n s . P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l passages can be found i n The Jewel

Ornament of L i b e r a t i o n , 1959 (chapters 20 and 21); The L i f e and Teaching of

Naropa, 1963 (pp. ^7-50, l l H - l l + 5 ) ; T i b e t a n Buddhism Without M y s t i f i c a t i o n , 1966

(pp. 57-59); and K i n d l y Bent t o Ease Us, 1975 (chapter 13). The most e x t e n s i v e

development o f h i s i d e a s on the t r i k a y a i s p r o b a b l y "The Experience of Being:

The T r i k a y a Idea i n I t s T i b e t a n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n " ( i n Roy C. Amore, ed., Devel-

opments i n Buddhist Thought, 1979).

Guenther's approach t o the t r i k a y a i s unique i n t h a t he works from the

l a t e r T i b e t a n t e x t s which o t h e r s have set a s i d e as " t a n t r i c " and t h e r e f o r e

non-Vijnanavadin. Guenther sees these t e x t s as c o n t a i n i n g the c u l m i n a t i o n o f

 53

the V i j n a n a v a d a d o c t r i n e begun f i f t e e n hundred y e a r s ago i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f

Asahga and Vasubandhu. H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a i s i n s e p a r a b l e from

his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s mature t a n t r i c V i j n a n a v a d a . This understanding i s

summarized i n many o f h i s books. A t y p i c a l passage o c c u r s i n The T a n t r i c

View o f L i f e ( B e r k e l e y : Shambhala, 1972):

T a n t r i s m b e g i n s w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e human s i t u a t i o n o f man's
l i v e d e x i s t e n c e , and i t t r i e s t o c l a r i f y t h e v a l u e s t h a t a r e
a l r e a d y i m p l i c i t i n i t . . . . i t attempts t o study t h e f i n i t e
e x i s t e n c e o f man as l i v e d from w i t h i n . . . . t h e w o r l d o f man
i s h i s h o r i z o n o f meaning without which t h e r e can n e i t h e r be a
w o r l d n o r an understanding, o f i t so t h a t man can l i v e . This
h o r i z o n o f meaning i s not something f i x e d once and f o r e v e r ,
but i t expands as man grows and growth i s t h e a c t u a l i t y o f
man's l i v e d e x i s t e n c e . Meanings do not c o n s t i t u t e another
w o r l d , but p r o v i d e another dimension t o t h e one w o r l d which
i s t h e l o c u s o f our a c t i o n s . . . . There i s thus no escape
from B e i n g , and what T a n t r a i s t e l l i n g us i s t h a t we have t o
f a c e up t o B e i n g ; t o f i n d meaning i n l i f e i s t o become Buddha
— ' e n l i g h t e n e d , ' but what t h i s meaning i s cannot be s a i d
without f a l s i f y i n g i t . . . . t h e problem i s not man's essence
or n a t u r e , but what man can make o f h i s l i f e i n t h i s w o r l d so
as t o r e a l i z e t h e supreme v a l u e s t h a t l i f e a f f o r d s . . . .
In t h e p u r s u i t o f Being t h e r e i s a joyousness and d i r e c t n e s s
which appears elsewhere t o be found o n l y i n Zen, t h a t i s , t h e
c u l m i n a t i o n o f Sino-Japanese Buddhism. . . . T a n t r i s m can be
s a i d t o be t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f I n d o - T i b e t a n Buddhism (pp. 2 - 5 ) .

In s h o r t , Buddhism p o i n t s t o a m e a n i n g f u l p r e s e n t by a t h e o r y which

c o n c e n t r a t e s on c o n c r e t e e x i s t e n c e r a t h e r than on a b s t r a c t essence. This

value-charged l i f e i s r e f e r r e d t o as "Buddha" and d e s c r i b e d by means o f t h e

trikaya.

Guenther makes much o f t h e f a c t t h a t "kaya" was understood t o be ambiguous

by t h e T i b e t a n s who t r a n s l a t e d i t ( a c c o r d i n g t o c o n t e x t ) by e i t h e r " l u s " ( t h e

o r d i n a r y body) o r "sku" (the kaya o f t h e Buddha). While he i s content t o

t r a n s l a t e l u s as "body" he m a i n t a i n s t h a t sku i s a dynamic, o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

concept f o r which "body" i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e . He w r i t e s :

 5h

T h i s s i n g l e r e a l i t y has s i g n i f i c a n t r a m i f i c a t i o n s w i t h i n
the l i f e o f man. I t i s t h e s e r a m i f i c a t i o n s t h a t are r e f e r r e d
t o by the t e c h n i c a l term t r i k a y a (sku gsum), commonly, though
q u i t e l u d i c r o u s l y , t r a n s l a t e d as the 'Three Bodies o f the
Buddha,' due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e a r l y t r a n s l a t o r s and t h e i r
l a t e r c o p y i s t f a i l e d t o understand or t o note the p u r e l y
d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f the word buddha ( s a n g s - r g y a s ) . . . .
The word buddha i s a p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f the verb budh "to
wake up," and i t s e x c l u s i v e l y a d j e c t i v a l use d e s c r i b e s the
e x p e r i e n c e a person has had, but not the person. T h i s alone
s h o u l d s u f f i c e t o show t h a t i t i s meaningless t o speak o f
" b o d i e s . " An e x p e r i e n c e tends t o get expressed, but i t i s
n e i t h e r f a c t nor bare i d e a s t h a t get expressed but " v a l u e s " :
how i t f e e l s t o be; and the meaning o f f u l l n e s s o f b e i n g i s
apprehended as embodied (p. 5 5 ) .

And again:

The human b e i n g has h i s house and f a m i l y , and a l s o h i s

homeland t o which he becomes a t t a c h e d . His v e r y l i f e depends
on the i n t e r a c t i o n between h i s e x i s t e n c e c o n d i t i o n i n g t h i s
v i t a l f i e l d and the f i e l d c o n d i t i o n i n g h i s e x i s t e n c e . T h i s
e x p l a i n s why t h e w o r l d he i n h a b i t s i s c a l l e d a Nirmanakaya
j u s t as he. h i m s e l f i s a Nirmanakaya (p. 5 5 ) .

T h i s f u l l n e s s o f b e i n g p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i n two ways which may be considered

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and ontological:

F u l l n e s s o f Being and the f e e l i n g o f happiness which i s

at t h e same time t h e awareness o f t h i s f u l l n e s s , are not two
c o n t r a s t i n g e n t i t i e s , but the two a s p e c t s o f a s i n g l e r e a l i t y .
Awareness c a r r i e s w i t h i t the c e r t a i n t y t h a t awareness is_ and
Being is_ i n so f a r as t h e r e i s awareness o f i t . The one i s
the o t h e r and the d i s t i n c t i o n i s a matter o f emphasis r a t h e r
than o f d i f f e r e n c e , . . .

The t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e i s so complex because i t may be d e s c r i b e d from b o t h

standpoints:

kLong-chen rab-'byams-pa i n t e r p r e t s the t e c h n i c a l term

sku, which I have rendered as " e x i s t e n t i a l v a l u e p a t t e r n , "
i n two d i f f e r e n t ways which are n e v e r t h e l e s s i n t i m a t e l y
r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r . The one may be c a l l e d " e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l "
and the o t h e r " o n t o l o g i c a l . " The " e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l v a l u e -
 55

pattern" i s " i n t r i n s i c awareness w i t h i t s o b j e c t - appearance."

It i s

"That which appears b e f o r e our senses ( i n i t s immediacy)

without b e i n g i n need o f b e i n g a s s e r t e d o r d e n i e d , and t h a t
which can be a n a l y z e d i n t o ( i ) the senses (as c o n t r o l l i n g
powers), ( i i ) t h e p s y c h o - p h y s i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t s , and ( i i i ) the
(complex o f t h e ) o b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n and the owner o f t h e
objective situation."

To term t h i s complex a " v a l u e - p a t t e r n " i s j u s t i f i e d by

the f a c t t h a t v a l u e does not r e s i d e i n one aspect a l o n e , but
i n the t o t a l i t y o f what c o n s t i t u t e s the p a t t e r n .

The " o n t o l o g i c a l v a l u e - p a t t e r n " as a "form o f c r e a t i v i t y "

i s r e p r e s e n t e d as two p a t t e r n s , the one h o l d i n g t o what i t i s
on the u n e r r i n g p a t h , the o t h e r j u s t b e i n g the b e i n g - t h e r e as
pure e x i s t e n c e . Of the former, kLong-chen rab 'byams-pa says:

"As i t h o l d s t o what i t i s i n i t s t r i a d o f f a c t i c i t y ,
a c t u a l i t y , and c o g n i t i v e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s and l e a d s t o f u l l n e s s
of b e i n g as g o a l , i t is'.known (by such terms) as 'great
p l a y f u l f a s c i n a t i o n p a t t e r n , ' 'crown-jewel p a t t e r n , ' ' l i f e -
s t y l e supporting p a t t e r n . ' "

The pure e x i s t e n c e p a t t e r n i s s a i d t o be

"The t r i a d o f the ground, p a t h , and g o a l . The ground i s

the presence o f a b s o l u t e o r i g i n a l awareness; the path i s the
i n v a r i a b l e n e s s o f an outward appearance i n r a d i a n c y and as an
( a e s t h e t i c ) f i e l d p a t t e r n . The g o a l i s the a b s o l u t e n e s s o f
the three e x i s t e n t i a l patterns i n e f f o r t l e s s presence."

The e x i s t e n t i a l v a l u e - p a t t e r n s which are b o t h i n t r i n s i c

and e x t r i n s i c , are by no means t o be c o n s i d e r e d as s t a t i c
e n t i t i e s t o which man has t o submit. Rather are t h e y man's
v e r y l i f e , p u l s a t i n g w i t h wondrous e x p e r i e n c e s . The mani-
f e s t a t i o n o f t h e s e v a l u e - p a t t e r n s h o l d s a f a s c i n a t i o n which
i s f e l t as pure p l a y f u l n e s s , . . . (pp. k2-h3).

A simplified summary o f Guenther's t r i k a y a i s found i n T i b e t a n Buddhism

Without M y s t i f i c a t i o n ( L e i d e n : E. J . B r i l l , 1966):

. . . c e r t a i n norms are r e v e a l e d , which are always a c t i v e

and dynamic. They have become known by t h e i r I n d i a n names,
Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya, but never have been
understood p r o p e r l y , w i t h i n the framework o f t r a d i t i o n a l
Western semantics, because, o f the e s s e n t i a l i s t premises o f
Western p h i l o s o p h i e s . Essence i s t h a t which marks a t h i n g o f f
and s e p a r a t e s i t from o t h e r e n t i t i e s o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d .
From such a p o i n t o f view a l l o f man's a c t i o n s s p r i n g from
t h a t which i s c o n s i d e r e d t o he h i s i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e . I t s
f a l l a c y . i s t h a t i t makes us o v e r l o o k man's r e l a t i o n a l b e i n g ;
the a c t u a l person always l i v e s in_ a w o r l d w i t h o t h e r s . And,
i n human l i f e , essence t e l l s man t h a t he i s a l r e a d y what he
can be, so t h e r e i s no need t o s e t out on a path o f s p i r i t u a l
development.

Seen as e x i s t e n t i a l norms t h e s e t h r e e p a t t e r n s r e v e a l
their significance. Dharmakaya i n d i c a t e s the i n t e n t i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e o f the n o e t i c i n man. I t i s the m e r i t o f Buddhism
t h a t i t has always r e c o g n i z e d t h i s f e a t u r e o f awareness: I
cannot know without knowing something, j u s t as I cannot do
without d o i n g something. But i n o r d i n a r y knowledge whatever
I know i s overshadowed by b e l i e f s , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , l i k e s
and d i s l i k e s . However, the more I succeed i n removing
m y s e l f from s e l f - c e n t r e d concerns and s i t u a t i o n s and f r e e
m y s e l f from a l l b i a s , the more I am enabled t o apprehend
t h i n g s as t h e y a r e . T h i s happens i n d i s c i p l i n e d p h i l o s o p h -
i c a l e n q u i r y through which one g r a d u a l l y approaches no-
t h i n g n e s s and i n d e t e r m i n a c y , from the vantage p o i n t o f which
one can a c h i e v e a view o f r e a l i t y without i n t e r n a l warping.
T h i s c o g n i t i v e i n d e t e r m i n a c y which u n d e r l i e s the whole
n o e t i c e n t e r p r i s e o f man i s r i c h e r i n c o n t e n t s and broader
i n i t s h o r i z o n s than any o t h e r awareness because i t i s an
u n r e s t r i c t e d p e r s p e c t i v e from which n o t h i n g i s screened or
excluded. I f a n y t h i n g can be p r e d i c a t e d about i t , i t i s pure
potency which, when a c t u a l i z e d , enables us t o see o u r s e l v e s
and t h i n g s as we and t h e y r e a l l y a r e . In o r d e r t o g a i n t h i s
c a p a c i t y we have t o develop our i n t e l l i g e n c e , our c r i t i c a l
acumen, which i s the main theme o f t h e Paramitayana and
without which Mantrayana i s i m p o s s i b l e . But a l l the i n f o r -
mation we r e c e i v e through such s u s t a i n e d a n a l y s i s i s not
merely f o r the sake o f pure awareness o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n , but
i n o r d e r t h a t we may a c t . Every i n s i g h t i s b a r r e n i f i t does
not f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n a c t i o n , and every a c t i o n i s f u t i l e i f
i t i s not supported by sound i n s i g h t . Only when we succeed
i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o u r s e l v e s , our p r o j e c t s and our w o r l d from
a p o i n t o f view which i s no p o i n t o f view, w i l l a sound
d i r e c t i o n o f human a c t i o n be p o s s i b l e , because i t i s no
l o n g e r s u b o r d i n a t e d t o p e t t y , s e l f - c e n t r e d concerns. This
a c t i v e mode o f b e i n g i s r e a l i z e d through the two o p e r a t i o n a l
p a t t e r n s o r norms, the Sambhogakaya and the Nirmanakaya, both
o f which have t h e i r r a i s o n d ' e t r e i n the c o g n i t i v e - s p i r i t u a l
mode. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , o n l y the Nirmanakaya.is p e r c e p t i b l e , ,
a l t h o u g h i t would be wrong t o assume t h a t i t i s o f a p h y s i c a l
nature.

. . . Nirmanakaya s i g n i f i e s b e i n g i n the w o r l d , not so

much as a b e i n g among t h i n g s and a r t i f a c t s , but as an a c t i v e
being i n r e l a t i o n to a vast f i e l d of surrounding e n t i t i e s
 57

which a r e e q u a l l y v i b r a t i n g w i t h l i f e , a l l o f them o r d e r e d i n
a w o r l d s t r u c t u r e . As an a c t i v e mode o f b e i n g Nirmanakaya i s
the implementation o f man's whole b e i n g , t h e o r d e r i n g o f h i s
world i n the l i g h t o f h i s ultimate p o s s i b i l i t i e s . . . . Real
b e i n g w i t h o t h e r s must s p r i n g up on t h e spur o f t h e moment
and arouse us t o our p o s s i b i l i t i e s . That which does so i s
the Sambhogakaya. Grounded i n u n r e s t r i c t e d and u n b i a s e d
c o g n i t i o n i t can e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r s and s t i r them
t o a u t h e n t i c a c t i o n (pp. 5 7 - 5 9 ) .

From t h i s , Guenther develops a complex i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t a n t r i c

w r i t e r s ' multi-kaya theories. However, as t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a stage beyond t h i s

study I w i l l simply p o i n t out t h a t t h e a b i l i t y o f h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o d e a l

w i t h e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e b a s i c d o c t r i n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t w i l l be a s e r i o u s

contender i n a broader study. Here we w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

outlined i n the preceding quotations.

An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e s two q u e s t i o n s :

— t h a t o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s view o f t a n t r i c Buddhism

— that o f the v a l i d i t y o f h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a .

The l a t t e r q u e s t i o n can be answered o n l y a f t e r a p o s i t i v e answer t o t h e former.

I s h a l l assume such an answer. In p a r t i c u l a r , I s h a l l assume:

— Guenther's acquaintance w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f r e l e v a n t Buddhist sources

— h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h European p h i l o s o p h y

— t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f a hermeneutic which expresses Buddhist i d e a s i n terms and

thought-patterns drawn from contemporary p h i l o s o p h y and p s y c h o l o g y .

Furthermore, I must i n s i s t t h a t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n does not t u r n upon t h e

p e r i p h e r a l i s s u e (which B h a r a t i , i n h i s " T i b e t a n Buddhism i n America," Tibet

J o u r n a l k, no. 3 , p. 8 , c a l l s one o f t h e " r e d f l a g s he keeps h o i s t i n g f o r h i s

critics and d e t r a c t o r s " ) o f whether Guenther's replacement of "standard"

 58

m i s t r a n s l a t i o n s by more a c c u r a t e E n g l i s h terms i s j u s t i f i e d .

I w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y t h e second q u e s t i o n , i . e . : I s Guenther's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f the d o c t r i n e s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r and g e n e r a l t o be a p p l i e d t o any major Indo-

T i b e t a n v e r s i o n o f the t r i k a y a , and to. any major d o c t r i n e based on i t ? This

can be d i v i d e d i n t o s u b - q u e s t i o n s : t h a t o f the g e n e r a l i t y , and t h a t o f the

clarity.

The concern o f g e n e r a l i t y i s the more important. I t i s u s u a l l y phrased

somewhat as f o l l o w s : Even g r a n t i n g t h a t T i b e t a n t a n t r i c Buddhism (e.g., t h a t

o f Klong-chen-pa, l ^ t h c e n t u r y A.D.) i s the l o g i c a l c u l m i n a t i o n o f the Indian

Vijnanavada, can an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e r i v e d from i t be a p p l i e d t o much e a r l i e r

statements o f the I n d i a n masters (e.g., Vasubandhu, Uth c e n t u r y A.D.)? I

suggest t h a t the answer depends p r i m a r i l y upon the interpreter's intent. If

he i s p r i m a r i l y an a p o l o g i s t , i t i s mandatory t h a t he i n t e r p r e t the earlier

w r i t i n g s by r e f e r e n c e t o l a t e r a u t h o r i t i e s . For example, a C h r i s t i a n w i l l

i n t e r p r e t Genesis i n l i g h t o f t h e Adam o f the New Testament, u n d e r s t o o d through

theologians such as Aquinas or L u t h e r , who w i l l themselves be understood--via

the w r i t i n g s o f modern t h e o l o g i a n s or p o p u l a r i z e r s .

S i n c e Guenther o b v i o u s l y i s such an a p o l o g i s t , and s i n c e the present

study i s not an a p o l o g e t i c work, t h i s approach i s s u s p e c t . I f we regard h i s

work as a more d i s i n t e r e s t e d study c o n t a i n i n g f a c t u a l a s s e r t i o n s , a l o g i c a l

problem a p p e a r s . I f something should be found i n the e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e to

which h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would not: a p p l y , the l a t t e r would not be sufficiently

general. However, t h i s can be determined o n l y a f t e r a l l major i n s t a n c e s have

been examined. Hence h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n cannot, on p r i n c i p l e , be judged

without further investigation. T h i s i s simply an i n s t a n c e o f the t r u i s m t h a t ,

while a t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may y i e l d a p r i o r i knowledge, an i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n by an o u t s i d e r can deal only i n a p o s t e r i o r i facts.

 59

T h i s simple p o i n t i s f r e q u e n t l y obscured by Guenther's ex cathedra

a f f i r m a t i o n s t h a t h i s i s the c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g " o f Buddhism." As i t is

obvious t h a t h i s work i s more a p o l o g e t i c than d i s i n t e r e s t e d , we must stand

back and r e a l i z e t h a t the judgement o f whether or not h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g can

fit the d o c t r i n e i n o t h e r t e x t s and c u l t u r e s can be made o n l y a f t e r t h a t

d o c t r i n e i s examined. One obvious focus for this f u r t h e r study would seem t o

be\the d o c t r i n e i n the w r i t i n g s o f the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n masters.

Of c o u r s e , a c o m p l e t e l y new study o f each V i j n a n a v a d i n t e x t would be

ludicrous. The a c t u a l procedure would be t h a t o f any other piece of research.

One would d e v i s e and administer t o each a t e s t o f the t h e o r e t i c a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y

o f Guenther's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Unfortunately, the d i s s i m i l a r i t y among the

previous a r t i c l e s p r e v e n t s us from s h o r t e n i n g the p r o c e s s s t i l l further by

simply u s i n g t h e i r data. I t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o examine each t e x t ourselves.

The second c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n the q u e s t i o n of v a l i d i t y , that of clarity,

c a l l s f o r a more s u b j e c t i v e judgement. As we have seen, Guenther frequently

quotes v e r y a b s t r a c t formulations o f the t r i k a y a which he i n t e r p r e t s i n an

e q u a l l y a b s t r a c t manner. Do t h e s e i l l u m i n a t e the v e r y concrete phenomena t o

which the scheme i s a p p l i e d ? A g a i n , a thorough answer should involve an

examination o f b o t h h i s work and the t r i k a y a t e x t s . However, as Guenther

himself o f t e n seems unable t o b r i d g e the gap between the a b s t r a c t and the

a c t u a l , the answer i s p r o b a b l y no. For example, h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a

i n T i l o p a ' s attunement i n s t r u c t i o n s (Naropa pp. U^-kQ, lUl-155) r e a d s , ". . .

CattunementH ... i s n i n e f o l d : attunement t o the t h r e e existential patterns

or norms, w h i l e d y i n g , s l e e p i n g , and becoming awake" (p. h8).

Guenther explains:

The aim o f the v a r i o u s p r a c t i c e s o u t l i n e d i n the i n s t r u c -

t i o n s g i v e n t o Naropa i s t o a r r i v e at s t a b l e s t r u c t u r e s o f
 60

authentic being. S t a b i l i t y i s a c h i e v e d by shedding whatever

t h e r e i s o f c o n - s t r u c t i o n s , by d i s m a n t l i n g t h e maze o f dead
and deadening c o n c e p t s , and by p e n e t r a t i n g t o a s p a c i o u s n e s s
that i s pulsating with l i f e . The f i r s t s t e p i s t o e x p e r i e n c e
one's b e i n g - i n - t h e - w o r l d as a god o r goddess i n a mansion
which has t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a magic s p e l l . I t i s t h e magic
t h a t i s important, not t h e s p e l l i t s e l f o r i t s content (p. lh9) •

The problem i s o b v i o u s . Guenther f e e l s t h a t t h e a c t u a l d e t a i l s o f t h e

r i t u a l are t r i v i a l compared t o t h e meaning. It i s difficult to r e a l i z e that

he i s d i s c u s s i n g c e r t a i n v e r y s p e c i f i c , complex m e d i t a t i o n r i t u a l s . This

d e n i g r a t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l i s not t h e T i b e t a n view. The T i b e t a n masters u s u a l l y

f o l l o w t h e l i t u r g i c a l axiom p r a t i q u e d'abord. They s t r e s s t h a t t h e r i t u a l

performance ("the s p e l l and i t s c o n t e n t " ) i s t h e s i t u a t i o n from which t h e

magic o r meaning w i l l emerge.

I t i s a t t h e s p e c i f i c l e v e l t h a t important d i f f e r e n c e s (e.g., d i f f e r e n c e s

o f meaning determined by which B o d h i s a t t v a s a r e i n v o l v e d ) a r e p r e s e n t . I do

not f i n d Guenther's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o be h e l p f u l f o r such questions.

In s h o r t , a l t h o u g h Guenther! s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f - t h e ' t r i k a y a is-ivalid^and'

u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a l • d i s c u s s i o n s of-many"^aspects o f T i b e t a n .Buddhism, i t does

not n e c e s s a r i l y cover t h e t h e o r y i n a l l Buddhist s e c t s and i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y

s p e c i f i c t o c l a r i f y d e t a i l s o f p r a c t i c e ' and .theory. Therefore, although h i s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e , f u r t h e r research, i s j u s t i f i e d , especially

on t h e o l d e r t e x t s , t o r e a c h a more u s e f u l understanding.

CONCLUSION

We now possess a fair i d e a o f t h e development o f the. s u r v i v i n g Indian

Buddhist l i t e r a t u r e , and can r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e development o f t h e

concept o f Buddhahood. I t i s obvious t h a t v a r i o u s c l u s t e r s o f i d e a s about

Buddhahood became each o f the kayas. Many o f t h e s e i d e a s have been examined

and c l a r i f i e d . However, i t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t the t r i k a y a i s more than the

sum t o t a l o f t h r e e s t r a n d s — i t i s a unique scheme d e f i n e d by the r e l a t i o n s h i p s

among the t h r e e terms.

What i s s t i l l l a c k i n g i s a g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p a t t e r n s i n t h i s

r e l a t i o n s h i p , s p e c i f i c a l l y an u n d e r s t a n d i n g expressed as a h e u r i s t i c model

c a p a b l e o f i n t e r p r e t i n g v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s o f the d o c t r i n e . Guenther o f f e r s a

developed model but i t s g e n e r a l i t y and c l a r i t y are b o t h i n doubt. Nagao has

made a modest b e g i n n i n g but has not developed i t .

T h e r e f o r e , I suggest t h a t the need f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s s e l f - e v i d e n t .

A l s o e v i d e n t i s the f a c t t h a t t h i s cannot be a simple c o n t i n u a t i o n o f any

p r e v i o u s study but must i n v o l v e a f r e s h s t a r t and a wider scope. As none o f

t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s has a c t u a l l y a n a l y z e d i n d e t a i l the d o c t r i n e i n one

a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e x t , I suggest t h a t the f i r s t step s h o u l d be a d e t a i l e d study

9

of such a t e x t . T h i s study s h o u l d be informed by the f i n d i n g s o f e a r l i e r

s c h o l a r s but s h o u l d not be bound by them.

The choice of a text i s c r i t i c a l . I t cannot be j u s t any a v a i l a b l e t e x t

which d e a l s w i t h the t r i k a y a but s h o u l d be one which i s seen as authoritative

by as many branches o f the t r a d i t i o n as p o s s i b l e . T h i s l i m i t s the c h o i c e t o

the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n w r i t i n g s i n which t h a t t r a d i t i o n was first defined. A

summary o f t h e s e w r i t i n g s follows.

As the t r a d i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a have been summarized

many t i m e s , a n d as l i t t l e agreement e x i s t s on t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e , t h i s

w i l l merely be a survey o f t h e major t e x t s . More d e t a i l s on those which are

most u s e f u l f o r a t r i k a y a study w i l l be found i n Appendix B, " B i b l i o g r a p h y o f

S e l e c t e d Primary Sources."
 The V i j n a n a v a d a arose as a s y s t e m a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h o s e Mahayana

s u t r a s which appeared i n I n d i a d u r i n g t h e f i r s t c e n t u r i e s o f our e r a . Although

we do not know which s u t r a s were adopted by any s p e c i f i c V i j n a n a v a d i n master,

a s m a l l group i s c l e a r l y c e n t r a l t o the t r a d i t i o n . I t i n c l u d e s : the p r a j n a -

paramita (most l i k e l y the A s t a s a h a s r i k a - p r a j n a p a r a m i t a ) , t h e L a n k a v a t a r a , the

Dasabhumika, some o f the Ratnakuta group ( e s p e c i a l l y the S r i m a l a d e v i ) , and

above a l l , the Samdhinirmocana.

All t r a d i t i o n s c r e d i t t h r e e f i g u r e s — M a i t r e y a , Asanga and V a s u b a n d h u —

w i t h the b a s i c f o r m u l a t i o n o f new doctrine. T h e i r major s a s t r a s are d i s c u s s e d

below.

1. MAITREYA

M a i t r e y a i s e i t h e r an e a r t h l y t e a c h e r o r the B o d h i s a t t v a M a i t r e y a i n the

T u s i t a heaven. He i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as the author o f t h e f o l l o w i n g works:

The Yogacarabhumi, which i s one o f the l o n g e s t , e a r l i e s t and l o o s e s t o f

the s a s t r a s . Although i t c o n t a i n s d o c t r i n e s about Buddhahood, i t does not

seem t o be an important source f o r the t r i k a y a . I t may r e p r e s e n t a stage

p r i o r t o the f u l l s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f the V i j n a n a v a d a . Only a few chapters

have been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Western languages.

The Mahayanasutralamkara, an e l e g a n t v e r s e summary o f the Vijnanavada,

which would be n e a r l y incomprehensible without the commentaries by Vasubandhu,

Asvabhava and S t h i r a m a t i . Asanga has i n c o r p o r a t e d p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f the

r e l e v a n t passages on the Buddha i n t o h i s own Mahayanasamgraha. The fact that

t h i s t e x t i s one o f t h e few V i j n a n a v a d i n works s t i l l extant i n S a n s k r i t may

account f o r i t s p o p u l a r i t y w i t h modern I n d i a n s c h o l a r s .
 63

The Madhyantavibhaga i s a g a i n a work which would he incomprehensible

without t h e commentaries by Vasubandhu and S t h i r a m a t i . T h i s t e x t , whose t i t l e

might be t r a n s l a t e d as " D i s c r i m i n a t i o n between the middle and extremes,"

d e f i n e s the orthodox ("middle") V i j K a n a v a d i n m e t a p h y s i c a l s t a n c e . I t does not

o f f e r a Buddhology per se and o n l y a few chapters are a v a i l a b l e i n Western

languages.

The Dharmadharmatavibhaga. i s a f u r t h e r treatment o f the metaphysical

s t a n c e , c e n t e r e d on the t r i s v a b h a v a . I t a l s o c a r r i e s a commentary by Vasu-

bandhu. I t has r e c e i v e d l i t t l e study i n modern times o u t s i d e Japan.

The Abhisamayalankara, a p r a j n a p a r a m i t a t e x t w i t h commentaries by Vasu-

bandhu's p u p i l A r y a v i m u k t i s e n a and l a t e r w r i t e r s , c o n t a i n s a s h o r t passage on

the t r i k a y a but i s not a c e n t r a l B u d d h o l o g i c a l t e x t . I t i s b a s i c a l l y a system-

a t i z a t i o n o f the Mahayana from a Madhyamika s t a n d p o i n t which has been p l a c e d

w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a . I t p r o v i d e s a v i v i d demonstration t h a t the Vijnanavada

masters were a t t e m p t i n g t o i n c l u d e r a t h e r than r e p l a c e the o t h e r s c h o o l s .

The U t t a r a t a n t r a (or Ratnagotravibhaga) i n c l u d e s an important passage on

the t r i k a y a , but i s b e s t known as the source o f the t a t h a g a t a g a r b h a theory.

Asanga has w r i t t e n a commentary t o i t .

2. ASANGA

T r a d i t i o n h o l d s t h a t e i t h e r Asanga was the p u p i l o f a t e a c h e r named

M a i t r e y a , o r he was taken t o the T u s i t a heaven where the B o d h i s a t t v a M a i t r e y a

d i c t a t e d t o him the Yogacarabhumi and o t h e r t e x t s . In a d d i t i o n t o the

commentaries on the M a i t r e y a t r e a t i s e s , he i s c r e d i t e d w i t h :
 6k

The Abidharmasamuccaya, a V i j n a n a v a d i n abhidharma which, l i k e v

the V i j n a n a -

v a d i n p r a j n a p a r a m i t a o f the Abhisamayalankara, shows how t h e e a r l i e r i d e a s were

i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a . I t c o n t a i n s no d i r e c t d i s c u s s i o n s o f the

trikaya.

The Mahayanasamgraha, a s y s t e m a t i c work which, i n c l u d i n g the commentaries

on i t by Vasubandhu and Asvabhava, e s t a b l i s h e s the broad o u t l i n e s o f t h e

V i j n a n a v a d i n system. Asanga arranged a l l the i n d i v i d u a l elements ( i . e . , the

abhidharma, the v i j n a p t i m a t r a , the t r i s v a b h a v a , t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a , and the

t r i k a y a ) i n a new perspective. As t h i s t e x t i s the focus o f the p r e s e n t study

i t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l later.

3. VASUBANDHU

The r i c h and enigmatic t r a d i t i o n a l f i g u r e Vasubandhu i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d

to have w r i t t e n the b r i l l i a n t Abhidharmakosa b e f o r e b e i n g c o n v e r t e d t o Mahayana

by h i s b r o t h e r Asanga. In a d d i t i o n t o the commentaries a l r e a d y noted, Vasu-

bandhu i s c r e d i t e d w i t h s e v e r a l important p r i m a r y t e x t s . These i n c l u d e :

The Karmasiddhiprakarana, i n which the abhidharma r e a s o n i n g o f t h e A b h i -

dharmakosa i s developed i n a Vijnanavadin d i r e c t i o n . L i t t l e of i t i s d i r e c t l y

a p p l i c a b l e t o the t r i k a y a q u e s t i o n .

The V i m s i k a and T r i m s i k a are c r y p t i c v e r s e s u m m a r i e s — t h e f i r s t of the

arguments f o r t h e mind-only t h e s i s , the second o f the e n t i r e V i j n a n a v a d i n

system. The importance o f the T r i m s i k a d e r i v e s from i t s use by t h e Chinese

p i l g r i m s c h o l a r Hsuan-tsang as the backbone f o r h i s Ch'eng Wei Shih.Lun, his

grand summary o f the V i j n a n a v a d i n i d e a s c u r r e n t i n seventh-century India. In

t h i s work the o p i n i o n s o f v a r i o u s I n d i a n masters are p l a c e d as commentaries t o

appropriate verses o f the Trims'ika. As l a t e r Chinese and Japanese masters

regarded the Ch'eng Wei S h i h Lun as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e V i j n a -

navadin system, the T r i m s i k a came t o be regarded as the b a s i s o f t h e Indian

Vijnanavadin traditions.

These are merely the c e n t r a l s a s t r a s . Each o f the t h r e e masters i s

c r e d i t e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l minor works, and t h e i r d i s c i p l e s produced a f l o o d of

w r i t i n g s d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s . Moreover, t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was not

c o n f i n e d t o any one sect—most subsequent Mahayana Buddhist t h i n k e r s adopted

many o f t h e i r i d e a s . Some attempted t o form a Vijnanavadin-Madhyamika. Many

l a t e r p o p u l a r i z e r s , such as S a n t i d e v a , o b v i o u s l y saw t h e i r b a s i c ideas as

simply "Mahayana Buddhism."

In China, the Ch'eng Wei S h i h Lun became the t e x t u a l b a s i s f o r the

Fa-hsiang s c h o o l which has continued t o develop i n b o t h China.and Japan. The

Vijnanavada, as w e l l as the v a r i o u s Vijnanavada-Madhyamika systems, was the

b a s i s f o r indigenous T i b e t a n developments. T a n t r i c thought o f I n d i a , T i b e t

and Japan developed d i r e c t l y from t h e Vijnanavada.

A f t e r r e a c h i n g t h i s point, ( i . e . , having r e a d the p r e c e d i n g studies and

become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the l i t e r a t u r e ) , I had the o p p o r t u n i t y , in July 1976,

t o d i s c u s s the c h o i c e o f a t e x t u a l focus w i t h P r o f e s s o r Nagao.

In response t o a query about s c r i p t u r a l a u t h o r i t y f o r the t r i k a y a doc-

t r i n e , he s a i d t h a t a s e a r c h f o r such a u t h o r i t y i n the e a r l y Mahayana s u t r a s

was u n l i k e l y t o be fruitful. I n s t e a d , he suggested t h a t the voluminous Yoga-

carabhumi might y i e l d the e a r l i e s t details. He d i d mention one sutra passage—

the chapter added t o the Chinese S u v a r n a p r a b h a s a s u t r a — b u t o n l y as a l a t e r

c u l m i n a t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e r a t h e r than an e a r l y a u t h o r i t y f o r i t .
 66

He suggested f o c u s s i n g f i r s t on the Mahayanasamgraha and Mahayanasutra-

l a i i k a r a and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , on the Abhi samayalankara. He a l s o f e l t that

the Ratnagotravibhaga s h o u l d not he a p r i m a r y t e x t , hut agreed t h a t i t s

tathagatagarhha t h e o r y c o u l d not he i g n o r e d .

The major Chinese sources which he recommended were Hsiian-tsang's Ch'eng

Wei S h i h Lun and Hui-yuan's Ta - Slneng I Chang (T. 1851), a s i x t h - c e n t u r y

survey o f Buddha-body t h e o r i e s .

A f t e r a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s 1973 article (above), P r o f e s s o r Nagao s t a t e d

t h a t he s t i l l agreed w i t h the methods and sources but f e l t t h a t he had not

s u f f i c i e n t l y emphasized the Mahayanasamgraha.

At t h i s p o i n t t h e b e s t approach t o t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e appeared t o be

through an i n t e n s i v e study o f the Mahayanasamgraha. The c h o i c e o f t h i s text

was d i c t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s t h e most s y s t e m a t i c o f t h e e a r l y t e x t s . It

c o n t a i n s more d e t a i l e d arguments t h a n do t h e o t h e r s , and i t l o c a t e s them w i t h i n

the context o f Asanga's complete system. Each o f t h e o t h e r e a r l y sastras

e x p l a i n s some p a r t i c u l a r i d e a : t h e Abhidharmasamuccaya o u t l i n e s t h e dharma

t h e o r y ; the Madhyant avibhaga- • d e f i n e s the l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t o f t h e s c h o o l and

d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i t from t h a t o f t h e Madhyamika; and t h e Ratnagotravibhanga

develops t h e t a t h a g a t a g a r h h a . Only t h e Mahayanasamgraha and t h e Mahayanasutra-

l a n k a r a i n t e g r a t e t h e s e i n t o an i n c l u s i v e s y s t e m . T h e importance o f such
-

d o c t r i n a l c o n t e x t cannot be o v e r s t r e s s e d . A study o f any s p e c i f i c n o t i o n must

be guided by an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the wider net o f t h e o r y i n which i t f u n c t i o n s .

The Mahayanasutralartkara was e l i m i n a t e d from c o n s i d e r a t i o n a f t e r a c a r e f u l

r e a d i n g o f b o t h i t and the Mahayanasamgraha r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e B u d d h o l o g i c a l

v e r s e s o f the former were i n c o r p o r a t e d and e x p l a i n e d i n t h e l a t t e r . Therefore,

the next s e c t i o n o f t h i s study i s an examination o f the B u d d h o l o g i c a l passages

of t h e Mahayanasamgraha.
 67

NOTES

^ E t i e n n e Lamotte, La Somme du grand v e h i c u l e d'Asanga (Mahayanasamgraha),

tomes 1-2. L o u v a i n : I n s t i t u t O r i e n t a l i s t e , 1973, tome 2 , p. "+9-

2
R o c k h i l l ' s t e x t was some v e r s i o n o f the 'phags-pa sku gsum shes-bya-ba
theg-pa chen-po'i mdo (Suzuki r e p r i n t e d i t i o n No. 9^9: v. 37» P- 108-2-2).
The c e n t r a l p o r t i o n reads as follows:
/ r i g s - k y i - b u de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i sku gsum n i r a n g - b z h i n
rnam-par-dag-pa n i c h o s - k y i sku'o/ / t i n g - n g e - ' d z i n rnam-par-
dag-pa n i l o n g - s p y o d - r d z o g s - p a i sku'o / /spyod-pa
1
rnam-par-
dag-pa n i sangs-rgyas thams-cad-kyi sprul-pa'i sku'o/
r i g s - k y i - b u de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i c h o s - k y i sku n i nam-
mkha' l t a r r a n g - b z h i n med-pa'i don-no/ / l o n g s - s p y o d - r d z o g s -
p a ' i sku n i s b r i n l t a r 'byung-ba'i don-no/ s p r u l - p a ' i sku
ni sangs-rgyas. thams-cad-kyi ''phrin-las t e / char-ba l t a - b u
s t e thams-cad b d a s - p a ' i don-no/ /bcom-ldan-'das l a byang-
chub-sems-dpa' s a ' i snying-pos ' d i skad ces g s o l - t o / /bcom-
l d a n - 'das-kyi sku gsum-gyi bshad-pa j i - l t a r b l t a r - b a r bgyi/
bcom-ldan-'das-kyis byang-chub-sems-dpa' s a ' i s n y i n g - p o - l a
bka'-stsal-pa/

r i g s - k y i - b u de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i sku gsum n i ' d i l t a r

b l t a - b a r bya'o/ / c h o s - k y i sku n i de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i ngo-

gang l a b l t a - b a r j bya'o/ / l o n g s - s p y o d - r d z o g s - p a ' i sku n i

byang-chub-sems-dpa'i ngo-gang l a b l t a - b a r bya'o/ sprul-pa'i

sku n i mos-pas spyod-pa'i so-so s k y e - b o ' i ngo-gang l a b l t a -

bar bya'o

r i g s - k y i - b u c h o s - k y i sku n i sangs rgyas thams-cad dang

r a n g - b z h i n mthun-par gnas-so/ / l o n g s - s p y o d - r d z o g s - p a ' i sku

ni sangs-rgyas thams-cad dang t i n g - n g e - ' d z i n mthun-par gnas-

so/ / s p r u l - p a ' i sku n i sangs-rgyas thams-cad dang 'phrin-las

mthun-par gnas-so/

r i g s - k y i - b u kun-gzhi gnas-su dag-pa n i me-long l t a - b u ' i

ye-shes t e c h o s - k y i sku'o/ nyon-mongs-pa'i y i d gnas-su dag-pa

n i mnyam-par-nyid-kyi ye-shes-so/ / y i d - k y i rnam-par shes-pa

 68

gnas-su dag-pa n i s o - s o r kun-tu r t o g - p a ' i ye-shes te/ longs-

spyod-rdzogs-pa'i sku'o/ s g o - l n g a ' i rnam-par shes-pa gnas-su

dag-pa n i bya-ba g r u b - p a ' i ye-shes te sprul-pa'i sku'o/

3
T h i s p o i n t i s e v i d e n t i n La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s review o f S u z u k i ' s O u t l i n e s

i n the J o u r n a l o f the R o y a l s A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f Great B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d , 1908,

885-89I+. While he i s w i l l i n g t o extend a l l due c o u r t e s y t o Suzuki t h e scholar,

he i s o u t r a g e d at S u z u k i t h e t h e o l o g i a n ' s m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f t h e d o c t r i n e s o f

h i s own faith. Of c o u r s e , a good p a r t o f h i s pique i s caused by Suzuki's

penchant f o r " n o u r i s h i n g h i m s e l f w i t h t h e vapours o f t h e German p h i l o s o p h i c

a l e m b i c s , " and making "absurd comparisons" between C h r i s t i a n i t y and the

Buddhist "mysticism of s o p h i s t i c nihilism"!

^ E t i e n n e Lamotte, Le T r a i t e de l a grande v e r t u de sagesse (Louvain:

I n s t i t u t O r i e n t a l i s t e , tomes 1-k, 19^9-76).

^ K. Venkata Ramanan, Nagarjuna's P h i l o s o p h y : As P r e s e n t e d i n t h e Maha-

Pra.inaparamita-Sastra (Tokyo, Vermont: C h a r l e s E. T u t t l e Company I n c . , 1966).

^ The article i s unsigned. However, La V a l l e e P o u s s i n , i n a b i b l i o g r a p h -

i c a l note i n Melanges e h i r i o i s et bouddhiques, 1 (1932), p. 399, identifies

P a u l D e m i e v i l l e as t h e a u t h o r .

7
F o r d e t a i l s see Appendix A — B i b l i o g r a p h y o f P r i m a r y T e x t s . Note t h a t

t h e Mahayanasutralankara i s a c u r i o u s c h o i c e f o r the s o l e source o f i n f o r m a -

tion. I t i s an e a r l y M a i t r e y a n t e x t which i s h a r d l y comprehensible without

commentary. Asanga i n c o r p o r a t e d i t s B u d d h o l o g i c a l statements into chapter X

o f h i s Mahayanasamgraha, where t h e y appear as o n l y one strand feeding into h i s

trikaya. I t was Asanga's t r i k a y a r a t h e r than t h e more p r i m i t i v e v e r s i o n s which

appears t o have been a c c e p t e d by t h e V i j n a n a v a d i n t r a d i t i o n s . As t h e Mahayana-

s u t r a l a n k a r a i s one o f t h e few e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n t e x t s s t i l l extant i n

S a n s k r i t , i t i s t e m p t i n g t o wonder i f t h e author has chosen i t f o r any more

s e r i o u s reason t h a n an i n a b i l i t y t o r e a d t h e more r e l e v a n t t e x t s which are

a v a i l a b l e o n l y i n Chinese or T i b e t a n .
8
See S u z u k i , S t u d i e s i n t h e L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a , p. l8h.
 69

y
Note t h a t Ruegg, i n h i s Tathagatagarhha (pp. 6-7) says t h a t he was
led by s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g t o base h i s study o f the•Tathagatagarhha "concept on
a d e t a i l e d ' a n a l y s i s of" the Ratnagotravibhaga.

There i s l i t t l e r e l i a b l e h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the e a r l y d e v e l -
opment o f the V i j n a n a v a d a . Most accounts are based on a few Chinese and
T i b e t a n summaries o f the t r a d i t i o n a l l e g e n d s . The most important o f these
summaries are c o n t a i n e d i n Paramartha's s i x t h - c e n t u r y Chinese b i o g r a p h y o f
Vasubandhu, Bu-ston's f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T i b e t a n h i s t o r y o f Buddhism, and
Taranatha's s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y h i s t o r y o f Buddhism i n I n d i a .

The t r a d i t i o n s summarized i n t h e s e works d i s a g r e e on t h e b a s i c histor-

i c a l q u e s t i o n s , e.g.: Was M a i t r e y a a man or a g r e a t B o d h i s a t t v a ? How many
Vasubandhus were t h e r e ? What i s the b a s i c chronology? These q u e s t i o n s have
been t h e f o c u s o f heated d i s c u s s i o n s by such s c h o l a r s as Takakusu, O b e r m i l l e r ,
Lamotte, Johnston, F r a u w a l l n e r , Schmithausen, Wayman, and Anacker. Summaries
of t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s and b i b l i o g r a p h i e s may be found i n :

— Ruegg, Tathagatagarhha, pp. 39-55-

— Walpola Rahula's a r t i c l e "Asanga" i n M a l a l a s e k e r a ' s E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f

Buddhism, v o l . 2:1, pp. 133-1^6.

— Jacques May's "La p h i l o s o p h i e bouddhique idealiste."

— Anacker's "Vasubandhu: T h r e e ' A s p e c t s , " pp. 1-33,-' T h i s c o n t a i n s a n - e x c e l l e n t

summary and d i s c u s s i o n o f the t r a d i t i o n s and r e c e n t s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g the

life o f Vasubandhu".

1 1
J a n i c e D. W i l l i s a r r i v e d at a s i m i l a r view i n h e r ' " C h a p t e r 'on R e a l i t y . "

She says, "Asanga authored both the Yogacarabhumi and the Mahayanasamgraha

(among o t h e r works). Of t h e s e two, the l a t t e r i s the most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as

a whole o f h i s Mahayana views" (p. 3).

 CHAPTER I I

THE TRIKAYA DOCTRINE IN THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA

 71

A. SOURCES

The Mahayanasamgraha i s t h e most a c c e s s i b l e o f the e a r l y t e x t s . It i s

a v a i l a b l e i n b o t h the T a i s h o (Chinese) and P e k i n g (Tibetan) c o l l e c t i o n s . In

addition, a multitextual comparative e d i t i o n o f f o u r Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s

(T. 159^- by Hsuan-tsang, T. 1596 by Dharmagupta, T. 1593 by Paramartha, and

T. 1592 by Buddhasanta) has been p u b l i s h e d b y , S a s a k i Gessho (Kan'yaku Shihon-

taisho Shodaijoron. Tokyo: Nakayama Shobo, 1959).

The e d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t •„ and', a F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c text,

together with t r a n s l a t i o n s of selected portions o f the commentaries by

Vasubandhu and Asvabhava, has been p u b l i s h e d by E t i e n n e Lamotte as La Somme

du grand "vehicule d'Asanga (Mahayanasamgraha), tome 1: v e r s i o n s T I b e t a i n e et

Chinoise (Hiuan-Tsang); tome 2: t r a d u c t i o n et commentaire. Louvain: I n s t i t u t

Orientaliste, 1973.

The p r e s e n t study i s based upon two v e r s i o n s o f the Mahayanasamgraha:

— Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n , c a . 6h8 A.D. (Taisho 159^; v o l . 31,

pp. 132-152), r e f e r r e d t o as "H" and c i t e d by T a i s h o page, r e g i s t e r and

line.

— The n i n t h - c e n t u r y T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n by J i n a m i t r a , Silendrabodhi and

Ye-shes sde (Otani 55^9; v o l . 112), r e f e r r e d t o as "T" and c i t e d by P e k i n g

folio numbering.
 72

While I hare attempted t o i n t e r p r e t t h e Buddhology o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha

i n terms o f i t s own i n t e r n a l l o g i c w i t h minimal r e l i a n c e on t h e o p i n i o n s o f

l a t e r commentators, t h i s has f r e q u e n t l y proved i m p o s s i b l e . In such cases I

have c o n s u l t e d Vasubandhu's Bhasya, which i s a v a i l a b l e i n two versions:

— Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n (Taisho 1597; vol. 31, pp. 3 2 1 - 3 8 0 ) ,

r e f e r r e d t o as "Bh" and c i t e d by T a i s h o page, r e g i s t e r and line.

— The e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n by A t i s a and T s h u l - k h r i m s (Otani

5551; v o l . 1 1 2 , pp. 2 7 2 - 3 0 7 ) , r e f e r r e d t o as "bh" and c i t e d by P e k i n g folio

number and l i n e .

As t h e Bhasya's g l o s s e s a r e , by t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h a t genre o f commen-

tary, terse ( o f t e n no: more than c l a r i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e grammar o f t h e l o s t

S a n s k r i t ) , I have f r e q u e n t l y been f o r c e d t o c o n s u l t Asvabhava's Upanibandhana,

which i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n two versions:

— Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n (Taisho. 1598; v o l . . 3 1 , pp. 3 8 5 - ^ 9 ) , r e f e r r e d t o

as " U " and c i t e d by Taisho- page, r e g i s t e r and l i n e .

—- The T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n by J i n a m i t r a , S i l e n d r a b o d h i and Ye-shes sde (Otani

5552; v o l . 1 1 3 , pp. 1 - ^ 3 ) , r e f e r r e d t o as "u" and c i t e d by Peking f o l i o number

and l i n e .

While Asvabhava undoubtedly p o s t d a t e d Asanga, I have f e l t justified in

c o n s u l t i n g him because h i s comments seem t o be grounded i n t h e l o g i c o f t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r t e x t r a t h e r than i n t h e orthodoxy o f some l a t e r s c h o o l . At any r a t e ,

since h i s i s the f i r s t unambiguous l e v e l . o f commentary on many p a s s a g e s , t h e r e

is l i t t l e alternative. Lamotte a l s o r e l i e d h e a v i l y on the Upanibandhana.

 73

In t h i s study, r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha i t s e l f a r e c i t e d

a c c o r d i n g t o Lamotte's d i v i s i o n s , w h i l e T a i s h o r e f e r e n c e s a r e r e s e r v e d f o r

drawing a t t e n t i o n t o some f e a t u r e o f Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t e x t . Readers o f

the Chinese s h o u l d note t h a t , w h i l e Lamotte.. d i v i d e d t h e t e x t i n t o a prastavaria'

(foreword) f o l l o w e d by t e n " c h a p t e r s , " Hsuan-tsang numbered each section

c o n s e c u t i v e l y , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e p r a s t a v a n a . " Hence,, -Lambtte-'s c h a p t e r one

w i l l be Hsuan-tsang's s e c t i o n two, and so on.

B. WHAT IS THE VIJHAHAVADA ?

The most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e system o f which t h e t r i k a y a i s t h e

culmination i s i t s inclusiveness. G. Tucci^" wrote:

. . . we cannot f a i l t o n o t i c e a g e n e r a l and fundamen-

t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c common t o a l l . I mean t h e attempt f o r
the c o n c i l i a t i o n o f the v a r i o u s tendencies e x i s t e n t i n
Buddhism. . . .

. . . i t was c e r t a i n l y d i f f i c u l t t o combine i n a l o g i -
c a l way a l l p r a c t i c a l , d o g m a t i c a l , m y s t i c a l and t h e o l o g i c a l
t e n e t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e two
s c h o o l s . T h i s was attempted by M a i t r e y a C n a t h a l i n t h e
S u t r a l a n k a r a and c h i e f l y i n t h e Abhisamayalankara, where
t h e Hinayana as w e l l as t h e Mahayana-c a r y a a r e combined i n
the abhisamaya. . . .

The Mahayanasamgraha i s a l s o an i n c l u s i v e work, i n c o r p o r a t i n g n e a r l y every

f a m i l i a r abhidharma concept, s n i p p e t s o f p r a j n a p a r a m i t a , and t h e major t h e o r i e s

u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f Mahayana s u t r a s • Asanga's i n n o v a t i o n

c o n s i s t s o f t h e way i n which t h e s e a r e arranged t o form a harmonious system.

T h i s system can be d e s c r i b e d as..'a/hierarchy o f n e s t e d concerns and t h e o r i e s

each c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n , and o r i e n t e d by, i t s s u p e r i o r . An understanding'.of t h e

r e l a t i v e importance and r o l e o f each l e v e l o f t h e h i e r a r c h y w i l l prevent either

 7^

under- or o v e r - e v a l u a t i o n of.- any sub-theory (such as the t r i k a y a ' ) , and thus i s

the fundamental p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r more d e t a i l e d research.

A f t e r a c a r e f u l reading o f the Mahayanasamgraha and associated literature,

I have concluded t h a t the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f i t s system i s as f o l l o w s : The

primary concern i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l — the e n t i r e t e x t i s a guidebook f o r a

s p i r i t u a l career. Within t h i s , the secondary concern i s - . e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

Asanga wishes t o e l u c i d a t e the mechanism which w i l l a l l o w the a s p i r a n t to

p r o g r e s s toward the u l t i m a t e g o a l o f enlightenment (or " o m n i s c i e n c e " ) . Finally,

at a t e r t i a r y l e v e l o f concern, Asanga i s attempting t o i n t e g r a t e the various

t h e o r i e s i n t o a metaphysics. As t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s b o t h c r u c i a l t o my approach

t o the t r i k a y a and; d i r e c t l y opposed t o the u s u a l view, I s h a l l summarize the

considerations that l e d to i t .

Any d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s t o p i c must b e g i n w i t h the simple f a c t t h a t the

majority o f contemporary s c h o l a r s c o n s i d e r the V i j n a n a v a d a t o be an idealism.

Should we accept t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n f o r the d o c t r i n e o f the Mahayanasamgraha, :

we'

must e x p l a i n e x a c t l y what type o f an i d e a l i s m i t i s , and why certain non-

idealist i d e a s have been i n c l u d e d . Should we r e j e c t i t , we must demonstrate

why so many competent s c h o l a r s have been mistaken.

For the purposes o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , B. K. M a t i l a l ' s i s t h e b e s t and

c e r t a i n l y one o f the broadest d e f i n i t i o n s o f i d e a l i s m : ". . .a d e n i a l of the

common-sense view t h a t m a t e r i a l / e x t e r n a l objects e x i s t independently of the

mind, i . e . , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i r b e i n g perceived."

At first glance, t h i s seems t o d e s c r i b e the d o c t r i n e o f the Mahayana-

samgraha. For example, Asanga '<(-i"21-)v says :

In s h o r t , the a l a y a v i j n a n a i s a resulting-vijnana

E i . e . , r e s u l t i n g from p r e v i o u s experienced whose n a t u r e

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i s a l l t h e seeds [ o f f u t u r e experienceH. I t embraces

(samgrhita; bsdus; ) ^
a
bodies i n the three worlds
3
and a l l stations of rebirth.

Obviously, the alayavijnana (which i s f r e q u e n t l y t r a n s l a t e d as some s o r t

o f "mind") c o n t a i n s the e n t i r e perceived world. However, t h i s one i d e a does

not comprise a metaphysic. More d e t a i l s a r e r e q u i r e d , e.g.: How does t h i s

relate to ordinary experience? What guidance does i t g i v e i n f u l f i l l i n g

religious aspirations? What does i t r e a l l y mean? I t i s c l e a r that the various

i n v e s t i g a t o r s have reached w i d e l y v a r y i n g conclusions..

P. T. Raju, -in I d e a l i s t Thought i n I n d i a , sees t h e V i j n a n a v a d a as a minor

v a r i a t i o n o f t h e A d v a i t a Vedanta. Therefore, t h e i d e a l i s m l a b e l f r e e s him from

the n e c e s s i t y o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e problems a t a l l . The V i j n a n a v a d a t e x t s a r e

all footnotes t o t h e h i s t o r y o f Vedantac -though**-;-

Jacques May i n "La P h i l o s o p h i e bouddhique i d e a l i s t e " takes t h e i d e a l i s t i c

nature o f t h e d o c t r i n e as an a p r i o r i fact. I t i s simply part o f the general

Western d i s c u s s i o n o f i d e a l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . As he e x p l i c i t l y d i s r e g a r d s any

i d e a s which he i s unable t o i n t e g r a t e w i t h i n h i s i d e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , no

problems ( o r f r e s h i n s i g h t s ) can a r i s e .

B. K. M a t i l a l i n h i s " C r i t i q u e o f Buddhist I d e a l i s m " has taken t h e t e x t u a l

evidence ( c h i e f l y from s u r v i v i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t s ) much more s e r i o u s l y . ' ' He has

seen t h a t as an i d e a l i s m t h e d o c t r i n e i s a f a i l u r e , and i s f o r c e d t o note t h e

religious ( i . e . , s o t e r i o l o g i c a l ) i d e a s n e c e s s a r y t o make sense o f i t .

The best known modern i n t e r p r e t e r i s p r o b a b l y A. K. C h a t t e r j e e who, i n

Yogacara I d e a l i s m , has a l s o worked from t h e s u r v i v i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t s . He r e -

gards t h e fundamental p r o j e c t s o f H e g e l i a n philosophers and t h e V i j n a n a v a d a

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t h i n k e r s as v e r y s i m i l a r . The major d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t Hegel r e t a i n e d b o t h

s u b j e c t and o b j e c t , w h i l e t h e V i j n a n a v a d a masters have r e j e c t e d t h e o b j e c t t o

establish a pure A b s o l u t e . He sees t h i s n o t i o n as t h e l o g i c a l culmination

o f t h e c r i t i c a l and s u b j e c t i v i s t i c t r e n d s p r e s e n t throughout a l l Buddhis.ts

philosophy. S o t e r i o l o g i c a l ideas a r e unconnected w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l p h i l o s o p h -

i c a l concepts. These premises a r e r e f i n e d and r e s t a t e d but not changed i n h i s

Readings on Yogacara Buddhism.

While r e v i e w i n g Yogacara I d e a l i s m A l e x Wayman s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e s Chatter-

j e e ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e fundamental Yogacara p o s i t i o n i s t h a t conscious-

ness i s t h e s o l e r e a l i t y . He suggests t h a t , i n f o r e i n g 't:h.e d o c t r i n e i n t o such a

mold, C h a t t e r j e e has produced an: inadequate and m i s l e a d i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

While Wayman does not develop h i s own view, i t i s c l e a r t h a t he would

p l a c e g r e a t e r emphasis on t h e demands o f s o t e r i o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s (especially

m e d i t a t i o n ) , on t h e Abhidharma p o r t i o n , and on t h e t f i s v a b h a v a . Above a l l ,

Wayman i n s i s t s t h a t those passages which d e s c r i b e t h e g e n e s i s o f the perceived

world from mind must be r e a d i n t h e l i g h t o f s i m i l a r Samkhya d o c t r i n e s which he

sees as t h e i r prototype.

A l a t e r essay by C h a t t e r j e e , c o n t a i n e d i n F a c e t s o f Buddhist Thought, i s

more c l o s e l y reasoned and meets some o f Wayman's c r i t i c i s m , b u t does not show

any fundamental change i n s t a n c e .

Although o t h e r s have w r i t t e n on t h e s u b j e c t , these s c h o l a r s a r e among t h e

most r e s p e c t e d . T h e i r work shows t h a t i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e V i j n a n a v a d a as an

i d e a l i s m r a i s e s problems which a r e almost i m p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e without ignoring

portions o f the t e x t s . A f r e s h .approach i s i n d i c a t e d .

A second major reason for questioning the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e i r notions

i s t h a t they have drawn t h e i r i d e a s from a v e r y narrow s e l e c t i o n o f t h e e a r l y

 77

V i j n a n a v a d a works, c h i e f l y t h e few s u r v i v i n g i n S a n s k r i t . This i s clear, for

example, i n C h a t t e r j e e ' s comment t h a t " . . . canonical l i t e r a t u r e , pertaining

e x c l u s i v e l y t o the Yogacara, i s not p l e n t i f u l . " ^ T h i s statement becomes

comprehensible, i f i n c r e d i b l e , when we r e a l i z e t h a t he"'is i g n o r i n g t h e immense

corpus o f T i b e t a n and Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s and b a s i n g h i s r e s e a r c h on t h e

Mahayanasutralankara w i t h some r e f e r e n c e t o the Madhyantavibhaga and Vasu-

bandhu' s V i m s a t i k a and T r i m s i k a .

I f the author's primary concern i s not i d e a l i s t i c , w';at.,.may;...it'-~be? '' There

are two p o s s i b i l i t i e s : s o t e r i o l o g i c a l or p h i l o s o p h i c a l . I f the former, the

t e x t w i l l p r e s e n t a d o c t r i n e which w i l l p r i m a r i l y advance the a s p i r a n t ' s

s p i r i t u a l progress. Although we should expect most o f the d o c t r i n e t o be

l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , i f some aspect does not seem t o f i t , our q u e s t i o n would

be, "Does i t , or does i t ' n o t , f u r t h e r the a s p i r a n t ' s p r o g r e s s ? " and n o t , " i s

it l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the r e s t o f the t e x t ? "

I f the t e x t i s b a s i c a l l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l , i t .may be e i t h e r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l - .

or m e t a p h y s i c a l . I f the former, we s h o u l d expect a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the causes

o f the v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s open t o man. There would be no n e c e s s i t y f o r an

e x p l a n a t i o n o f the l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s . Only i f i t i s p r i m a r i l y

metaphysical s h o u l d we expect a l l o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o

an account o f the l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f such experience.

Some comments by H. V. Guenther w i l l h e l p us t o see p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s

to idealism. In "Mentalism and Beyond i n Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y " and i n Buddhist

P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e , he i m p l i c i t l y r e j e c t s any p o s s i b i l i t y of

s e p a r a t i n g s o t e r i o l o g y from p h i l o s o p h y — b o t h are a s p e c t s o f t r u e p h i l o s o p h y .

What, t h e n , do we have t o understand by 'philosophy'?

C e r t a i n l y , i t can never be an achievement; i t remains a
movement, a c o n t i n u a l s t r i v i n g f o r t r u t h by p r e - e m i n e n t l y
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i n t e l l e c t u a l means. In t h i s quest f o r t r u t h p h i l o s o p h y
b r i n g s about a change i n o u r s e l v e s by opening our eyes t o
wider h o r i z o n s . Such a v i s i o n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the
d e s i r e t o c u l t i v a t e and r e f i n e the p e r s o n a l i t y . Moreover,
p h i l o s o p h y as an encompassing v i s i o n wants t o know a l l t h a t
i s knowable; u n l i m i t e d c o g n i t i o n i s i t s b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
Any l i m i t a t i o n imposed on i t w i l l i n e v i t a b l y k i l l i t . But
the most d e c i s i v e p o i n t i s t h a t i n t h i s s t r i v i n g f o r t r u t h ,
t r u t h i t s e l f i s the p r i m a l source o f our t h i n k i n g . Yet i t
becomes p e r v e r t e d e a s i l y by p o s i t i n g as a b s o l u t e something
which i s v a l i d from c e r t a i n p o i n t s o f view and i n c e r t a i n
r e s p e c t s and at a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l o f t h i n k i n g . It also
becomes f a l s e by c o n s i d e r i n g the p a r t i c u l a r knowledge o f
something w i t h i n B e i n g as the knowledge o f B e i n g as such
and as a whole. P h i l o s o p h y as a quest f o r t r u t h born out
o f t r u t h i s t h e r e f o r e c o n s t a n t l y s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t i t s two
f o e s : a b s o l u t i z a t i o n and c o n c r e t i z a t i o n . T h i s i s t h e theme
o f Buddhist p h i l o s o p h y i n p a r t i c u l a r . I t b e g i n s w i t h a
v i s i o n o f what t h e r e i s , and t h e n p r o g r e s s i v e l y e n l a r g e s
this vision. I t s r e j e c t i o n o f the non-Buddhist systems,
a l l o f which i n some way succumb.to a n t i - p h i l o s o p h i c a l
t e n d e n c i e s , as w e l l as i t s t r e n c h a n t c r i t i q u e o f i t s own
d i g r e s s i o n s i n t o t h i s dangerous t e r r i t o r y , are due t o , and
r e f l e c t , the endeavour t o keep the p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p i r i t
alive.'''

T h i s n o t i o n t h a t the V i j n a n a v a d a m a i n t a i n s the congruence o f philosophy

and s o t e r i o l o g y i s a t t r a c t i v e t o an i n t e r p r e t e r o f the Mahayansamgraha. The

two are not separated i n the t e x t and,' i f i t s message can be understood without

introducing such a s e p a r a t i o n , the r e s u l t i s l i k e l y t o be f a i t h f u l to the

original.. The problem t h a t a r i s e s ^ i s t h a t Western i n t e r p r e t e r s , l i k e

; Guenther,

are apt-t'o r e s p e c t such a p h i l o s o p h y o n l y i n s o f a r as i t embodies a search for

the t r u t h by " p r e - e m i n e n t l y i n t e l l e c t u a l means." However, t h e t e x t contains

much more than i n t e l l e c t u a l means. It authorizes meditational and even m a n t r i c

techniques.. ( V : 2 . 1 0 ) . How can t h e s e p o s s i b l y " f a l l t h i n any Western concept

1
of

philosophy?

Guenther's answer i s t h a t such a 'philosophy' includes both epistemological

and m e t a p h y s i c a l components. The former, c o m p r i s i n g t h e 'mind-only' doctrine,

can c e r t a i n l y i n v o l v e the v a r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i c a l techniques f o r understanding

 79

t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p e r c e p t u a l mechanism. But t h i s can never be a m e t a p h y s i c a l

d o c t r i n e o f any k i n d , l e t alone an i d e a l i s m .

The m e t a p h y s i c a l d o c t r i n e s are not t h e 'mind-only' ones, but the t r i s v a -

bhava and the t r i k a y a , which Guenther d e s c r i b e s i n Buddhist Philosophy'.

However, such a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between epistemology and metaphysics

does not o c c u r i n the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a t e x t s . Guenther attributes this

absence.to a c o n f u s i o n on the p a r t o f the e a r l y t h i n k e r s :

I t i s a l s o obvious t h a t t h e I n d i a n Buddhist i d e a l i s t s
whose thought i s r e f l e c t e d by the bKa'-brgyud-pas, were above
a l l concerned w i t h e p i s t e m o l o g y , t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e
p s y c h i c event o f the moment w i t h i t s o b j e c t i v e d u p l i c a t e .
Only s e c o n d a r i l y were t h e y m e t a p h y s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t e d , as when
t h e y reduced the whole o f r e a l i t y t o the one p a r t i c u l a r
e x i s t e n t o f sems (mind). I t seems t h a t the bKa -brgyud-pas, 1

j u s t as t h e i r I n d i a n p r o t o t y p e s , due t o t h e i r p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l problems, misunderstood the l o g i c a l
c h a r a c t e r o f the m e t a p h y s i c a l premise. They saw sems 'mind'
as a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t on which o t h e r a s s e r t i o n s were t o be
based, i n a word, as the b a s i c premise, summed up i n the
words: "The whole o f r e a l i t y i s mental."

However, epistemology i s one f a c t o f p h i l o s o p h y , meta-

p h y s i c s another. What d i s t i n g u i s h e s a m e t a p h y s i c i a n from
o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s i s not the premise he s t a r t s from but the
p r i n c i p l e o f ^ i n t e r p r e t a t i o n he b r i n g s t o b e a r . He c e r t a i n l y
does not c l a i m t o r e v e a l t r u t h s about a w o r l d which l i e s
beyond the r e a l m o f the senses. H i s concern i s w i t h how t o
take what happens here and now or how t o get the t h i n g s o f
t h i s w o r l d i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e . . . .9

L a t e r , w h i l e summarizing the'Dk d o c t r i n e , I s h a l l show t h a t t h i s comment

i s d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o the Mahayanasamgraha, and argue t h a t ..the t a s k o f

i n t e r p r e t i n g i t s d o c t r i n e i n v o l v e s d e r i v i n g a metaphysics which w i l l harmonize

w i t h the s t a t e d epistemology.
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C. VIJNANAVADA OF THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA

Our study must b e g i n .with Asanga's foreword -(prastavana) w i t h i t s c o n c i s e

a p o l o g e t i c f o r "the Mahayana" ( i . e . , t h e V i j n a n a v a d a ) . While t h i s appears t o

c o n s t i t u t e a c l e a r statement o f t h e p r i m a r y concern o f t h e t e x t , i t i s almost

i m p o s s i b l e t o f o r c e i n t o an i d e a l i s t i c mold. I f t h e body o f t h e t e x t c o n t a i n s

an i d e a l i s t i c system, t h i s foreword i s an embarrassing appendage. I f , however,

the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s a r e not an i d e a l i s m i s a l l o w e d , t h e n this

foreword becomes a key t o t h e author's intent.

Asanga s t a t e s t h a t t h e Mahayana message c o n s i s t s o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e

t e n c h a p t e r s o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha arranged i n t h e o r d e r n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e

a s p i r a n t ' s s p i r i t u a l development. They c h a r t a c r e d i b l e , l o g i c a l p a t h t o g r e a t

enlightenment (mahabodhi). That i s , h i s primary i n t e n t i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l ,

and w i t h i n t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n he has arranged and i n t e g r a t e d t h e t e a c h i n g s i n t o

a coherent system. H i s aim i s fundamentally s o t e r i o l o g i c a l and s e c o n d a r i l y

philosophical.

T h i s viewpoint w i l l a f f e c t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f every element o f t h e

system. I f t h e Mahayanasamgraha were r e g a r d e d as a p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e x t , t h e

u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e would have t o be p h i l o s o p h i c a l . As t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l major

p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t e x t , one would have t o be e l e v a t e d t o a

primary p o s i t i o n . As we have seen, t h e u s u a l c a n d i d a t e has been t h e c l u s t e r

of i d e a l i s t i c notions. However, t h i s means t h a t those o t h e r i d e a s - t h a t w i l l

not f i t must be e x p l a i n e d away o r s e t a s i d e .

I f however, t h e u n i f y i n g v i e w p o i n t i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l , t h e r e i s no need t o

a s s e r t t h e primacy o f any one o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s so l o n g as t h e i r

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be shown. F r e e d from t h e n e c e s s i t y t o e l e v a t e t h e

 81

content o f one o f the chapters t o the s t a t u s o f " t h e " core o f the system, we

can examine the secondary l e v e l o f concern w i t h fewer p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . Asanga

l a y s out the s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s secondary l e v e l i n h i s foreword.

[The a c t u a l content o f each chapter o f the Mahayanasamgraha:" i s : D

I. The a l a y a v i j n a n a i s c a l l e d the support o f the knowable

(jneyasraya; shes-bya'i gnas; ^fj %0 )•

II. The t r i s v a b h a v a : i . e . , the p a r a t a n t r a s v a b h a v a , the

p a r i k a l p i t a s v a b h a v a , and the p a r i n i spanrias vabhava, are

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e knowable (jneyalaksana;

shes-bya'i mtshan-nyid; - ^ J ^ $ ^S- )•

III. Ideation-only (vi.jnaptimatrata) i s the e n t r y i n t o the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the knowable (jneyalaksanapravesa;

s n e s
~ k y ' i mtshan-nyid-la' jug-pa;
a
^ Jifj ^ Q ).

IV. The s i x paramitas are the cause and the r e s u l t of t h i s

entry.

V. The t e n bodhisattvabhumis are the v a r i o u s ways i n which

the cause and r e s u l t o f t h i s e n t r y are cultivated.

VI. The Bodhisattva d i s c i p l i n e i s the h i g h e r morality

(adhisila) involved i n t h i s .

VII. The samadhis ... are the h i g h e r mentation (adhicitta)

involved i n t h i s .

VIII. Non-discriminating awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) i s the

h i g h e r awareness ( a d h i p r a j n a ) i n v o l v e d i n t h i s .

IX. N o n - s t a y i n g n i r v a n a i s the severance-result

(phalaprahana) o f t h i s .

X. The trikaya ... i s the a w a r e n e s s - r e s u l t (phalajnana) of t h i s .

 82

The key n o t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y "the knowable" and the b a s i c soteriological

act i s the " e n t r y " (pravesa; 'jug-pa; ^ ) t o the knowable.

The term "the knowable" i s not a focus o f i n t e r e s t by i t s e l f . Vasubandhu

(Bh 322b29-cl; bhll+5al) g l o s s e s i t as " t h a t which may be Cor "should be"]

known,''"'"" and
1
i d e n t i f i e s ^ i t w i t h ,the s o i l e d and p u r i f i e d dharmas, or w i t h the

t r i svabhava. Furthermore, he says (Bh322c7-8; b h l ^ a ^ O t h a t the e n t r y can be

equated w i t h v i j n a p t i m a t r a t a i n the sense t h a t t h i s s p e c i f i e d the manner or'.,

means o f e n t r y .

Asanga i s not p o s i t i n g some new transcendent e n t i t y c a l l e d "the knowable."

Had he wished t o do t h i s , he a l r e a d y had a q u a s i - o n t o l o g i c a l t a t h a t a at hand.

I can o n l y conclude t h a t t h i s term throws the e n t i r e t h e o r y i n t o an epistemo-

l o g i c a l form. That i s , w i t h i n t h i s p r i m a r y s o t e r i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e , Asanga

has chosen t o o r d e r the i n d i v i d u a l i d e a s i n an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e

i n d i c a t e d by "the knowable." He i s l e s s concerned.with d e s c r i b i n g how the

world l o o k s from a l i b e r a t e d viewpoint than w i t h e x p l a i n i n g the mechanism

whereby the a s p i r a n t can a c q u i r e such a viewpoint.

Only at a t e r t i a r y l e v e l o f emphasis does Asanga i n t r o d u c e the individual

t h e o r i e s , such as t h a t o f the a l a y a v i j f l a n a or v i j napt imat r a t a, which might be

termed i d e a l i s t were they p r e s e n t e d on the primary l e v e l . However, they are

not. They are on the same l e v e l as, and elaborately interconnected with, the

t r i s v a b h a v a , paramitas, bhumis, samvara, samadhi, n i r v i k a l p a j nana, a p r a t i s t h i t a -

n i r v a n a and t r i k a y a . The t r a p f o r the unwary i n t e r p r e t e r i s the f a c t t h a t any

o f t h e s e , i n the hands o f a determined r e d u c t i o n i s t , c o u l d be made t o contain

a l l the o t h e r s and thus become "the e s s e n t i a l " d o c t r i n e . Only by some s e n s i -

t i v i t y t o Asanga's s t a t e d aim can we a p p r e c i a t e the importance o f each, and

hence be i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n v e s t i g a t e h i s use o f any one theory.

 83

The view o f chapters I - I I can be summarized as f o l l o w s : Asanga, l i k e a

Western phenomenologist, wishes t o b e g i n h i s p r o j e c t w i t h t h e raw f a c t s o f

experience. To him, r e a l i t y i s composed o f a b e g i n n i n g l e s s s e r i e s o f these

experiences which, because t h e y make themselves known d i r e c t l y t o t h e mind,

are c a s t i n m e n t a l i s t i c terms. The ground f o r t h e e n t i r e e x p e r i e n t i a l p r o c e s s

i s c a l l e d t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a and each experience i s termed v i j n a p t i . Questions

about t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h i s m e n t a l i s t i c language t o o r d i n a r y uses o f t h e s e terms

are d i f f i c u l t and complex. I w i l l o n l y p o i n t out t h a t t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a i s n o t

some supermind. I t belongs t o a l e v e l o f d i s c o u r s e i n which i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

of the events, such as t h e n o t i o n t h a t they p e r t a i n t o a "mind" ( i n any common

sense) have been s e t a s i d e .

The v i j n a p t i a r e not simply raw s e n s e - d a t a b u t , because o f t h e o r g a n i z i n g

e f f e c t o f past experiences, present themselves as f u l l - b l o w n p e r c e p t i o n s .

These i n c l u d e t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e s e l f as a p e r c e i v e r w i t h body and mind; t h e

p e r c e p t i o n o f a sensory apparatus; t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f an o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n ,

and t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f r l i n t e r p r e t a t i v e schema ( 1 1 : 2 ) . As t h e s e have no indepen-

dent r e a l i t y but a r e merely moments i n t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a , they

are s a i d t o be dependent on t h e a l a y a v i j nana.

The common man. .may adopt one o f two p o s s i b l e a t t i t u d e s toward these per-

ceptions. He u s u a l l y h y p o s t a t i z e s them i n t o c o n c r e t e t h i n g s , thus strengthening

t h e n o t i o n t h a t he i s a person surrounded by an environment o f o b j e c t s . Asanga

terms such o b j e c t s " t o t a l l y i m a g i n a r y " (II:3). On t h e other; hand, under t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f Mahayana t e a c h i n g s , he may b e g i n t o see t h r o u g h t h e apparent

s u b s t a n t i a l i t y o f these p e r c e p t i o n s . As he does s o , he becomes f r e e from t h e

i d e a s t h a t he and h i s surroundings a r e immutable o b j e c t s . His perceptions are

o 12
brought t o p e r f e c t i o n " ( I I : M .
 8k

In e i t h e r case t h e p e r c e i v e r , o b j e c t and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e m u t u a l l y

13

dependent and c o - v a r i a b l e . None o f them remains c o n s t a n t w h i l e t h e o t h e r s

change. There i s no room i n t h i s t h e o r y f o r a s i n g l e o b s e r v e r who sees t h i n g s

d i f f e r e n t l y o r who sees, d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s ; t h e r e i s no n o t i o n o f a r e a l world

which appears d i f f e r e n t t o common man and Buddha. There i s no need t o h o l d

any o f t h e s e terms c o n s t a n t , s i n c e c o n t i n u i t y i s p r o v i d e d by t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a :

the p e r c e p t u a l a c t i v i t y from which t h e common man and h i s w o r l d , and t h e

- Ik

Buddha and h i s w o r l d , may-emerge.. The way i n which t h e s e i d e a s a p p l y t o t h e

i n d i v i d u a l on t h e r e l i g i o u s path i s worked out i n d e t a i l throughout the text.

F i n a l l y , we s h o u l d note an i n t e r e s t i n g e x t e n s i o n o f t h e Abhidharmic term

dharma t o generate terms which a p p l y t o t h e Buddha. Asanga e a s i l y f i n d s terms

f o r t h e o r d i n a r y p e r c e i v e r , t h e o b j e c t o f h i s p e r c e p t i o n and t h e s e i z i n g

p e r c e p t i o n s he employs, b u t a problem a r i s e s when speaking o f t h e Buddha, t h e

environment which he p e r c e i v e s and t h e way i n which he p e r c e i v e s i t . Asanga's

s o l u t i o n i s t o adopt a t e r m i n o l o g y based on t h e word dharma. Whereas t h e

common man sees h i m s e l f as a s p e c i a l s o r t o f o b j e c t surrounded by o t h e r o b j e c t s

at which he g r a s p s , t h e Buddha sees h i m s e l f as a group o f dharmas (Dharmakaya),

surrounded by dharmas over which he e x e r c i s e s s o v e r e i g n t y . The f i e l d w i t h i n

which t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n occurs i s c a l l e d t h e "dharma-realm" (dharmadhatu).""" ^

The i n t e r p r e t a t i v e , scheme t h a t h a s . l e d him'to t h i s v i s i o n i s c a l l e d t h e " :

"Mahayana dharma," As i t has been g i v e n t o him by o t h e r s who have p r e v i o u s l y

a t t a i n e d such a v i s i o n , i t i s c a l l e d an " o u t f l o w " o f t h e dharmadhatu.

 85

D. A STUDY OF VIJNANAVADA BUDDHQLOGY IN THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA

As we have seen, Asanga has c i t e d a great number o f t r a d i t i o n a l "facts"

about Buddhahood from the a u t h o r i t a t i v e s u t r a s and s a s t r a s . He does not appear

t o have s e l e c t e d t h e s e f o r c o m p a t i b i l i t y s i n c e even the most contradictory

notions (e.g., t h e r e i s one Buddha/there are many Buddhas) are reproduced. As

the h i s t o r y and development o f many o f t h e s e have been s t u d i e d e l s e w h e r e , ^ I

have examined an i n d i v i d u a l n o t i o n i n d e t a i l o n l y when such i n f o r m a t i o n i s

n e c e s s a r y t o understand t h e use o f i t i n t h i s text.

The p r e s e n t study w i l l be p r i n c i p a l l y concerned w i t h those d o c t r i n e s by

which Asanga attempts t o r e s o l v e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between the i n d i v i d u a l i d e a s .

The g e n e r a l procedure.was as f o l l o w s : A l l statements about Buddhahood

were l o c a t e d . Where t h e y o c c u r r e d i n c l u s t e r s , the.degree of r e l a t i o n s h i p

between contiguous elements was a s s e s s e d and a d e c i s i o n made on whether each

c o u l d stand alone or whether the c l u s t e r should be r e t a i n e d i n t a c t . That i s ,

each statement was i s o l a t e d as f a r as l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e . In most c a s e s , t h i s ,

judgement proved e a s i e r than expected. For example, as t h e twenty-one gunas

o f the Buddha at 11:33 are o b v i o u s l y l i f t e d en b l o c from the Samdhinifmocana-

s u t r a and are s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r Buddhology and i n t e r p r e t e d i n a

d i f f e r e n t manner by Asanga, t h e y s h o u l d be kept t o g e t h e r . The. same r e a s o n i n g

a p p l i e s t o the " a s s o c i a t e d " gunas a t X:9-2T. On t h e o t h e r hand, many s t a t e -

ments are c l e a r l y d i s c r e t e o r are embedded i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f some o t h e r t o p i c .

In e i t h e r c a s e , t h e y may be removed from c o n t e x t and regrouped t o illustrate

f e a t u r e s o f the b a s i c framework, e.g., t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r a l l statements

r e f e r r i n g t o the Dharmakaya.

The ease with, which t h i s r e g r o u p i n g i s p o s s i b l e r e f l e c t s the e a r l y state

 86

of this text. Although the c h a p t e r s are i n a l o g i c a l o r d e r , many b l o c k s of

d o c t r i n e w i t h i n the chapters ( e s p e c i a l l y i n chapter X) are i n no obviously

m e a n i n g f u l o r d e r , and may be rearranged.' These.passages f e l l into three

c a t e g o r i e s , each o f which r e q u i r e d a d i f f e r e n t treatment:

1. The list o f gunas at 11:33 stands by i t s e l f . As i t i s not r e a l l y i n t e g r a t e d

w i t h the r e s t o f the t e x t , i t r e c e i v e d o n l y a c u r s o r y examination.

2. The passages d e a l i n g w i t h the Dharmakaya showed t h a t Asanga had used t h i s

term as a synonym f o r Buddhahood i n g e n e r a l . These passages c o n t a i n most o f

the t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a s w i t h which he d e a l s , but c o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y t o h i s

s y s t e m a t i c p r o j e c t o n l y by answering t h e q u e s t i o n o f how Buddhahood i s o b t a i n e d .

T h e r e f o r e , I have s t r u c t u r e d the examination o f t h e s e around t h a t question.

3. Those passages (mainly from chapter X) which show Asanga's attempts t o

s y s t e m a t i z e the B u d d h o l o g i c a l i d e a s by the t r i k a y a scheme. These are the

primary focus o f t h i s study.

Before beginning, a p o s s i b l e source o f c o n f u s i o n must be noted. The

Buddhology o f the Mahayanasamgraha hinges on the term "body." Lamotte has

t r a n s l a t e d a v a r i e t y o f T i b e t a n and Chinese terms by " l e c o r p s " ("body"), and

regarded them a l l as e q u i v a l e n t t o the S a n s k r i t "kaya." Examining the t e x t s ,

I found t h a t he has used '"le c o r p s " f o r the f o l l o w i n g terms:

1. T: sku, H: f o r any aspect o f a Buddha (e.g., 'Nirmanakaya,

Sambhogakaya, Dharmakaya, Svabhavikakaya). These were

undoubtedly kaya i n t h e S a n s k r i t .

2. T: l u s and Hi'jpj? f o r the p h y s i c a l b o d i e s o f o r d i n a r y b e i n g s ,

 87

of Sravakas and o f Pratyekabuddhas (e.g., '1:1+8; 1:50; 11:2.2;

11:11, etc. ).

3. T: lus_ and H: C t l f o r "category or " c l a s s " (l:ll, I:2l).

Thus, by t a k i n g b o t h T i b e t a n and Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o account, i t i s

always p o s s i b l e t o determine which o f t h e t h r e e senses o f "body" i s i n t e n d e d .

1. 11:33 THE TWENTY-ONE GUNAS OF THE BUDDHA

11:33 c o n t a i n s a s h o r t , and a p p a r e n t l y s e p a r a t e , Buddhology based on t h e

following l i s t of qualities (gunas) o f a Buddha. This l i s t i s drawn from a

' ' ~
prominent passage o f t h e Samdhinirmocanasutra. 17

The Buddha:

0. Has a v e r y pure intelligence

s h i n - t u rnam-par dag-pa'i b i o mnga'-ba

& :
i M>

1. Acts i n non-duality

kun-tu spyod-pa'i g n y i s mi-mnga'-ba

* — n

2. E n t e r s t h e c h a r a c t e r l s t i c l e s s dharma

mtshan-nyid med-pa'i c h o s - l a mchog-tu g z h o l - b a r mdzad-pa

 88

3. R e s i d e s i n t h e Buddha-residence

s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i gnas-pas- gnas-pa

4i f& it
k. O b t a i n s an e q u a l i t y w i t h a l l Buddhas

sangs-rgyas thams-cad dang mnyam-pa-nyid b r n y e s - p a

l i . f l - M ih if- % ML

5. Having no o b s t a c l e s , reaches an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

S g r i b - p a mi-mnga'-bas r t o g s - p a r t h u g s - s u chud-pa

6. Has a dharma which cannot be o v e r t u r n e d

p h y i r m i - z l o g - p a ' i chos dang-ldan-pa

7. I s not d i m i n i s h e d by h i s sphere o f a c t i o n

s p y o d - y u l - g y i s mi-'phrogs-pa

8. Has a system which i s i n c o n c e i v a b l e

rnam-par bzhag-pa bsam-gyis mi-khyab-pa

9. Has reached the e q u a l i t y o f t h e t h r e e times

dus-gsum mnyam-pa-nyid-du t h u g s - s u chud-pa
 89

10. Has a body t h a t extends over a l l areas o f t h e u n i v e r s e

' j i g - r t e n - g y i khams thams-cad-du khyab-pa'i sku dang-ldan-pa

11. Has a v e r i d i c a l awareness o f t h i n g s

chos-thams-cad-la the-tshorn med-pa'i ye-shes mnga'-ba

%> _ n ; i *j ^ ii.

12. Has a mind c o n t a i n i n g a l l p r a c t i c e s •-

spyod-pa thams-cad dang-ldan-pa'i b i o mnga'-ba

its — w it K tt
13. Has-an e r f o r l e s s _ k h o w l e d g e o f t h i n g s
chos mkhyen-pa-la nem-nur med-pa

*• Vi it *t fe Jk

lh. Has a body CH: "as p e r c e i v e d by o r d i n a r y b e i n g s " ] which i s

not imaginary

rnam-par ma-brtags-pa'i sku mnga'-ba

15. Has.an awareness which i s t h e g o a l o f t h e vows o f a l l Bodhisattvas

ye-shes byang-chub sems-dpa' thams-cad-kyis yang-dag-par mnos-pa [ s i c ]

- I. § . % n * «

16. Has t r u l y reached t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e non-dual Buddha-residence

s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i gnas-pa g n y i s - s u med-pa dam-pa'i p h a - r o l - t u p h y i n - p a

4! & - ^ ;T4JUf'.
 90

17. Has arrived, at the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the Tathagata's undefiled

l i b e r a t i n g awareness

de-bzhin gshegs-pa ma-'dres-pa'i rnam-par t h a r - p a r mdzad-pa'i

y e - s h e s - k y i mthar phyin-pa

18. Has reached the e q u a l Buddhaland which has n e i t h e r c e n t e r nor

o u t l y i n g areas

mtha'-dang dbus med-pa'i s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i sa mnyam-pa n y i d - d u

t h u g s - s u chud-pa

19. Has reached the dharmadhatu

chos-kyi dbyings-kyis klas-pa

ft TY> %~

20. Has reached the l i m i t o f open space

nam-mkha'i khams-kyi mtha' gtugs-pa

21. Completely reaches t h e f i n a l limits

phyi-ma'i mtha'i mur thug-pa

Asanga's r e a s o n f o r g r a f t i n g t h i s passage t e n u o u s l y onto the-..end o f the

»•
t r i svabhava
v
l8
chapter',, r a t h e r than: i n t e g r a t i n g i t w i t h i n the t r i k a y a , i s obscure.

However, as he has kept i t s e p a r a t e and i n t e r p r e t e d i t d i f f e r e n t l y , almost t o

the p o i n t o f d e v e l o p i n g an a l t e r n a t e Buddhology, I have m a i n t a i n e d h i s d i v i s i o n

 91

and p l a c e d a s h o r t study o f i t i n the f o l l o w i n g section.

The most obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the above l i s t i s i t s imagery. It

evokes a mythopoeic image o f a v i r t u a l l y o m n i s c i e n t and omnipotent Buddha o f

cosmic dimensions i n h a b i t i n g a Buddha-residence, w i t h i n a Buddhaland, i n a

s t a t e o f p e r f e c t knowledge. The remainder o f 11:33 shows us the existential

interpretation"*"^ t o which Asanga s u b j e c t e d t h i s l i s t as w e l l as Vasubandhu's

and Asvabhava's expansion o f t h i s interpretation.

I must r e p e a t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t under i n v e s t i g a t i o n here i s not the

t r a d i t i o n a l image.but the manner i n which Asanga has i n t e r p r e t e d i t . Unfortu-

n a t e l y , h i s o n l y e x p l i c i t p r i n c i p l e i s expremely puzzling. He s a y s , "The

phrase, 'The Buddha has a v e r y pure i n t e l l i g e n c e ( b u d d h i ) ' i s c l a r i f i e d by t h e

other phrases." A l l v e r s i o n s add, "Thus, the X i s p r o p e r l y e x p l a i n e d . " "X"

is v a r i o u s l y , dharmata ( T i b e t a n and H), 'f'jr (Dharmagupta and Buddha-

santa) dr (Paramartha), o r " l a n a t u r e du Buddha" (Lamotte). The author

o b v i o u s l y wishes t o subsume a l l o t h e r gunas under the u n d e f i n e d concept of

"pure b u d d h i . " N e i t h e r Vasubandhu nor Asvabhava o f f e r s s u b s t a n t i a l commentary,

and the i d e a i s not a major f o c u s elsewhere i n the Mahayanasamgraha. I can

o n l y suggest t h a t i t may r e f e r t o the d o c t r i n e which D. S. Ruegg has called

20
"la l u m i n o s i t e n a t u r e l l e de l a pensee," but i t s importance here i s i m p o s s i b l e

to determine.

Asanga's comments r e v e a l a c o n s i s t e n t and comprehensible interpretation.

He sees each g u n a — e v e n those o s t e n s i b l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e Buddha's r e s i d e n c e ,

e t c . — a s a r e f e r e n c e t o some q u a l i t y o f t h e Buddha's p e r s o n a l i t y . These may

be g e n e r a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o those gunas which he r e g a r d s as r e f e r e n c e s t o the

Buddha's n o e t i c a b i l i t i e s , and those which he r e g a r d s as r e f e r e n c e s t o the

Buddha's e f f e c t i v e abilities.
 92

a. The Noetic Abilities

S t r a n g e l y enough, Asanga i n t e r p r e t s the two gunas which o s t e n s i b l y i n f o r m

us o f the way i n which the Buddha " a c t s " or "moves" as r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s n o e t i c

r a t h e r than h i s e f f e c t i v e a b i l i t i e s :

1. "CThe Buddha] a c t s i n n o n - d u a l i t y " i s g l o s s e d as "the q u a l i t y o f

a b s o l u t e l y unimpeded entrance t o the knowable." " E n t e r i n g the knowable" r e f e r s

to o b t a i n i n g an a c c u r a t e comprehension o f the o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f p e r c e i v e d

r e a l i t y , a comprehension which w i l l i t s e l f ensure a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n . This

•- - •'' 21
comprehension i s d e s c r i b e d i n the t r i s v a b h a v a d o c t r i n e ( I I : 9 ) - Asvabhava

supports t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by d e f i n i n g " n o n - d u a l i t y " as "not sometimes

encountering o b s t a c l e s and sometimes not encountering them," thus s t e e r i n g the

reader away from the obvious c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the " n o n - d u a l i t y " c o u l d r e f e r t o

a non-dichotomizing conceptual process, a n o t i o n not i n a c c o r d w i t h the

trisvabhava.

2. "He e n t e r s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e s s dharma" i s i n t e r p r e t e d as "he has

gone t o the supremely pure t a t h a t a which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n o n - d u a l i t y of

b e i n g and non-being." Asvabhava r e f e r s t h i s concept t o the t r i s v a b h a v a doc-

t r i n e which i n the Mahayanasamgraha i s invoked t o e x p l a i n a l l such a s s e r t i o n s .

22

Thus, "Buddha a c t i o n " i s i n t e r p r e t e d as an unhampered n o e t i c a c t which,

together with " e n t r y , " r e f e r s t o g a i n i n g a proper understanding of reality,

i . e . , an understanding by the trisvabhava.

b. The Effective Abilities

The remainder o f the gunas are r e f e r e n c e s t o the Buddha's a l t r u i s t i c

activity. These may be s u b d i v i d e d - i n t o those which o s t e n s i b l y describe- the

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domain or p l a c e i n h a b i t e d by the Buddha, 'and those which d e s c r i b e t h e Buddha

himself.

i. The Domain o f the Buddha

5. "Having no o b s t a c l e s , he reaches an u n d e r s t a n d i n g . " (.The Chinese

s a y s , "He has reached the non-impeded p l a c e (lUlb26).") Asanga e x p l a i n s t h i s

as the q u a l i t y o f h a v i n g c u l t i v a t e d the a n t i d o t e t o a l l o b s t a c l e s . Asvabhava

adds t h a t t h i s " c u l t i v a t i o n " i s the p r a c t i c e o f t h e n o b l e p a t h .

T h i s p o i n t i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o 1. and 2., but s t r e s s e s the state

a c h i e v e d r a t h e r than the a c t i o n o f a c h i e v i n g i t .

3- "He r e s i d e s i n the Buddha-residence (vihara)" i s interpreted as

showing "the q u a l i t y o f r e s i d i n g i n .unceasing, spontaneous B u d d h a - a c t i v i t y . "

By v a r i o u s examples o f " r e s i d e n c e " (Devavihara , the f o u r Brahmaviharas, the

dhyanas, sunyata, a n i m a t t a , e t c ) , Asvabhava (UUl0c27-29).explains "residence"

to be any fundamental stance or p r i n c i p l e i n which an i n d i v i d u a l i s grounded

and from which he a c t s . Asvabhava i d e n t i f i e s the Buddhavihara w i t h the

s p o n t a n e i t y w i t h which a Buddha takes any a p p r o p r i a t e stance t o a i d s e n t i e n t

b e i n g s , not by some p a r t i c u l a r Buddha-stance.

Here a l s o , a statement a s c r i b i n g a determinate s t a t e i s i n t e r p r e t e d as

a reference to a c t i v i t y . Asanga i s not o n l y i n t e r p r e t i n g a s p a t i a l myth i n

a c t i v e terms but i s a l s o a f f i r m i n g t h a t the manner o f the Buddha's a c t s cannot

be e x h a u s t i v e l y s p e c i f i e d , but o n l y l a b e l l e d "unceasing spontaneous Buddha

actions."

T h i s phrase r e v e a l s the t h r e e parameters g o v e r n i n g the Buddha's a c t i o n

in specific circumstances. "Unceasing" w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n number 21 below.

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" S p o n t a n e i t y " r e v e a l s t h e Buddha's freedom t o respond t o t h e needs o f o t h e r s .

The t h i r d , " B u d d h a - a c t i v i t y , " i s determined by the p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n s set up

d u r i n g the graded p r a c t i c e o f the paramitas which l e d t o Buddhahood. This

p a t t e r n i s the s u b j e c t o f the next guna.

16. "He has t r u l y reached the p e r f e c t i o n (paramita) o f the non-dual

Buddha-residence." Asanga says t h a t t h i s i s "the q u a l i t y o f h a v i n g a t t a i n e d

t h e paramitas i n the e q u a l Dharmakaya." To Asvabhava t h i s means t h a t a l l the

paramitas have been developed t o t h e h i g h e s t degree and are " e q u a l " or "non-

d u a l " i n s o f a r as t h e y cannot be q u a n t i f i e d (as t h e y c o u l d w h i l e t h e Buddha was

still on the bhumis). A g a i n , the Buddha-residence i s more than a determinate

pattern of action. I t i s the terminus o f the development by which t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a became a Buddha, and as such d e f i n e s the manner i n which t h e

Buddha w i l l a c t .

22

18. "He has reached the e q u a l Buddhaland which has n e i t h e r c e n t e r nor

outlying areas." Asariga says t h a t t h i s r e v e a l s the q u a l i t y o f n o n - l i m i t a t i o n

o f the sphere o f the t h r e e Buddha-kayas. Asvabhava adds a s e r i e s o f comments,

o n l y two o f which are o f i n t e r e s t h e r e : "the Dharmakaya, e t c . l i v i n g i n t h i s

u n i v e r s e because t h e r e i s no p l a c e e l s e " and "the Dharmakaya, e t c . p e n e t r a t e s

everywhere i n o r d e r t o p r o c u r e t h e w e l f a r e o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s ..."

While the Buddha-residence was the f a c t o f the Buddha's a l t r u i s t i c action,

the Buddhaland i s the p l a c e o f the a c t i o n . Asvabhava concludes t h a t t h i s p l a c e

cannot be o t h e r than the u n i v e r s e f i l l e d w i t h the b e i n g s f o r whose sake the

a c t i o n i s performed.

19. "He has reached the dharmadhatu" shows the q u a l i t y o f h a v i n g devoted

h i m s e l f t o the w e l f a r e and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s u n t i l the end o f

samsara. Asvabhava says t h a t the dharmadhatu can g i v e r i s e t o o u t f l o w s such

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as s u t r a s and t e a c h i n g s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e Buddha who reaches t h e dharmadhatu

devotes h i m s e l f t o t h e w e l f a r e and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . Here t h e

s p a t i a l language i s i n t e r p r e t e d as r e v e a l i n g t h e a l t r u i s m o f t h e Buddha's

actions.

20. "He has reached the l i m i t s o f open space" r e v e a l s t h e q u a l i t y o f

indestructibility (or""inexhaustibility"). .Asvabhava adds t h a t "open space"

i s a metaphor for-'the Dharmakaya which, without i t s e l f a l t e r i n g of imposing

l i m i t s , w o r k s . f o r t h e w e l f a r e and happiness o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .

21. "He c o m p l e t e l y reaches t h e f i n a l l i m i t s . " There i s no comment by

Asanga and Asvabhava makes t h i s a p a r t o f number 20., but a l s o suggests t h a t

the " f i n a l l i m i t s " r e f e r t o a p e r p e t u a l n o n - i n t e r r u p t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a - a c t i v i t y ,

s i n c e t h e r e w i l l never be an end t o b e i n g s t o be t r a i n e d . Thus, t h e s p a t i a l

l i m i t s are i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e l i m i t l e s s n e s s o f t h e a c t i o n .

7. "He i s not d i m i n i s h e d by h i s sphere o f a c t i o n CH: " H i s a c t i o n s are

unimpeded"]." Asanga e x p l a i n s t h i s as "the q u a l i t y o f not b e i n g d i m i n i s h e d by

w o r l d l y t h i n g s a l t h o u g h born i n the w o r l d . "

ii. The Buddha-body

Only two gunas d e a l e x p l i c i t l y w i t h t h e body o f t h e Buddha:

10. "His body extends over a l l areas o f t h e u n i v e r s e " means t o Asanga

t h a t he m a n i f e s t s a Sambhoghakaya and Nirmanakaya i n a l l areas o f t h e u n i v e r s e .

Asvabhava adds t h a t t h i s i s f o r t h e w e l f a r e and happiness o f a l l b e i n g s t o be

disciplined.

ih. "His body CH: "as p e r c e i v e d by o r d i n a r y b e i n g s " ] i s not i m a g i n a r y . "

Asanga says t h a t "he m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s Cof t h o s e

whom he t e a c h e s ] . " Asvabhava adds t h a t a l t h o u g h he may m a n i f e s t h i m s e l f w i t h

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a g o l d c o l o r , e t c . , h i s body i s not imaginary.

Note t h a t the term " i s not imaginary"^ means t h a t the o b j e c t perceived

has not been generated by c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a c t i v i t y o f the s u b j e c t , as i s t h e

case w i t h o r d i n a r y p e r c e p t i o n o f another's body.

k. "He o b t a i n s an e q u a l i t y w i t h a l l Buddhas." Asanga e x p l a i n s t h a t there

i s no d i v e r g e n c e between Buddhas as f a r as t h e s u p p o r t , i n t e n t i o n and a c t i o n o f

t h e i r Dharmakaya are concerned. Asvabhava adds t h a t the support i s the

v i suddhaj nana; i n t e n t i o n s are the i n t e n t i o n t o work f o r the w e l f a r e of others,

and a c t i v i t i e s r e f e r t o the r e s u l t i n g a c t i o n s which a l l accomplish through

Nirmanakaya and Sambhoghakaya.

iii. The Buddha-mind

The remainder o f the gunas d e a l w i t h the Buddha's a w a r e n e s s — t h e way in

which he sees, knows and understands.

11. "He has a v e r i d i c a l awareness' of t h i n g s . " Asanga c a l l s t h i s "the

q u a l i t y o f c u t t i n g o f f doubts," and Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t , l a c k i n g doubt

h i m s e l f , he i s a b l e t o cut o f f the doubts o f others.

15. "His awareness i s the g o a l o f t h e vows o f a l l B o d h i s a t t v a s . " Asanga

e x p l a i n s t h a t "by i n c a l c u l a b l e numbers o f b o d i e s CH: " o f supports"!] he under-

25 ^

takes the t r a i n i n g of sentient beings." Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t the

"bodies" belong to the Bodhisattvas whom t h e Buddha t r a i n s . The other Bodhi-

s a t t v a s t r a n s m i t t h i s t e a c h i n g and so o b t a i n the awareness which i s the object

o f the vows o f a l l B o d h i s a t t v a s .

13. "His knowledge o f the dharma i s f r e e from e r r o r . " Asanga says t h a t

he knows the f u t u r e a r i s i n g o f dharma. According t o Vasubandhu and Asvabhava,

the Buddha, u n l i k e the Sravaka, i s a b l e t o p e r c e i v e t h e s u b t l e s t seeds o f

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f u t u r e Buddhahood i n some a p p a r e n t l y i n c o r r i g i h l e i n d i v i d u a l , and so t o encour-

age him.

9. "He has reached t h e e q u a l i t y o f t h e t h r e e t i m e s . " Asanga adds t h a t

he " i n s t r u c t s " ( o r " p r e d i c t s , " v y a k a r a n a ) . Asvabhava adds t h a t t h i s means t h e

Buddha can know and e x p l a i n t h i n g s i n t h e past o r f u t u r e as i f t h e y were

current events.

8. " H i s system i s i n c o n c e i v a b l e . " To Asanga t h i s i s "the q u a l i t y o f

s y s t e m a t i z i n g t h e dharma." Asvabhava adds t h a t t h e system cannot be compre-

hended by f o o l s o r w o r l d l i n g s i n g e n e r a l .

6. " H i s dharma cannot be o v e r t u r n e d . " To Asanga t h i s means "he i s not

overcome by any t i r t h i k a s . "

17. "He has a r r i v e d a t t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e Tathagata's u n d e f i l e d

l i b e r a t i n g awareness." Asanga i n t e r p r e t s t h i s as t h e q u a l i t y o f m a n i f e s t i n g

undefiled (H: " v a r i o u s " ) Buddhalands i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f b e i n g s .

Asvabhava i n t e r p r e t s " l i b e r a t i n g awareness" as "awareness o f a s p i r a t i o n

(vimoksa)." That i s , Asvabhava i n t e r p r e t s t h i s guna as t h e Buddha's a b i l i t y ,

t o be aware o f t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f each s e n t i e n t b e i n g .

12. " H i s mind c o n t a i n s a l l p r a c t i c e s . " Asanga says t h a t t h i s i s "the

q u a l i t y o f c a u s i n g Cthose whom he t e a c h e s ] t o e n t e r a l l s o r t s o f p r a c t i c e s . "

The Buddha who emerges from 1 1 : 3 3 i s c e r t a i n l y not i r r e c o n c i l a b l e w i t h

the f i g u r e found l a t e r i n c h a p t e r X. However, apart from h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f

the t e n t h guna, Asanga has simply not r e c o n c i l e d them. While t h i s c u r i o u s

o m i s s i o n should make us v e r y wary o f s i m p l y r e a d i n g 1 1 : 3 3 and c h a p t e r X

t o g e t h e r , one common element i s o b v i o u s . Both a r e permeated by t h e i d e a o f

b e i n g - i n - c o n t r o l , an i d e a which t h e Mahayana l a b e l s "mastery" ( v a s i t a , see

note h2 below). That i s , e x p e r i e n c e s do not s i m p l y impinge upon t h e Buddha;

he takes an a c t i v e r o l e i n p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s world. From t h i s under-

s t a n d i n g he i s a b l e t o a c t , spontaneously and c r e a t i v e l y , i n o r d e r t o t r a n s m i t

t h i s understanding to others.

2. THE DHARMAKAYA

The second major Buddhology i s found i n passages d e s c r i b i n g t h e Dharmakaya.

I t d e p i c t s Buddhahood as a s i n g l e e n t i t y and p r o v i d e s the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the

questions, "How i s i t obtained?" and "What i s i t ? " The former e l i c i t s a

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the a s p i r a n t t o h i s g o a l . The l a t t e r

provides the occasion f o r developing a metaphysical d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Buddha.

a. O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya

While the e n t i r e Mahayanasamgraha i s one l o n g p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r o b t a i n i n g

the Dharmakaya, a few passages g i v e a s y n o p s i s of the process. These may be

d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e groups a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t y l e o f e x p l a n a t i o n i n each:

— a highly abstract epistemological explanation i n v o l v i n g re-orientation.of

the alayavijnana

— a v e r y concrete e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l one, s t r e s s i n g m e d i t a t i o n and i l l u s t r a t i n g

the p e r c e p t u a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e Dk

— an a c t i v e answer which i n v o l v e s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e Dk. i n t h e world.

i. I;l+6-U8 R e - o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e A l a y a v i j nana

The author has r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f how the s e e d - f i l l e d alayavijnana,

the cause o f emotional involvement i n the w o r l d , can a l s o be t h e seed o f ways

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o f t h i n k i n g which c o u n t e r a c t such involvement. He answers t h a t the seed o f

w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g thought i s the i m p r e s s i o n formed i n the a l a y a v i j n a n a by

h e a r i n g t h e dharma ( s r u t a v a s a n a ) • The initial small impression gives r i s e t o

a g r e a t e r one as the s u b j e c t i s thought out, and t o a s t i l l g r e a t e r one as i t

i s meditated upon, u n t i l i t c o m p l e t e l y t a k e s over the a l a y a v i j nana and dispels

all seeds o f e m o t i v i t y . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s shows the beginnings

o f the Dk:

1:48. " T h i s s m a l l , medium or g r e a t seed implanted by h e a r i n g i s a l s o

the seed o f the Dharmakaya. I t c o u n t e r a c t s the a l a y a v i j n a n a — i t i s

not the a l a y a v i j n a n a . Although i t i s w o r l d l y , as i t i s an outflow

o f the t r a n s w o r l d l y and v e r y pure dharmadhatu, i t i s the seed o f

w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g thought. Even b e f o r e w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g thought

a r i s e s , i t [ t h e seed implanted by hearing"! c o u n t e r a c t s the snare of

the k l e s a s , Cthe p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e b i r t h : inD a r e a l m o f suffering,

and a l l bad a c t i o n s . I t h e l p s one t o meet Buddhas and B o d h i s a t t v a s .

"it i s i n v o l v e d w i t h ^ the Dharmakaya o f t h e neophyte Bodhi-

27

sattvas and i t i s a l s o i n v o l v e d w i t h the Vimuktikayas of the

Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas. Although i t i s not the a l a y a v i j n a n a ,

it i s i n v o l v e d w i t h the Dharmakaya and Vimuktikaya.

"As i t develops through t h e stages o f s m a l l , medium and large,

t h e v i p a k a v i j n a n a w i l l become d e v o i d o f seeds and a l l i t s a s p e c t s

w i l l be cut o f f . "

Here the Dk i s p r e s e n t e d as a r e o r i e n t e d a l a y a v i j f i a n a . The perceptions

( v i j n a n a ) o f o r d i n a r y man e s t a b l i s h i n him the tendency t o have s i m i l a r ones

i n the f u t u r e . The t o t a l set o f such t e n d e n c i e s ( a l a y a - v i j n a n a ) i s the b a s i c

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substratum o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . According t o t h i s passage, t h e dharma which a

man hears a c t s i n an analogous way but e s t a b l i s h e s a new substratum, t h e body-

of-dharma (Dharmakaya) which e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e s t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a as t h e

foundation of his existence. T h i s i s confirmed by X : 7 . 1 : "by r e o r i e n t i n g t h e

alayavi.]nana, t h e Dharmakaya i s o b t a i n e d . "

T h i s dharma, which comes from those who have a l r e a d y reached e n l i g h t e n -

ment, i s c l e a r l y t h e Mahayana t e a c h i n g , as t h e neophyte (adikarmika) Bodhisat-

t v a s have t h e Dk but t h e §ravakas and Pratyekabuddhas have a Vimuktikaya

instead.

Asvabhava (U 395bl-9) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Vimuktikaya i s f r e e ..only from t h e

klesavarana, whereas t h e -Dk i s f r e e from both k l e s a v a r a n a and jneyavarana.

However, he t h e n attempts t o e x p l a i n how a B o d h i s a t t v a can, at t h e v e r y onset

o f h i s c a r e e r , be s a i d t o be f r e e from b o t h . He l i k e n s t h i s B o d h i s a t t v a t o a

p r i n c e who has been imprisoned immediately a f t e r r e c e i v i n g a b h i s e k a . When he

i s f i n a l l y f r e e d from prison',, he w i l l immediately r e g a i n h i s p r e r o g a t i v e s . This

seems t o suggest t h a t a p o t e n t i a l Dk i s o b t a i n e d a t t h e moment o f s e t t i n g out

on t h e B o d h i s a t t v a c a r e e r ,vbut i s - a c t u a l i z e d o n l y l a t e r . This notion of acquir-

ing a p o t e n t i a l Dk seems t o o v e r l a p w i t h t h a t o f b e i n g born i n t h e Tathagata's

. 28
gotra.
+

ii. O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya: The E p i s t e m i c Explanation

X:k "How i s t h e Dharmakaya i n i t i a l l y o b t a i n e d CT: 'by c o n t a c t ' 1 ? "

Both Vasubandhu and Asvabhava agree t h a t t h e term " o b t a i n e d " i n d i c a t e s

t h a t t h e Dk i s not something "produced" because t h e body i s p e r p e t u a l .

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By Non-Conceptual and Subsequent Awareness*"^

The first answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t h e Dk i s i n i t i a l l y obtained i s :

X:4.1 " . . . by non-conceptual awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j nana) and subsequent

awareness ( p r s t h a l a b d h a j n a n a ) which take as t h e i r o b j e c t t h e common

Mahayana dharmas."

Vasubandhu does not comment, w h i l e Asvabhava (U ^37b28) says o n l y , " t h e

meaning i s easy t o understand," p r o b a b l y because t h e s e terms have a l r e a d y been

d e f i n e d i n e a r l i e r passages which w i l l now be examined.

Chapter I I has d e s c r i b e d t h e way i n which t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r b e g i n s t o

understand t h e view o f r e a l i t y s e t out i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s and hence e n t e r s

the B o d h i s a t t v a p a t h . 111:12 d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o g r e s s on t h e p a t h :

By a calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g awareness which

t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t t h e common dharmas, and by subsequent multiple-

v i j n a p t i awareness, he has a t t e n u a t e d a l l t h e image-producing

seeds b e l o n g i n g t o t h e a l a y a v i j f i a n a and s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e seed

of c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Dharmakaya. A f t e r r e o r i e n t i n g t h e base, by

p e r f e c t i n g a l l t h e Buddhadharmas he a c q u i r e s o m n i s c i e n t aware-

ness. . . .

The subsequent awareness, which'sees e v e r y t h i n g " a r i s i n g from

the a l a y a v i j n a n a and merely mental appearances t o be l i k e an

i l l u s i o n , a r i s e s by i t s v e r y n a t u r e f r e e from misapprehensions.

Thus, j u s t as a magician i s f r e e from misapprehensions about t h e

r e a l i t y o f t h i n g s he has c r e a t e d , so t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , a l t h o u g h

speaking o f cause and e f f e c t , i s always f r e e from misapprehensions

about them.
 102

T h i s i s r e p e a t e d at I I I : l 4 :

In t h e t e n B o d h i s a t t v a bhj'imis . . . . because Cthe B o d h i -

s a t t v a ] p r a c t i c e s , f o r many m i l l i o n s o f k a l p a s , t h e calm and

i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g awareness which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t

the common dharmas and t h e subsequent awareness, he r e o r i e n t s

h i s bases. In o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e Buddha-

kaya, he has p r a c t i c e d i n t h i s way.

F i n a l l y , i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a bhumis at V:2.10:

Why i s t h e t e n t h bhumi c a l l e d t h e dharma-cloud? Because i t s

awareness o f a l l dharmas which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t t h e common

Cdharmas1 c o n t a i n s t h e e n t i r e Cgroup o f ] means t o l i b e r a t i o n

i n v o l v i n g dharartrs and samadhi C j u s t as a c l o u d c o n t a i n s w a t e r ] ,

because i t o b l i t e r a t e s major impediments as a c l o u d obliterates

the sky, and because i t f i l l s t h e Dharmakaya.

The commentaries t o a l l t h r e e passages a r e s i m i l a r . D e s p i t e minor dif-

f e r e n c e s i n terminology,, .they a l l d e a l w i t h t h e same two t y p e s o f "awareness"

( j n a n a ) , a term never used f o r o r d i n a r y common-sense "awareness-of-something"

( v i j n a n a ) but r e s e r v e d f o r awareness e x e r c i s e d by t h e Buddha and B o d h i s a t t v a .

The two t y p e s o f j nana a r e "calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g aware-

ness which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t t h e common dharmas" and "subsequent awareness."

As Asvabhava (U hl6o5-6) i d e n t i f i e s t h e f i r s t w i t h t h e n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a , .these

are t h e same i d e a s as i n t h e o r i g i n a l passage a t X:h.

In t h e phrase "calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g awareness which

takes as i t s o b j e c t t h e common dharmas," Asvabhava (U ^l6c6) g l o s s e s t h e terms

 103

"calm" and " i n s i g h t f u l " r e s p e c t i v e l y as " i n a s t a t e o f m e d i t a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n "

(samahita) and " f r e e from misapprehensions." That i s , t h e y a r e t o he under-

s t o o d i n t h e i r u s u a l sense as m e d i t a t i o n a l terms where "calm" (samatha) r e f e r s

t o t h e u n t r o u b l e d s t a t e o f mind gained through one-pointed m e d i t a t i o n , and

" i n s i g h t " (vipasyana) r e f e r s t o t h e a c c u r a t e view gained by a mind i n t h i s

state. ^

T h i s awareness i s a l s o " w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g " ( l o k o t t a r a ) , g l o s s e d by Asva-

bhava (U U l 6 c 5 ) as " l e a d i n g t o enlightenment" (anasrava) and " f r e e from con-

cepts" (nirvikalpa). That i s , i t a i d s t h e ^ B o d h i s a t t v a i n h i s p r o g r e s s a l o n g -

the path but s h o u l d not be misunderstood as an awareness " o f " a t r a n s c e n d e n t

r e a l i t y , o r a c l a s s o f mental o p e r a t i o n s y i e l d i n g knowledge about such a r e a l i t y .

F i n a l l y , t h i s awareness takes as i t s o b j e c t t h e "common (samsrsta) dharmas'.'

T h i s i s t h e most p u z z l i n g aspect o f t h e term. How.can a non-conceptual aware-

ness have an o b j e c t ? Asvabhava (U 4l6c2) e x p l a i n s that, "common (f^jL £yj&. )

dharmas" means t h a t t h e awareness bears upon ( $$jfL ) the manifest character-

i s t i c s "common" ( ) t o a l l things, i . e . ,tathata. While a v e r y s i m i l a r

passage (VIII:5) c o n t a i n s no mention o f t a t h a t a , t h a t term occurs i n t h e

g l o s s e s t o b o t h 111:12 and V I I I : 5 . As t h e use o f t a t h a t a i n t h i s literature

has not been p r o p e r l y s t u d i e d , and as i t seldom appears i n t h i s t e x t , t h e few

passages which mention i t have been s e t a s i d e . In o t h e r words, t h i s i s aware-

ness o f t h e r e a l i t y common t o a l l p e r c e p t i o n , a r e a l i t y n o r m a l l y misapprehended

and c o n c r e t i z e d i n t o v a r i o u s r . i s o l a t e d c o n c e p t s .

While t h e "subsequent" o f "subsequent awareness" ( p r s t h a l a b d h a ) can merely

mean "coming a f t e r , " here i t r e f e r s t o t h e s t a t e subsequent t o m e d i t a t i o n when

the calm and i n s i g h t f u l mental a t t i t u d e i s c a r r i e d over i n t o p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e

ordinary world. As 111:12 says, i t

 10k

. . . sees e v e r y t h i n g a r i s i n g from the a l a y a v i j n a n a and

a l l merely mental appearances t o be l i k e an i l l u s i o n , arising

by i t s v e r y nature f r e e from m i s a p r e h e n s i o n s .

In terms o f the t r i s v a b h a v a view o f t h i s t e x t , by subsequent awareness

one sees the v i j n a p t i , which are p a r a t a n t r a , but appreciates the f a c t that

31
t h e i r nature i s " l i k e an i l l u s i o n . " T h e r e f o r e , t h e y are not misapprehended,
32

i . e . , are not p a r i k a l p i t a . "Misapprehension" i s a widely-used term

e x p l a i n e d i n the Abhidharmakosa.V:9: "Taking the impermanent as permanent, ,,the

s u f f e r i n g - f i l l e d as s a t i s f y i n g , the impure as p u r e , and t h a t which has no

atman as-having an atman." Here, Asvabhava (U U l 6 c l 9 - 2 0 ) i d e n t i f i e s misap-

prehensions as erroneous i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f p a r a t a n t r a , i . e . , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

whose acceptance g i v e s r i s e t o p a r i k a l p i t a and whose r e j e c t i o n g i v e s r i s e to

parinispanna.
In 111:12, t h e n o n - c o n c e p t u a l and subsequent awareness are s a i d t o :

. . . a t t e n t u a t e a l l the image»producing seeds belonging

t o the a l a y a v i j n a n a , and strengthen the seeds o f contact

w i t h the Dharmakaya.

The p r a c t i c e of non-conceptualization weakens the i n v e t e r a t e t e n d e n c i e s to

r e i f y experience. Asvabhava (U l + l 6 c l l - 1 2 ) g l o s s e s "seeds o f c o n t a c t w i t h the

Dharmakaya" 33
a s "the i n f l u e n c e o f h a v i n g h e a r d much Mahayana [ t e a c h i n g ! , "

thus i d e n t i f y i n g i t as a development o f the i n f l u e n c e which o r i g i n a l l y set the

p r a c t i t i o n e r on the p a t h . ^ T h i s may a l s o e x p l a i n the phrase "by contact" i n

the T i b e t a n v e r s i o n o f the o r i g i n a l q u e s t i o n at X:^+.

The end o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s d e s c r i b e d r e s p e c t i v e l y as "omniscience""

(at 111:12), " t r i p l e Buddhakaya" (111:1"+) and "filling 3 6

the Dharmakaya"
 105

(V:2.10). As the passages are "very s i m i l a r , i t . i s - r e a s o n a b l e ' t o see t h e s e as

synonymous terms. The f a c t t h a t one speaks o f "Buddhakaya" w h i l e the other

speaks o f a l l t h r e e kayas suggests t h a t the Dk i s not merely one o f t h e t h r e e

hut can s t a n d f o r a l l t h r e e . They are a l s o synonymous w i t h "omniscient aware-

ness"—not a n : . i n f i n i t e e x t e n s i o n o f . t h e o r d i n a r y epistemie process but., ' as

Asvabhava (uHl6cl.5.-l6) glos.ses, "a s t a i n l e s s and unimpeded jnana."

By the F i v e - f o l d P r a c t i c e

. The second answer t o the q u e s t i o n o f how the Dharmakaya i s f i r s t acquired

is:

X:h.2 "By the f i v e - f o l d practice."

Vasubandhu does not comment. Asvabhava (U !+37b28-c5) quotes t h e e x p l a n a t i o n

from V:h and a l s o says t h a t the f i v e aspects are no b i r t h , no d e s t r u c t i o n ,

p r i m o r d i a l calm, e s s e n t i a l peace, and no s e l f - n a t u r e . These two explanations

are a p p a r e n t l y alternatives.

The e x p l a n a t i o n at Y:h i s embedded i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f the t e n B o d h i s a t t v a

bhumis. The r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n i s as f o l l o w s :

How s h o u l d we understand the p r a c t i c e o f t h e s e bhumis? The

B o d h i s a t t v a who, on bhumi a f t e r bhumi, p r a c t i s e s samatha and

v i p a s y a n a does so by a f i v e - f o l d p r a c t i c e . The five aspects

of i t are:

1. common p r a c t i c e

2. characteristicless practice

3. spontaneous p r a c t i c e

k. intensive practice
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5. insatiable practice

By t h i s f i v e - f o l d p r a c t i c e the B o d h i s a t t v a a c h i e v e s five

types o f r e s u l t :

1. "In each i n s t a n t a l l the supports o f a f f l i c t i o n are destroyed.

2. He i s f r e e d from v a r i o u s n o t i o n s and o b t a i n s the p l e a s u r e s

of the garden o f the dharma.

3. Accurate awareness o f the incommensurable m u l t i p l i c i t y of

appearances o f the dharma and the t r u l y endless [manifesta-

t i o n s ofD i t s aspects.

h. The signs^which^,accompany purity^, and.'are not j u s t imagined,

are m a n i f e s t e d in-him'.- ..

5. In o r d e r t h a t , h e may fulfill ( p a r i p u r i ) and p e r f e c t

( p a r i n i s p a t t i ) t h e Dharmakaya, he s e i z e s upon the most

perfect cause.

Asvabhava (U U2l+c28-^25a29) shows t h a t t h e s e are a l l m e d i t a t i v e techniques

and t h a t each element o f the second l i s t i s the r e s p e c t i v e r e s u l t o f each

p r a c t i c e i n the first.

Asvabhava and Vasubandhu (Bh359b21-2"+) s u b s t a n t i a l l y agree t h a t "the most

p e r f e c t cause" i s the " i n s a t i a b l e p r a c t i c e , " i . e . , the t o t a l i t y o f h i s p r a c -

t i c e s up t o t h a t t i m e , and t h a t " f u l f i l l m e n t " r e f e r s t o the Dk on the t e n t h

bhumi, w h i l e " p e r f e c t i o n " r e f e r s t o r e s i d e n c e i n the Buddhaland.

T h i s passage strengthens the p r e v i o u s evidence t h a t the Dk i s something

gained e a r l i e r but f u l f i l l e d at the h i g h e s t s t a g e . I t a l s o shows t h a t the Dk,

not j u s t the Sbk, can l i v e i n ( ) a Buddhaland.

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By Amassing the Accumulation o f Equipment on A l l Bhumis

The t h i r d way i n which the Dharmakaya i s o b t a i n e d i s :

X:k:3 By amassing the accumulation o f equipment (sambharasamcaya)

on a l l bhumis.

There i s no commentary h e r e , but at 111:15 and 18 (U l+17b26-28 and U iil8bl6-20)

Asvabhava d e f i n e s i t as the s t a b i l i z e d p r a c t i c e o f the s i x paramitas resulting

from h a v i n g p r a c t i c e d them throughout innumerable p a s t ages. This i s i n accord

37

w i t h the normal use o f the term.

By the Vajropamasamadhi

X:4.H By the Vajropamasamadhi which breaks the difficult-to-break

avaranas. Immediately a f t e r t h i s samadhi t h e y are s e p a r a t e d

from a l l the avaranas.

1
" ' •• m —
"Vajropamasamadhi" d e s i g n a t e s the f i n a l s t a t e o f m e d i t a t i o n i n which the

38

l a s t d i f f i c u l t i e s are overcome and f u l l enlightenment a c h i e v e d . These final

o b s t a c l e s t o enlightenment (avaranas) are " s u b t l e and d i f f i c u l t t o break."

Asvabhava (U *+37c7-8) g l o s s e s t h i s as "unemotional n o n - a w a r e n e s s . " ^ Ting* 40

'

d e f i n e s these as the l a s t and most d i f f i c u l t o b s t a c l e s severed by the Buddha

but not by the A r h a t . Hence the Buddha a c h i e v e s o m n i s c i e n c e .

That i s , the avaranas are commonly d i v i d e d i n t o k l e s a v a r a n a s ( o b s t a c l e s

c o n s i s t i n g o f b l i n d emotional r e a c t i o n ) and jneyavaranas (obstacles consisting

o f unawareness). The former are more e a s i l y overcome than are the l a t t e r . The
• • • — 1 * —

" s u b t l e d i f f i c u l t - t o - b r e a k avaranas" are the l a s t and most d i f f i c u l t o f the

jneyavaranas.
 108

X:"+."+ T h i s i s the way i n which r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the-support i s -

obtained.

T h i s c l o s i n g l i n e v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i f i e s o b t a i n i n g the Dharmakaya w i t h

r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e support. That t h i s " s u p p o r t " i s each o f the five

skandhas i s i m p l i c i t i n T and e x p l i c i t i i n H's translation.

iii. The Dharmakaya as R e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e Skandhas

While the p r e c e d i n g passage has d e s c r i b e d the a l t e r a t i o n i n the b a s i c

p e r c e p t u a l stance o f the a s p i r a n t who moves from common man t o Dharmakaya,

we may l e g i t i m a t e l y request a more d e t a i l e d account o f t h e changes i n t h i s

individual. Such an account i s found at X:5. The explanation at X:5 rests

upon two key terms: " r e o r i e n t a t i o n " ( p a r a v r t t i ) ^ and "sovereignty"

(vibhutva).^

To say t h a t some aspect o f the a s p i r a n t has been r e o r i e n t e d means t h a t

i t has not been a b o l i s h e d but has been put t o a new use w i t h i n t h e new

personality.

Asvabhava (U U37cl8-22) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Sravaka, e t c . , attempts t o

a b o l i s h h i s m i s e r y by d e s t r o y i n g the skandhas j u s t as a f o o l i s h l e p e r commits

suicide. The Bodhisattva attempts t o r e o r i e n t each skandha j u s t as a wise

leper w i l l seek a cure which w i l l t r a n s f o r m h i s d i s e a s e d body i n t o a h e a l t h y

one.

A c t i o n s which have been r e o r i e n t e d are termed " s o v e r e i g n t i e s . " Ordinary

non-reoriented e x i s t e n c e i s composed o f skandhas which are f o r c e d i n t o a

determinate form by t h e e f f e c t s o f past a c t i o n (karma). The individual is

trapped i n t o e x i s t e n c e i n a c e r t a i n type o f w o r l d by what appear t o be powerful

 109

external forces.

The Buddha i s not t r a p p e d hut i s h i m s e l f i n c o n t r o l — he e x e r c i s e s

"sovereignty." While o r d i n a r y man p e r c e i v e s a s i t u a t i o n f o r c e d upon him, t h e

Buddha c r e a t e s o r m a n i f e s t s a s i t u a t i o n i n response t o t h e needs o f o t h e r s .

Hsuan-tsang c e r t a i n l y understood " s o v e r e i g n t y " i n t h i s sense, as" he r e p e a t e d l y

t r a n s l a t e s Asvabhava's commentary by: "He o b t a i n s t h e s o v e r e i g n power o f

manifesting . . . "

X:_l By how many s o v e r e i g n t i e s does t h e Dharmakaya o b t a i n

sovereignty? The answer i s , i n s h o r t , by f i v e o f them.

X:5.1 By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e rupaskandha i t o b t a i n s sover=-

e i g n t y over t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , t h e body, t h e l a k s a n a s , t h e

minor marks, t h e i n f i n i t y o f phonemes, and t h e i n v i s i b l e

c r a n i a l mark.

A p o s s i b l e misunderstanding o f X:5 can be avoided b y b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t

the skandhas a r e not f i v e groups o f f a c t o r s c o m p r i s i n g an i n d i v i d u a l . They

are t h e f a c t o r s c o m p r i s i n g a moment o f r e l a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e — i n c l u d i n g t h e

epistemic s u b j e c t , t h e e p i s t e m i c o b j e c t , t h e schemata o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and

the f i n a l p e r c e p t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , when t h e t e x t speaks o f t h e rupaskandha

becoming B u d d h a f i e l d s e t c . , i t i s not p o r t r a y i n g t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e i n d i -

v i d u a l ' s p h y s i c a l form i n t o a cosmic Buddha. I t i s simply saying that the

ordinary world ( i n c l u d e d i n t h e rupaskandha) i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a Buddhaland.

The statement a t X:5.1 says t h a t t h e Buddhaland r e p l a c e s t h e former

p h y s i c a l world. Asvabhava says they may be g o l d o r s i l v e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

d e s i r e s o f s e n t i e n t beings..

The Buddha a l s o o b t a i n s t h e a b i l i t y t o m a n i f e s t a body w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o

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Asvabhava, corresponds t o the c a p a c i t i e s o f b e i n g s t o be t a u g h t , i . e . , the

Nirmanakaya.and Sambhogakaya. While t h i s w i l l be d e a l t w i t h l a t e r , l e t us note

that "Dharmakaya" i s here used as a g e n e r a l term f o r Buddhahood,' while., the-

rupakaya i s the s p e c i f i c way i n which i t appears.

The l a k s a n a s and minor marks are the 32 major and the 80 minor marks o f a

^3

g r e a t man. The i n f i n i t y o f phonemes r e f e r s t o t h e Buddha's a b i l i t y t o speak

t o any s e n t i e n t b e i n g i n any situation.

The invisible ( t o gods and men) c r a n i a l mark i s t h e usntsa, or - f l e s h y

kk

protuberance on t h e - crown o f t h e headT' - The author's reason f o r m e n t i o n i n g i t

here i s obscure.

X:5.2 By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the vedanaskaridha i t o b t a i n s s o v e r -

e i g n t y over the i r r e p r o a c h a b l e , immeasurable, v a s t happy

residences.

The vedanaskaridha i s the second l o g i c a l moment i n p e r c e p t i o n . When sense

o b j e c t and f a c u l t y are j u x t a p o s e d , the immediate r e s u l t i f vedana—"sensation"—

t h e f e e l i n g o f p l e a s u r e , p a i n or i n d i f f e r e n c e which i s i n h e r e n t i n any normal

p e r c e p t i o n , and over which one has no c o n t r o l . These s e n s a t i o n s are the b a s i s

o f involvement i n samsara.

The t e x t i s s a y i n g t h a t , f o r the Dk, r e o r i e n t e d vedana i s a s o v e r e i g n t y

c a l l e d "residence." Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t " i r r e p r o a c h a b l e " means t h a t t h e r e

are no k l e s a s , "immense" t h a t t h e y are r e p l e t e w i t h gunas, and " v a s t " t h a t

t h e y surpass a l l the p l e a s u r e s o f the t r i p l e world.

I t i s not c l e a r i f t h i s i s one r e s i d e n c e or s e v e r a l , o r i f s u k h a v i h a r a i s

synonymous w i t h brahmavihara ( o f X:10). However, i t i s c l e a r t h a t feeling-

toned r e a c t i o n s ( k l e s a s ) based on past encounters w i t h a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f

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o b j e c t have "been r e p l a c e d by " b l i s s " ( s u k h a ) — a t r a n s c e n d e n t p l e a s u r e grounded

i n the a t t i t u d e o f the Buddha r a t h e r than the appearance o f the o b j e c t .

X:5-3 By r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the samjnaskandha i t o b t a i n s s o v e r -

e i g n t y over e x p l a i n i n g groups"of names, o f statements, and

o f phonemes.

The samjnaskandha i s the aspect o f the p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s i n which the

p e r c e p t i o n , h a v i n g a c q u i r e d the f e e l i n g - t o n e o f vedana, i s i d e n t i f i e d as a

c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c by the a f f i x a t i o n o f a v e r b a l l a b e l . In B u d d h i s t

thought such l a b e l s are d i s c u s s e d under the t h e o r y o f "names, statements and

phonemes."^ When r e o r i e n t e d the samjnaskandha becomes the a b i l i t y t o master

this verbalization. As t h e r e are v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s , and Vasubandu and Asvabhava

d i s a g r e e on the exact import o f t h i s passage, i t i s p r o b a b l y unwise t o push

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n much f u r t h e r .

X:5.^ By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the samskafaskandha i t o b t a i n s

s o v e r e i g n t y over c r e a t i o n (nifmana), t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , • c o n -

v e n i n g the g r e a t a s s e m b l i e s , and c o l l e c t i n g white dharmas.

The samskaraskandha i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s which

have been b u i l t up through p a s t e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s and former lives. They are

the f o r c e s d r i v i n g the i n d i v i d u a l i n t o c e r t a i n types o f a c t i o n which l e a d him

t o c e r t a i n types o f p e r c e p t i o n . Asvabhava (u *+38a8) says t h a t here the author

i s r e a l l y speaking about c e t a n a , " m o t i v a t i o n , " ^ 6

the a l l - i n c l u s i v e samskara.

In the Dk t h i s has been r e o r i e n t e d t o y i e l d t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f c r e a t i n g

appearances and.of t r a n s f o r m i n g t h i n g s •' as - d e s i r e d , o f b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r great

assemblies o f those who wish t o l e a r n , and of b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r white dharmas.

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A g a i n , the b a s i c i d e a i s a s w i t c h from b e i n g driven into situations

(cetana), to being able to create appropriate ones.

X:5.5 By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the v i j n a n a s k a n d h a i t o b t a i n s sover-

e i g n t y over the m i r r o r - l i k e j nana, the self-same j nana,

the contemplative 1
j n a n a , and the a c t i o n - a c c o m p l i s h i n g j n a n a.

In abhidharmic thought the v i j S a n a s k a n d h a i s the fifth skandha, the full-

f l e d g e d f e e l i n g - t o n e d r e c o g n i t i o n o f an o b j e c t a r i s i n g from the preceding

process. In the V i j n a n a v a d a , v i j f l a n a r e t a i n s t h i s sense but i s also elevated

t o an o v e r a r c h i n g framework w i t h i n which the o t h e r skandhas f i n d t h e i r place.

While t h i s was not e n t i r e l y absent i n e a r l i e r s c h o o l s i n s o f a r as each skandha

c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d o n l y as an aspect o f a process including a l l , i t s detailed

development became a major concern o f the V i j n a n a v a d i n s , who posited four

s t r a t a of vijnana. F i r s t , the a l a y a v i j n a n a which s t o r e s the b i j a s and serves

as the ground f o r the o t h e r s . Second, the k l i s t a m a n a s as the l o c u s of

atmadrsti (the i d e a o f the s e l f as a d i s c r e t e e n t i t y ) , which d i s c r i m i n a t e s and

divides. T h i r d , a r i s i n g from the k l i s t a m a n a s , the manovijnana, the c e n t r a l

s y n t h e s i z i n g - d i s c r i m i n a t i n g consciousness where concepts are formed from sense

data. F i n a l l y , the sense data from each o f the f i v e sense f a c u l t i e s are _

c a l l e d a v i j n a n a and the f i v e t o g e t h e r are c a l l e d p r a v r t t i v i j n a n a — " a c t i v e

vijnana."

As each o f t h e s e f o u r c l a s s e s o f v i j K a n a i s r e o r i e n t e d , an "accurate

awareness" ( j n a n a ) " r e s u l t s . .

The sense i n which t h i s jnana i s an " a c c u r a t e " awareness i s e x p l a i n e d by

the t r i s v a b h a v a t h e o r y o f chapter II. The jnana i s not an awareness o f the

r e a l t h i n g , nor i s i t some amorphous m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . Both common man and

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Buddha f i n d themselves engaged i n a p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n (.paratantra). The

common man r e i f i e s h i s p e r c e p t i o n s and mistakes them f o r o b j e c t s (parikalpita).

The Buddha sees through t h i s r e i f i c a t i o n and so understands the perceptions t o

be j u s t t h a t ( p a r i n i s p a n n a ) . The former type o f p e r c e p t i o n i s v i - j n a n a ,

"awareness o f c e r t a i n t h i n g s , " w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s jnana, " a c c u r a t e awareness."

The r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a g i v e s t h e " M i r r o r - l i k e jnana" which

p r o v i d e s an a c c u r a t e r e f l e c t i o n unhindered by s p a t i a l o r temporal barriers.

The r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e k l i s t a m a n a s y i e l d s t h e self-same jnana which i s aware

o f t h e l a c k o f d i f f e r e n c e between o n e s e l f and o t h e r s and so i s a b l e t o m a n i f e s t

images o f t h e Buddha as r e q u i r e d .

The r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e manovijnana y i e l d s t h e "Contemplation-jnana"

which i s t h e r e a s o n i n g aspect o f t h e Buddha.

F i n a l l y , t h e f i v e sensory v i j n a n a s a r e r e o r i e n t e d t o o b t a i n t h e " A c t i o n -

accomplishing j n a n a " which comprises t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f a Buddha. Thus,

the e n t i r e D k — p e r c e p t i o n and a c t i v i t y — i s i n c l u d e d i n X:_5.

b. The Dharmakaya — What I s I t ?

In t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s we have seen t h a t , ,inthe Mahayanasamgraha, t h e

Dharmakaya, h a v i n g b o t h e f f e c t i v e and n o e t i c a s p e c t s , i s a synonym f o r Buddha-

hood. These s e c t i o n s have shown t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f common man and Dk by

l i m i t i n g t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n t o those s e t s o f concepts a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h , and

by s t r e s s i n g t h e p r a c t i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e d i t a t i v e ones, which e f f e c t t h e

t r a n s i t i o n from one t o t h e o t h e r .

However, t h e Dk i s not simply t h e terminus o f t h e p r a x i s but i s a l s o a

new r e a l i t y . We may legitimately.; ask-, "What i s i t ? " as w e l l as - "What was

it?" As t h e r e - i s ho m e t a l a n g u a g e i n which a " t r u e " d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

 Ilk

Dharmakaya may he framed (see X:3-5= " i n c o n c e i v a b i l i t y "*),.. Asanga i s l i m i t e d t o

.the Abhidharmic concepts which-were t h e s t a n d a r d t o o l s o f Buddhist-reasoning.

He a t t a c k s from a v a r i e t y o f angles w i t h v a r i o u s q u e s t i o n s , each y i e l d i n g a

d i f f e r e n t type of^answer; -

I n t e r p r e t i n g these r e d u c t i o n i s t i c answers p r e s e n t s a formidable challenge.

F i r s t , the Abhidharmic language, which i s i t s e l f m y s t e r i o u s t o u s , must be

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o contemporary concepts. The more s e r i o u s problem a r i s e s from

the f a c t t h a t Asanga has done o n l y p a r t o f the t a s k . Chapter X o f the Mahayana-

samgraha i s not a s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t i s e on Buddhahood, but i s more l i k e a collec-

t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s toward such a work. Even w i t h the commentator's opinions,

t h i s d o c t r i n e i s merely n a s c e n t . I m p l i c a t i o n s are not worked'-out, minor

i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s remain u n r e s o l v e d , l o o s e ends abound, and nowhere has a simple

t h e o r y o f t h e Dk been s e p a r a t e d from the c o n f u s i n g mass o f details.

S i n c e Asanga's approaches f o l l o w no d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n , they w i l l simply

be taken as they occur.

i. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( l a k s a n a s ) o f t h e Dharmakaya

The Dharmakaya has five characteristics:

X:3.1 R e o r i e n t a t i o n : because it:'_is r e o r i e n t e d toward the destruc-

t i o n of a l l obstacles belonging t o the samklesa aspect

o f the p a r a t a n t r a svabhava and C i t i s r e o r i e n t e d ] toward

o b t a i n i n g l i b e r a t i o n from a l l the o b s t a c l e s t o sovereignty

over t h e dharmas; and .because_it i s r e o r i e n t e d toward the

presence o f the pure a s p e c t - o f paratantra.

T h i s passage i s v e r y c o n c i s e because " r e o r i e n t a t i o n " has a l r e a d y been

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d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l at IX:1-2, where the n o t i o n t h a t the w o r l d i s renounced,

upon r e a c h i n g enlightenment i s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a . The key.

passage ( I X : . l ) reads:. " R e n u n c i a t i o n • i s the Bodhisattva's- non-abiding

nirvana. I t s l a k s a n a i s the r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e double support, i . e . ,

r e j e c t i n g the samklesas w h i l e not r e j e c t i n g samsara." That i s , " r e n u n c i a t i o n "

does not imply an escape from the w o r l d , but o n l y from those d i s t u r b i n g

emotions' (samklesa) which are c o n t i n u a l l y d r i v i n g man i n t o improper, m i s e r y -

inducing perceptions and r e a c t i o n s . This in-the-world-but-not-of-it state,

c a l l e d "non-abiding" ( a p r a t i s t h i t a ) n i r v a n a , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by " r e o r i e n -

tation. "

Here, at X:3.1, Asanga p l a c e s t h i s i d e a w i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e o f the Mahaya-

nasamgraha by r e l a t i n g i t t o the t r i s v a b h a v a d o c t r i n e . The "double support"

whose r e o r i e n t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s r e n u n c i a t i o n i s simply the p ar at ant r a- s vab ha va,

the "given-ness" of a perceptual situation. The term "double" p o i n t s t o the

ambiguity o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , which may be experienced e i t h e r as a determinate

world or as an o c c a s i o n f o r e n l i g h t e n e d a c t i o n . The first o f these possibili-

t i e s i s e x p l a i n e d i n chapter III. An i n d i v i d u a l becomes more deeply enmeshed

i n samsara when t h e emotional reactions attached t o h i s b e l i e f i n h i s own

u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y f o r c e him t o a s c r i b e a f a l s e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y t o the given

( p a r a t a n t r a ) p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n , thus t r a n s f o r m i n g i t into a t o t a l l y

imaginary (parikalpita) perception. On the o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s a l s o the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o r r e c t l y a p p r e c i a t i n g ( p a r i n i s p a n n a ) the t r u e nature o f the

p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n and, r a t h e r then r e i f y i n g i t , simply a c t i n g p r o p e r l y upon

it. T h i s i s the p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s o f the e n l i g h t e n e d individual.

Therefore,-.Asanga i s s a y i n g t h a t when the s u t r a s a p p l y the term "renuncia-

t i o n " t o a Buddha they do not mean t h a t he has become c u t - o f f from experience.

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They mean t h a t h i s r e a c t i o n i n a p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n i s an a c c u r a t e a p p r e c i a -

t i o n r a t h e r than a r e i f i c a t i o n .

Furthermore, a t IX:2.5-6, Asanga d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e Hinayana reorientation

from t h e Mahayana r e o r i e n t a t i o n , and l i s t s t h e "advantages" (anusamsa) o f t h e

latter. T h i s p r o v i d e s y e t another c a p s u l e d e f i n i t i o n o f Buddhahood. IX:2.6

reads: " . . . The. B o d h i s a t t v a s understand dharmanairatmya, and, c o n s i d e r i n g

samsara t o he p e a c e f u l , t h e y sever a l l t h e d i s t u r b i n g emotions but do not

abandon Cthe worldD. . ." The advantages o f t h i s a r e : "Being grounded i n

t h e i r own r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e base, they o b t a i n s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l samsaric

things. By m a n i f e s t i n g . a p p r o p r i a t e s e n t i e n t b o d i e s t o t h e d i f f e r e n t classes

o f . M i v i n g b e i n g s , ..they use t h e i r p r o s e l y t i z i n g s k i l l s t o a i d t h e c o n v e r t e d

beings t o o b t a i n t h e h i g h e s t b i r t h s and t o s e t out on t h e t h r e e s p i r i t u a l

careers (yanas)."

.That i s , a r e o r i e n t e d , a c c u r a t e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e t r u e nature o f t h e

p e r c e i v e d w o r l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n t a i l s a compassionate involvement w i t h h e l p i n g

others i n i t .

T h i s b r i n g s us t o t h e second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e Dk,- i t s t r u e n a t u r e .

X:3.2 Having white dharmas as i t s r e a l n a t u r e (svabhava), because

t h e t e n m a s t e r i e s ( v a s i t a ) a r e o b t a i n e d through t h e f u l f i l l -

ment o f t h e s i x p a r a m i t a s .

To t h e d i r e c t q u e s t i o n , "What r e a l l y i s t h e nature o f t h e Dk?" Asanga

r e p l i e s t h a t i t i s not a s t u f f ( v a s t u ) o f any k i n d — i t i s ability. Nor i s i t

simply an i n d i s c r i m i n a t e omnipotence, but a s p e c i f i c s e t o f a b i l i t i e s which

have been developed by l o n g p r a c t i c e on t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s t a g e s . These abil-

ities a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e term "white dharmas," which.are here synonymous

w i t h the "masteries."' ^ 4

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine a s t r o n g e r p o s s i b l e a f f i r m a t i o n o f the

c o n t i n u i t y between t h e i n d i v i d u a l who has set out on the Mahayana path and the

Dk which i s the e v e n t u a l r e s u l t . The t r u e n a t u r e o f the l a t t e r i s simply the

developed a b i l i t i e s which have been c u l t i v a t e d by t h e former.

Each o f the t e n m a s t e r i e s i s described. Asvabhava's e x p l a n a t i o n s

(U i+36bli+-l8) are i n square brackets.

(1) By f u l f i l l i n g the danaparamita the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s

the a y u r v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o abandon l i f e o f one's own free

w i l l l , the c i t t a v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o undergo t r a n s m i g r a t i o n

without b e i n g s o i l e d ! and the p a r i s k a r a (sambhara) v a s i t a

[ a b i l i t y t o accumulate f o o d , d r i n k , e t c . , as one wishes!.

(2) By f u l f i l l i n g the s i l a p a r a m i t a t h e B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s

the k a r m a v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o do o n l y good a c t s ! and the

u p a p a t t i v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o be born i n whichever d e s t i n y

one wishes!.

(3) By f u l f i l l i n g the k s a n t i p a r a m i t a the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s

t h e a d h i m u k t i v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o change a l a n d t o g o l d , e t c . ,

simply by forming as a s p i r a t i o n t o do so!.

(k) By f u l f i l l i n g the v i r y a p a r a m i t a the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s

the p r a n i d h a n a v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o r e a l i z e one's vowsl.

(5) By f u l f i l l i n g the dhyanaparamita the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s

the r d d h i v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o accomplish a l l types of

miraculous deeds! t h a t . goes a l o n g w i t h the f i v e a b h i j n a .

 (6) By f u l f i l l i n g t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a t h e B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s

the j n a n a v a i l i t a C r o u g h l y — a b i l i t y t r u l y t o understand

t e a c h i n g ] , and t h e dharmavasita [ a b i l i t y t o p r e a c h as one

wishes].

In each case t h e f o r c e s which d r i v e an o r d i n a r y man through samsara have

been mastered and can now be used by t h e Dk f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r s . There-

f o r e , t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e Dharmakaya i s mastery.

A c l o s e l y r e l a t e d passage appears a t X : l . l : "The Svabhavikakaya i s the

Tathagata's Dharmakaya because i t i s t h e support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y ( v i b h u t v a )

over a l l t h e dharmas." Asvabhava (U l 4 3 6 a l - 5 ) suggests two e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e

term Dharmakaya. E i t h e r , " i t i s c a l l e d Dharmakaya because t h e nature o f t h e

dharma (dharmata) i s t o be a body," o r , " i t i s c a l l e d Dharmakaya because i t is

the support f o r a l l dharmas." The p h r a s e , ". . . because i t i s t h e support f o r

s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas," i s g l o s s e d as ". . . because i t i s t h e support

for o b t a i n i n g s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas."

That i s , kaya i m p l i e s b o t h a coherent o r g a n i c u n i t , and a support o r

o c c a s i o n f o r something, j u s t as a human body supports human a c t i v i t i e s .

X:3.3 N o n - d u a l i t y (advaya):

(a) Of Being and Non-Being, because Con t h e one hand] none "of"

the dharmas e x i s t s , Chut on t h e o t h e r hand] t h e i r character-

istic, sunyata, r e a l l y does e x i s t .

(b) Of samskrta and asamskrta because Con-the one. h a n d ! i t i s

not caused by karma o r k l e s a s , Chut on t h e o t h e r hand] i t

does possess t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f b e i n g a b l e t o appear as

conditioned.
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(c) Of p l u r a l i t y and u n i t y , because Con the one hand! the

support o f a l l the Buddhas i s not d i f f e r e n t i a b l e , [while.on

the o t h e r ] innumerable streams o f e x i s t e n c e are enlightened.

T h i s passage p r e s e n t s two d i f f i c u l t i e s : t h a t caused by the t h r e e s e t s o f

u n f a m i l i a r concepts, and t h e fundamental one o f g r a s p i n g t h e sense o f advaya.

The t h r e e s e t s are u n e x p l a i n e d simply because Asanga presupposes an under-

s t a n d i n g o f them. The first, existence/non-existence o f the dharmas, harks

back t o the d i c h o t o m i z i n g a n a l y s e s o f the e a r l y Buddhist schools, especially

o f the V a i b h a s i k a s . They began w i t h e x p e r i e n c e s . These were f i r s t d i v i d e d

i n t o those which were b e l i e v e d t o r e p r e s e n t e x i s t e n t t h i n g s ("being"), and

those which were i l l u s o r y ("non-being"), the outcome o f the i n t e r p l a y o f the

true existence. The e x i s t e n t s were f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o samskrta, which

p a r t i c i p a t e i n the i n t e r a c t i o n which engenders the i l l u s o r y , and the asamskrta

which do n o t , and which thus become the key t o the e v e n t u a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f the

illusory. T h i s r e d u c t i o n o f the e x i s t e n t c o n t i n u e d u n t i l a c e r t a i n set o f

fundamental t h i n g s (dharmas) were p o s i t e d . In a d d i t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s by which

the i l l u s o r y n o n - e x i s t e n t s g a i n credence was also analyzed. Near the b a s i s o f

t h i s p r o c e s s was found the tendency t o d i v i d e e x p e r i e n c e s i n t o "mine" and

" o t h e r s , " a tendency v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h the " u n i t y / p l u r a l i t y " o f our

passage (Ui+37aT-8).

T h i s passage emphasizes t h e inadequacy o f the o l d a n a l y s i s i n the f a c e o f

Mahayana i d e a s . F i r s t , the d i s t i n c t i o n between the c o n c r e t e l y e x i s t e n t and the

i l l u s o r y f a i l s when one takes the Mahayana p o s i t i o n (developed at g r e a t l e n g t h

i n the p r a j n a p a r a m i t a l i t e r a t u r e ) t h a t none o f the dharmas are c o n c r e t e real-

ities. T h i s does not simply mean t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s s h i f t e d t o the non-being

category. These dharmas do have one t r u l y existent aspect—the fact that they
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are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by sunyata,- w h i c h y o n a purely predicative l e v e l , implies a

complete absence o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . " ^ While t h i s has s h i f t e d t h e sense o f

the term " e x i s t i n g " from " b e i n g a c o n c r e t e t h i n g " t o " b e i n g an a b s o l u t e l y t r u e

f a c t , " t h e l a t t e r i s merely a wider d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e same t y p e , not a new

l i n e o f thought. We must remember t h a t even t h e V a i b h a s i k a s d i d not r e g a r d

the dharmas as r e a l i n t h e common Western sense o f b e i n g s e l f - e x i s t e n t entities.

S e c o n d l y , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between'samskrta and asamskrta f a i l s . In Abhi-

dharma thought samskrta ("put t o g e t h e r " ) r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t o r s composing a

moment i n t h e r e l a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e o f an o r d i n a r y b e i n g . They a r e brought

t o g e t h e r i n t h i s moment by p a s t a c t i o n (karma) and automatic r e a c t i o n s e s t a b -

l i s h e d by p a s t e x p e r i e n c e ( k l e s a ) . The a c t i v i t i e s o f t h i s assemblage s e t up

the c o n d i t i o n s f o r f u t u r e combination. The asamskrta, on t h e o t h e r hand,

a r i s e from a c e r t a i n few a c t i o n s such as m e d i t a t i o n , but do not engender

f u t u r e combinations o f dharmas. Hence, t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n breaks down samsara,

and l e a d s t o n i r v a n a . The Mahayana concept o f Dharmakaya does not submit t o

such an a n a l y s i s . I t i s not brought about by karma o r k l e s a but by t h e v a r i -

ous p r a c t i c e s a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d . While t h i s might be s a i d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

asamskrta, t h e Dk cannot s i m p l y be asamskrta s i n c e i t l e a d s not s i m p l y t o

n i r v a n a but t o f u t u r e appearances i n samsara.

F i n a l l y , the u n i t y / p l u r a l i t y category also f a i l s . This point i s very

important'.to Asanga s i n c e i t becomes v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f

how many Buddhas a r e i n e x i s t e n c e . H i s d e n i a l o f u n i t y i s e a s i l y understood.

I n s o f a r as many i n d i v i d u a l s o b t a i n Dharmakayas upon r e a c h i n g enlightenment,

t h e r e a r e many Dharmakayas. H i s f u r t h e r c o n t e n t i o n , t h a t t h e concept o f

m u l t i p l e Dharmakayas i s a l s o u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , i s more complex. He says t h a t

the Dk cannot be e n t i r e l y p l u r a l because "the support o f a l l Buddhas i s not

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d i f f e r e n t i a b l e (T: 'not m u l t i p l e ' ) . " To t h i s Asanga has appended two s t a n z a s

w h i c h have been commented upon by Asvabhava.

The second s t a n z a (X:3.3b) g i v e s a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s f o r w h i c h t h e i d e a

of e i t h e r one Buddha o r many i s u n a c c e p t a b l e . I t s p l a c e here suggests t h a t

Asanga d i d n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e between "Buddha" and "Dharmakaya." Asvabhava's

commentary t o t h e f i r s t s t a n z a ( l A 3 7 a 6 - 1 3 ) says t h a t t h e concept o f p l u r a l i t y

does n o t a p p l y t o t h e Dharmakaya because t h i s concept i s based on a d i v i s i o n

of t h e w o r l d i n t o " I " and " o t h e r s , " a d i v i s i o n n o t made by a Dharmakaya. This

c u r i o u s r e a s o n i n g b r i n g s us t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e problem. .By a p p e a l i n g t o t h e

p u b l i c , o b s e r v a b l e f a c t t h a t , many i n d i v i d u a l s have r e a c h e d e n l i g h t e n m e n t ,

Asanga has proven t h a t t h e Dk cannot be u n i t a r y . That i s , t h e o r d i n a r y man has

made a common sense and ( t o t h e b e l i e v e r ) v e r i f i a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n . Now, t o

support h i s d e n i a l o f t h e e n t i r e t r u t h o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h a t

o b s e r v a t i o n , Asanga a p p e a l s t o a p u r e l y i n t e r n a l , p r i v a t e f a c t about t h e Dk's

perceptions. Suddenly he i s no l o n g e r s p e a k i n g about how t h e Dk appears t o

the o b s e r v e r , b u t about how t h e o b s e r v e r appears t o t h e Dk'. Our t a s k i n under-

s t a n d i n g t h i s s e c t i o n now becomes one o f f i n d i n g a h e r m e n e u t i c a l framework

w h i c h w i l l r e s o l v e t h e apparent c o n f u s i o n .

At t h i s p o i n t i t w i l l be h e l p f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e g e n e r a l B u d d h i s t use

of t h e t e r m advaya from t h e V e d a n t i c a d v a i t a w h i c h i s a l s o o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d by

"non-dual." The B u d d h i s t t e r m never stands f o r an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d reality

u n d e r l y i n g appearances, w h i l e t h e V e d a n t i c one may. As T. R. V. M u r t i s a y s :

Advaya i s knowledge f r e e from t h e d u a l i t y o f t h e extremes

of ' I s ' and 'Is n o t , ' B e i n g and Becoming, e t c . I t i s knowledge
f r e e d o f c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . A d v a i t a i s knowledge o f
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n l e s s e n t i t y . . . . 'Advaya' i s a p u r e l y
e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l approach, t h e a d v a i t a i s o n t o l o g i c a l . 5 1
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In the p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e , t h i s should warn a g a i n s t an o v e r l y literal

understanding o f the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f advaya l a k s a n a as a "non-dual

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the Dharmakaya." Asanga i s not a s c r i b i n g a q u a l i t y t o an

existent thing. Such a q u a l i t y would be a svabhava and would b e l o n g i n the

previous passage (X:3.2). Asanga i s not making any a s s e r t i o n s about the

o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f e i t h e r Dk or p e r c e i v e r o f i t . Once we "go b e h i n d " t h e

division into " i " and " o t h e r , " our q u e s t i o n about "Whose p e r c e p t i o n ? " must be

dropped, as i t i s an o n t o l o g i c a l l y based one which simply cannot occur within

t h i s system. I f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c "non-dual" d e s c r i b e s the p r o c e s s of percep-

t i o n r a t h e r than e i t h e r s u b j e c t or o b j e c t , the problem becomes, "What does i t

r e v e a l about t h i s p r o c e s s ? " I can see no a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o n c l u d i n g t h a t "non-

d u a l " d e f i n e s the viewpoint or stance o f the p e r c e i v e r . That i s , a stance from

which one simultaneously p e r c e i v e s , on a c o n v e n t i o n a l l e v e l , the Bodhisattvas

r e a c h i n g Buddhahood, and on an u l t i m a t e l e v e l , the l a c k o f differentiation

between Buddhas. T h i s b i f o c a l view i s developed e a r l i e r i n t h i s t e x t (ill,

the t r i s v a b h a v a ) and i s the s u b j e c t o f the e n t i r e Madhyantavibhaga. This

d e f i n i t i o n would a l s o apply t o the e a r l i e r p o i n t s (a) and (b) o f the above-

quoted passage.

X:3.4 P e r p e t u i t y , because i t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the purification

o f the t r u e n a t u r e , i t i s the outcome o f a former vow, and

i t s a c t i v i t y i s never completed.

I t would seem n a t u r a l t o extend the r e a s o n i n g o f the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n on

n o n - d u a l i t y t o the t r a n s i t o r y / e t e r n a l dichotomy which, f o r s c h o o l s l i k e the

V a i b h a s i k a s , was v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h the samskrta/asamskrta c a t e g o r i e s .

Asanga's c l e a r statement t o the c o n t r a r y warns us t h a t the s u b j e c t i s much more

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complex. He i s not merely e s t a b l i s h i n g a method f o r a v o i d i n g any extremes,

but i s making a s s e r t i o n s about specific cases.

He t a k e s t h e same b i f o c a l view as i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , s e e i n g the

Dharmakaya i n b o t h an u l t i m a t e and a r e l a t i v e sense. But he now f i n d s the

characteristic " p e r p e t u i t y " a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h views. The argument t h a t from

a w o r l d l y s t a n d p o i n t the Dk i s perpetual,'because i t s a c t i v i t y i s never,

completed, i s e a s i l y understood. Note t h a t t h i s u n c e a s i n g a c t i v i t y i s not an

e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , but an o b s e r v a b l e f a c t about the Dk. Note a l s o t h a t

a g a i n t h e Dk_ i t s e l f i s c a p a b l e o f a c t i o n w i t h no r e f e r e n c e t o a Sambhogakaya

o r a Nirmanakaya.

The former-vow argument i s much the same. The B o d h i s a t t v a on the way to

a c q u i r i n g t h i s Dharmakaya has vowed t o c o n t i n u e a c t i n g i n the w o r l d so l o n g as

s e n t i e n t b e i n g s r e q u i r e h i s a i d ; and, s i n c e many have s t i l l not reached n i r v a n a ,

the Dharmakaya c o n t i n u e s t o a c t . A g a i n , i t s c o n t i n u a t i o n i s grounded i n the

common w o r l d : f i r s t , through a vow taken by the B o d h i s a t t v a ; second, through

the a c t i v i t i e s o f o t h e r s . The l o g i c o f t h i s w i l l be worked out i n d e t a i l by

use o f the t r i k a y a at X:37-39.

F i n a l l y , the Dk i s a l s o p e r p e t u a l i n the u l t i m a t e sense because i t is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a pure t r u e n a t u r e ( t a t h a t a ) , which Asvabhava (u437b7-8) says

i s p e r p e t u a l and immutable.

T h i s r a i s e s a major problem o f V i j n a n a v a d a s c h o l a r s h i p . Asanga makes

statements—such as "the Dharmakaya i s e t e r n a l " — w h i c h appear t o a t t a c h the

:

same p r e d i c a t e t o an o b j e c t from b o t h the u l t i m a t e and the c o n v e n t i o n a l view-

p o i n t s , and by t h e s e t o e x p l a i n t h e way i n which t h e two interact. F o r example,

the f a c t t h a t the Dk i s e t e r n a l l y p r e s e n t i s the b a s i s f o r i t s c o n s t a n t work

f o r the w e l f a r e o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . To be a b l e t o do t h i s , Asanga p o s i t s
 12k

a "true nature" ( t a t h a t a ) which, as the u l t i m a t e o b j e c t , h e a r s the predicate.

T h i s reduces many problems t o one—"What i s t a t h a t a ? " If i t is a truly exis-

t e n t r e a l s t u f f , then t h i s d o c t r i n e d i f f e r s r a d i c a l l y from t h a t i n the r e s t o f

t h i s system (or indeed, o f any Buddhist system). I f n o t , how can one possibly

c a l l i t perpetual any more t h a n e x i s t e n t ? While t h i s q u e s t i o n i s examined i n

the V i j n a n a v a d a s a s t r a s , i t does not seem t o concern the author o f t h i s t e x t .

X:3.5 Inconceivable ( a c i n t y a ) , because i t s t r u e , pure n a t u r e

must be known by i n t r o s p e c t i o n , because t h e r e i s no worldly

e q u i v a l e n t , and because i t i s not an o b j e c t f o r s p e c u l a t i v e

reasoners.

Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t the p h r a s e , " . . . because t h e r e i s no worldly

e q u i v a l e n t , and because i t i s not the o b j e c t f o r s p e c u l a t i v e r e a s o n e r s , " i s an

a b b r e v i a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g the e n t i r e process of reaching a firm logical conclu-

sion, i n c l u d i n g reasoning, r e f l e c t i o n , meditation, s p e c u l a t i o n and examples.

That i s , the u l t i m a t e n a t u r e . o f the Dharmakaya i s i n c o n c e i v a b l e because i t

53

cannot be a s c e r t a i n e d by normal reasoning.

However, t h e r e must be some sense i n which the t r u e n a t u r e o f the Dk is

knowable, o t h e r w i s e the e n t i r e concept o f a Dk would be merely a l o g i c a l

a r t i f a c t — p a r i k a l p i t a r a t h e r than p a r i n i s p a n n a . T h i s sense i s d e f i n e d by,

" i t s t r u e , pure n a t u r e must be known by introspection." A l t h o u g h our commen-

t a r i e s leave " i n t r o s p e c t i o n " ^ ^ undefined, t h i s term i s common throughout the

Mahayana debates on p e r c e p t i o n . I t r e f e r s t o the V i j n a n a v a d a b e l i e f t h a t

p r i m a r y sense-data are a source o f a b s o l u t e l y v a l i d knowledge ( i . e . , knowledge

o f the " t r u e , pure n a t u r e , " nirmalatathata) which may be e i t h e r c o r r e c t l y appre-

c i a t e d or misapprehended. Other Buddhist s c h o o l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the Prasangika,

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rejected this d o c t r i n e . ^ T h e r e f o r e , Asanga i s m a i n t a i n i n g that the r e a l

nature o f t h e Dk can be a p p r e c i a t e d o n l y by d i r e c t experience of i t rather

t h a n by r e a s o n i n g about i t .

ii. X:7 The Buddhadharmas

Asvabhava (U,U38c25) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n , "How many Buddhadharmas

are i n v o l v e d i n t h e Dharmakaya?" i s a request f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e t r u e

nature (svabhava) o f t h e Dk. The ensuing list o f s i x Buddhadharmas which

comprise t h e svabhava i s r e l a t e d t o t h e laksanas via X : 3 . 1 , "reorientation

laksana." Each r e o r i e n t e d aspect of the Bodhisattva r e s u l t s i n an a t t r i b u t e

which b e l o n g s t o t h e svabhava o f t h e Dk. There a l s o may be some r e l a t i o n s h i p

via X:3.2, "having-white-dharmas-as-svabhava-laksana," but Asvabhava g l o s s e s

them i n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ways..

The first Buddhadharma i s :

X:7.1 Purification ( v i s u d d h i ) because by r e o r i e n t i n g t h e a l a y a -

v i jnana, t h e Dharmakaya" "Is obtained.

Asvabhava (u.U38c26-l+39a3) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Dharmakaya i s "pure" as i t i s

f r e e from t h e t e n d e n c i e s t o b l i n d emotional r e a c t i o n s (samklesabij a). Thus,

the Dk i s fundamentally d e f i n e d as t h a t which i s f r e e from k l e s a s . As t h e s e

are f a c t o r s which d r i v e t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t o i n c r e a s i n g l y unhappy s i t u a t i o n s ,

t h i s p o i n t may be p o s i t i v e l y e x p r e s s e d by s a y i n g t h a t t h e Dk i s t h a t which can

c o n t r o l o r dominate ( v a s i t a ) i t s s i t u a t i o n , an i d e a a l r e a d y seen at X : 3 . 2 and

developed below at X : 7 « ^ .

We have a l r e a d y encountered t h e i d e a o f r e o r i e n t i n g t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a a t

X:5.5. However, t h e r e t h e r e o r i e n t e d a l a y a v i j n a n a was t h e M i r r o r - l i k e

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awareness. Here, i t i s the Dk itself. T h i s apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s due to

d i f f e r e n t ways o f r e g a r d i n g the a l a y a v i j n a n a . At X:5 i t was the b a s i s o f the

perceptual process. Here, i t i s t h e c o n t a i n e r f o r impure t e n d e n c i e s .

X:7.2 Result (vipaka) because by r e o r i e n t i n g the r u p e n d r i y a , the

vipakavijnana i s obtained.

V i p a k a may simply mean t h a t one t h i n g i s the outcome or r e s u l t o f another.

In the AbhidharmakoIa i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t something ( e s p e c i a l l y an i n d r i y a )

p e r t a i n s t o a l i v i n g b e i n g and a r i s e s from e a r l i e r causes but i s not itself

good or bad. F o r example, the j i v i t e n d r i y a , the simple f a c t o f b e i n g alive,

i s v i p a k a because the i n d i v i d u a l i s a l i v e through h i s p a s t . a c t i o n , y e t has the

o p t i o n .,of •' moving toward e i t h e r samsara or n i r v a n a .

The p r e s e n t passage r e t a i n s t h i s g e n e r a l meaning. When the m a t e r i a l sense

organs ( r u p e n d r i y a ) o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a are r e o r i e n t e d , he o b t a i n s a new type

of awareness ( j n a n a ) . By l a b e l l i n g t h i s awareness " v i p a k a , " Asanga s t r e s s e s -

t h e i d e a t h a t t h e Buddha's awareness r e v e a l s no new and independent r e a l i t y t o

which the B o d h i s a t t v a i s suddenly opened upon r e a c h i n g enlightenment, but i s

the outcome o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p r e v i o u s s t a t e . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s the very

nature o f the Dharmakaya t o be grounded i n the sensory l i f e o f the Bodhisattva.

X:7.3 Residence (vihara) because by r e o r i e n t i n g t h e r e s i d e n c e s ,

such as the a c t i v e - l i f e - o f - d e s i r e r e s i d e n c e , e t c . , the

immeasurable j n a n a - r e s i d e n c e i s obtained.

By s t r e s s i n g the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , r a t h e r than the e l i m i n a t i o n , o f a spe-

cific r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the w o r l d ( v i h a r a ) , the i d e a o f an u t t e r l y transcendent

Dharmakaya i s r e j e c t e d . The l i f e dominated by w o r l d l y d e s i r e i s r e p l a c e d by

one dominated by immeasurable'jfiana.

Obviously, v i h a r a , l i k e the previous two Buddhadharmas, d e a l s w i t h the

Buddha's awareness. The model here i s one o f b r o a d e n i n g , from a l i f e of

r e a c t i n g t o a c e r t a i n narrow range o f p l e a s u r a b l e s t i m u l i , t o an a b i l i t y to

take i n and a p p r e c i a t e the immeasurable r i c h n e s s o f reality.

J.:J.k • Sovereignty", '..^-because, by r e o r i e n t i n g the v a r i o u s lucrative

a c t i o n s , t:he; s o v e r e i g n t y o f the j n a n a , which i s a b h i j n a

unhindered throughout a l l the r e g i o n s o f the w o r l d , i s

obtained.

The " l u c r a t i v e a c t i o n s " are w o r l d l y o c c u p a t i o n s such as a g r i c u l t u r e and

commerce. The "jnana which i s a b h i j n a u n h i n d e r e d throughout a l l the r e g i o n s of

t h e w o r l d " i s not a member o f the t r a d i t i o n a l l i s t of a b h i j n a s . ^ Asvabhava

(U439al0-12) seems t o h o l d t h a t i t r e f e r s t o the e n t i r e l i s t , t o the g e n e r a l

idea of abhijna.

T h i s passage c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t the shift from common man t o Dharma-

kaya does not d i s p l a c e the c o g n i z i n g i n d i v i d u a l from h i s c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . It

seems t o mean t h a t h i s " l u c r a t i v e " a s s i m i l a t i o n o f the w o r l d i s replaced by

unhindered a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i t .

X:7>5 Discursus (vyavahara)v° vecause, by " r e o r i e n t i n g the- d i s c u r s u s

o f e v e r y t h i n g seen, h e a r d , f e l t , and known, the sovereignty

c o n s i s t i n g of-.the awareness which s a t i s f i e s the. mind o f a l l

centient beings i s obtained.

Asvabhava (uU39al2-15) seems t o understand by t h i s t h a t o r d i n a r y ways o f

speaking about e x p e r i e n c e become, f o r the Dharmakaya, a way o f speaking which

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is i n e v i t a b l y able t o s a t i s f y (Lamotte: "charm") a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . I f this

i s Asanga's meaning, t h e r e i s no i d e a o f t h e Dk i n h a b i t i n g some i n e f f a b l e

absolute. Ordinary speech simply changes t o p l e a s i n g speech.

X:7.6 Expulsion (samudgh£ta), because, hy. r e o r i e n t i n g toward an

expulsion o f s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s , a d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s i s o b t a i n e d .

Following Asvabhava (U*l39al5-l8), because t h e Dharmakaya has e x p e l l e d i t s

own s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s , i t can then d e s t r o y t h e s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s o f

others. T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n y i e l d s t h e marvelous

awareness that destroys t h e s u f f e r i n g s and f a u l t s o f o t h e r s .

iii. X:9-27 Gunas A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Dharmakaya

F i n a l l y , t h e Dharmakaya i s d e s c r i b e d by a'set of qualities (gunas).

Unlike the inherent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (laksanas) o r fundamental n a t u r e (dharma),

the gunas a r e merely " a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " (samprayukta; T: dang-ldan-par; H:

) t h e Dk. T h i s term u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e s : e x i s t e n t i a l c o n j u n c t i o n without

r a i s i n g the question of essential basis. Here, Asvabhava (U^39bl2) r e g a r d s i t

as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s e gunas a r e not e x c l u s i v e t o t h e Dk but a l s o occur

w i t h t h e Sravakas, and so on. Perhaps because t h e e s s e n t i a l b a s i s f o r them

does not come i n t o q u e s t i o n , t h i s passage a f f o r d s l i t t l e fresh insight into

the, author's p r i n c i p l e s .

These gurtas a r e , i n f a c t , merely an o l d and w i d e l y a c c e p t e d s e t o f concom-

i t a n t s t o Buddhahood... . The . f a c t t h a t ' t h i s , t r a d i t i o n a l "list... i s . there a p p l i e d t o

the Dk i s y e t another i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , f o r Asanga, "Buddhahood" equals

"Dharmakaya."
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This p a r t i c u l a r l i s t and explanatory k a r i k a s are drawn d i r e c t l y from the

Mahayanasutralaxtkara, XXI:43-59. As t h e y are w e l l known and as Lamotte has

provided e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o o t h e r t e x t s i n which t h e y are d i s c u s s e d and

defined, "^" I have simply reproduced the b a s i c l i s t

6
below, and have p a r a p h r a s e d

r a t h e r than t r a n s l a t e d a few o f the more obscure ideas.

X:10 The f o u r immeasurables (apramana).

X:ll The e i g h t freedoms-from (vimoksa), the e i g h t f o l d n o n - d i s t u r b i n g

perception (abhibhvayatana); and the t e n a l l - b a s e s (krt snayat ana).

X:12 The a b i l i t y t o prevent emotional r e a c t i o n s i n o t h e r s (arana).

X:13 The awareness which i s an outcome o f the B o d h i s a t t v a vow

(pranidhijnana).

X:lk The f o u r aspects o f e x p e r t i s e i n the study and p r o c l a m a t i o n of

62

the dharma (pratisamvid).

X:15 The s i x s u p e r i o r knowledges ( a b h i j n a ) .

X:l6 The t h i r t y - t w o major and e i g h t y minor marks o f a s u p e r i o r man.

Asanga l a y s v e r y l i t t l e s t r e s s on t h e s e . When he l a t e r d i s t r i b u t e s the

Dk's a t t r i b u t e s among the t h r e e kayas, he does not r e a l l y say whether the

Nirmanakaya or Sambhogakaya e x h i b i t s them. They remain simply "associated

w i t h " Buddhahood.

X:17 The fourfold universal purity (sarvakaraparisuddhi).

X:l8 The t e n powers ( b a l a ) .

X:19 The f o u r grounds f o r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e (vais"aradya).

X:20 The t h r e e f o l d absence o f anything-to-conceal (araksya), and t h e

three a p p l i c a t i o n s o f mindfulness (smrtyupasthana).

X:21 The t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f h a b i t u a l r e a c t i o n s (vasanasamudghata).

X:22 Opportune a i d t o o t h e r s (asammosata).

X:23 Great compassion (mahakaruna).

X:2h The e i g h t e e n a t t r i b u t e s s p e c i f i c t o t h e Buddha (avenika

Buddhadharmah)..

X:25 U n i v e r s a l awareness (sarvakarajnata).

X:26 F u l f i l l m e n t o f the s i x perfections (paramitaparipuri).

Asvabhava's commentary on u n i v e r s a l awareness (X:25) and t h e summary

(X:2T) w i l l be examined l a t e r , as t h e y c o n t a i n information on t h e t r i k a y a .

c. The Dharmakaya as -Seen by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Dharmakaya thus f a r might be termed p h i l o s o p h i c a l .

That i s , t h e s c r i p t u r a l f a c t s have been arranged i n a r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n compre-

h e n s i b l e t o any r e a s o n i n g man. No e x t r a - r a t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s — n o m y s t i c a l i n s i g h t

or b e l i e v e r ' s commitment—have been r e q u i r e d . Since, t o the Vijnanavada;

common man and Buddha a r e not two d i f f e r e n t b e i n g s , but two d i f f e r e n t e p i s t e m i c

a t t i t u d e s , there i s no e s s e n t i a l reason t h a t t h e Buddha cannot" be d e s c r i b e d

i n common language.

None o f t h i s r e a s o n i n g would be a l i e n o r incomprehensible t o a Western

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metaphysician—provided he was induced t o accept t h e above s e t o f " f a c t s . " Our

r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r , however, cannot be content w i t h merely d e s c r i b i n g how t h e Dk

appears t o o r d i n a r y man. He not o n l y b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s r e a d e r (originally

" a u d i t o r " ) can make t h e g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n t o Buddhahood but wishes t o encour-

age him t o do so. T h e r e f o r e , t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s t r a n s i t i o n he o f f e r s s e v e r a l

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Buddhahood, each from a viewpoint nearer the f i n a l g o a l .

The major such i n t e r m e d i a t e stage i s t h a t o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a . The Bodhi-

s a t t v a 's view o f t h e Dk i s not c a s t i n t h e same l o g i c a l form as t h a t o f t h e

common man, because t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a r e not l i m i t e d by t h e same

l o g i c a l categories. In-the Mahayanasamgraha h i s view i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as

"profound" (gambhira) and i s d e s c r i b e d a t X:28 by passages o b v i o u s l y taken

from or i n s p i r e d by t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a w r i t i n g s . Asvabhava (\jhk3b6-9)

i d e n t i f i e s t h i s passage as t h e B o d h i s a t t v a view by m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t "profound,

v e r y p r o f o u n d " means t h a t n e i t h e r w o r l d l y sages nor Sravakas can understand-

63
the b a s i c nature o f t h e Dk. , „

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Dk proceeds i n t h e normal p r a j n a p a r a m i t a style.

Each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s mentioned t w i c e — o n c e to affirm i t , and a g a i n t o negate

i t , t h e p a i r o f a n t i t h e t i c a l statements being fused i n t o a s i n g l e l i n e o f

verse. The r e s u l t i n g n o n s e n s i c a l image d e r i v e s i t s c o n v i n c i n g power from

p o e t i c e f f e c t s e s p e c i a l l y when t h e s t a n z a i s chanted. That i s , t h e r e i s no

b e i n g born at t h e Buddha's b i r t h , h i s r e s i d e n c e : i s no r e s i d e n c e , and so on,

through a list o f twelve topics.

While X:28 expresses t h e "profound" b i f o c a l v i s i o n o f t h e Buddha enjoyed

by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , i t g i v e s no h i n t o f t h e i n t e n s e p o s i t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e

Buddha expected from a p r a c t i t i o n e r . T h i s view o f Buddha h e l d by B o d h i s a t t v a -

as-devotee i s c o n t a i n e d i n X:29 where i t i s c a l l e d "review o f t h e Dharmakaya."

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The term " r e v i e w " ( a n u s m r t i ) i s d e r i v e d from s m r t i , an ambiguous term whose

r o o t meaning "memory" g i v e s l i t t l e c l u e t o the complex s e r i e s o f terms

generated from i t . B a s i c a l l y , i t r e f e r s t o the process of m a i n t a i n i n g a

s t a b l e e p i s t e m i c o b j e c t f o r purposes o f m e d i t a t i o n .

In t h i s passage the o b j e c t o f a t t e n t i o n i s t h e Buddha. Asvabhava

(\]kh^c2-3) comments t h a t a n u s m r t i means a s t a b l e r e c o l l e c t i o n o f the Buddha.

The Mahayanasamgraha and i t s commentaries t e l l us n o t h i n g about t h e a c t u a l

m e d i t a t i o n r i t u a l , but X:29 says t h a t when t h e B o d h i s a t t v a does f i x h i s

a t t e n t i o n upon t h e Buddha he f o c u s e s upon seven p r o p e r t i e s :

X:29.1 The Buddhas have o b t a i n e d s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas because

t h e y have o b t a i n e d u n h i n d e r e d awareness w h i c h p e n e t r a t e s

throughout t h e e n t i r e w o r l d .

To t h i s i s added a s t a n z a t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t Buddha does not enjoy a s i m i l a r

s o v e r e i g n t y over t h e b e i n g s i n the w o r l d . Asvabhava (uUU5t>l—5) e x p l a i n s t h a t ,

w h i l e t h e Buddha enjoys s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e sense t h a t he i s aware o f e v e r y - "

t h i n g , he cannot abrogate the law o f karma and i m m e d i a t e l y introduce a l l

beings to nirvana.

X:29.2 The b o d i e s o f t h e T a t h a g a t a s a r e e t e r n a l because t h e T a t h a g a t a s

65
are c o n t i n u a l l y f r e e from s t a i n .

Here, as elsewhere i n t h i s t e x t , t h e e p i t h e t " e t e r n a l " i m p l i e s not an i n f i n i t e

s u b s t a n t i a l e x i s t e n c e b u t an u n i n t e r r u p t e d c o n t i n u i t y o f some f o c a l c h a r a c t e r -

istic ( i . e . , freedom from s t a i n ) .

X:29-3 The T a t h a g a t a s are t o t a l l y i r r e p r o a c h a b l e because t h e y are

t o t a l l y exempt from t h e k l e s a and j n e y a avaranas.

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X:29.k The Tathagatas a r e spontaneous because a l l t h e i r Buddha a c t i o n s

flow i n an u n i n t e r r u p t e d e f f o r t l e s s stream.

X:29-5 The Tathagatas enjoy g r e a t p l e a s u r e due t o t h e p l e a s u r e s o f

the pure B u d d h a f i e l d and o f t h e dharma.

X:29.6 The Tathagatas a r e u n s o i l e d because, although appearing i n the

w o r l d , they a r e not s o i l e d by any w o r l d l y dharmas.

X:29.7 The Tathagatas have a grand purpose because, by m a n i f e s t i n g

enlightenment and n i r v a n a , they mature a l l s e n t i e n t beings who

are not y e t matured and l i b e r a t e those who a r e a l r e a d y matured.

d. The Dharmakaya—A Summary

I t i s now obvious t h a t , i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha, t h e term Dharmakaya

designates Buddhahood, t h e terminus o f t h e Mahayana p r a c t i c e s . It i s well

summarized i n t h e t i t l e o f c h a p t e r X: "Resulting-Awareness" ( p h a l a j f i a n a ) . The

Dk i s a " r e s u l t " i n t h e sense t h a t each o f i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s t h e f u l f i l l -

ment o f some p r a c t i c e p r e v i o u s l y adopted by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a . I t does not

i n v o l v e a r e b i r t h o r any s o r t o f new b e i n g . C a l l i n g t h i s r e s u l t an "awareness"

does not d e f i n e i t s o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t e . I t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e Dk i s b e i n g

d e s c r i b e d w i t h i n t h e same e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l framework t h a t was a p p l i e d t o t h e

common man and t h e a s p i r i n g B o d h i s a t t v a . W i t h i n t h i s framework, t h e p h y s i c a l

body o f t h e common man i s an " i d e a " ( v i j n a p t i ) r e s u l t i n g from a l i m i t e d , b i a s e d

awareness ( v i j n a n a ) . T h i s n o t i o n o f t h e body as v i j f i a p t i i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t

of a " s e l f - i m a g e . " As t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e g i n a Mahayana p r a c t i c e s and h i s v i s i o n

broadens, t h e v i j n a n a changes (through t h e stages o f p r e p a r a t o r y , fundamental

and subsequent) i n t o a n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i n g awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) o r , i n

 13k

t h i s t e x t , simply "awareness" ( j n a n a ) . His s t a t i c self-image g i v e s way t o the

r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i m s e l f as the p e r f e c t embodiment (kaya) o f the Mahayana i d e a l s

(dharmas), i . e . , a Dharmakaya.

The n o t i o n o f " s e l f - i m a g e " must not be p r e s s e d t o o f a r , s i n c e i t p r e s u p -

poses some " s e l f " (pudgala) or t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ego t o e x p e r i e n c e the image.

Such an ego i s denied throughout Buddhist thought. In the Mahayanasamgraha

Asanga has c a s t the t h e o r y e n t i r e l y i n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l terms. The mechanism

by which the s e l f - i m a g e o f the common man maintains i t s e l f i s described. The

way i n which t h i s can be r e o r i e n t e d t o become the r e s u l t i n g - a w a r e n e s s which i s

the DJk i s e x p l a i n e d . And the r e s u l t i n g awareness i t s e l f i s d e s c r i b e d i n v a r -

i o u s ways. But t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s are c o n f i n e d t o the p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n .

There i s no mention of a r e a l p e r c e i v e r or o b j e c t . Even a t t r i b u t e s o f the Dk

— w h i c h appears t o imply an o n t o l o g y — a r e i n t e r p r e t e d i n e p i s t e m i c terms. For

example, the apparent a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t the. Dk i s immortal (nitya). i s i n t e r -

p r e t e d as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Incessant nature o f the p e r c e p t i o n . Therefore,

w h i l e the concept o f " s e l f - i m a g e " i s . a p p l i c a b l e t o the .common man's v i j n a p t i ,

:

it i s not a p p l i c a b l e t o the Dk.

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Dk as r e s u l t i n g - a w a r e n e s s i s t h e key t o under-

s t a n d i n g most o f the p r e v i o u s passages. I t prevents the misunderstanding of

the Dk's a c t i v i t i e s which occurs when one sees the Dk as a g o d - l i k e figure

e x e r t i n g s o v e r e i g n t y o r mastery over the t h i n g s o f t h i s w o r l d . The concept

t h a t the Dk i s awareness, not an a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n o f e x t e r n a l e n t i t i e s but

a breadth o f v i s i o n , reminds us t h a t t h e r e are no " t h i n g s " t o be mastered by

the Dk. The a c t i o n s through which mastery or s o v e r e i g n t y i s e x e r c i s e d are

themselves a s p e c t s o f t h e awareness. T h i s p o i n t can be understood more c l e a r l y

i f we compare the a c t i o n s o f the common man, the B o d h i s a t t v a and the Dk.

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For t h e common man, past events have p l a n t e d t h e seeds o f p r e s e n t

p e r c e p t i o n s , which present a c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n i n c l u d i n g individual,

w o r l d , and p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e world. The i n d i v i d u a l i s d r i v e n t o c e r t a i n

a c t i o n s by t h e s i t u a t i o n , and p e r c e i v e s " h i m s e l f " c a r r y i n g out t h e a c t i o n s .

When t h e a s p i r a n t e n t e r s t h e Mahayana and becomes a B o d h i s a t t v a , he

develops t h e s i x p e r f e c t i o n s (paramitas) which w i l l e v e n t u a l l y form t h e Dk.

These a r e c u s t o m a r i l y d i v i d e d i n t o two groups: t h e f i r s t f i v e , which d e f i n e

t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s a c t i o n (upaya); and t h e s i x t h , t h e i n s i g h t ( p r a j n a ) which

i s h i s perception o f the s i t u a t i o n . A p p l i e d t o the present t e x t , these

c a t e g o r i e s can be m i s l e a d i n g , s i n c e t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s insight ( p r a j n a ) can

be e a s i l y confused w i t h t h e awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j nana) which i s t h e b a s i c

nature o f t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s . A l l s i x paramitas, i n c l u d i n g both insight

and a c t i o n , a r e simply a b s t r a c t i o n s from t h e t o t a l i t y o f one p a t t e r n (see

IV:7.6) which, when f u l l y developed, i s c a l l e d t h e Dk. At t h i s p o i n t , t h e

p e r c e p t i o n i s no l o n g e r i n t e r p r e t e d as " s e l f " and " o t h e r " l o c k e d i n t o a

fixed relationship. T h e r e f o r e , t h e i d e a o f p e r c e i v i n g an environment and

then a c t i n g on t h e p e r c e p t i o n , w h i l e m i s l e a d i n g when a p p l i e d t o t h e Bodhi-

s a t t v a , i s i n c o r r e c t when a p p l i e d t o t h e Dk. The Dk's awareness i n c l u d e s

the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t b o t h i t s view and i t s a c t i o n s have t h e same l o g i c a l

s t a t u s , i . e . , they a r e a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r c e p t i o n . I t i s often easier to

c o n s i d e r them both as " a c t i o n s " through which t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o r mastery i s

exercised.

Because t h e Dk i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e p a r a m i t a s , i t s ac-

t i o n s do not c o n s t i t u t e an empty omnipotence o r simple "freedom-from." As t h e

outcome o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a vows and p r a c t i c e s , a l l a c t i v i t y i s d i r e c t e d toward

the w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s ( s t r i c t l y d e f i n e d as a i d i n g o t h e r s eventually;,to"develop
 136

a similar outlook). F r e e d from concern f o r i t s " s e l f , " t h e Dk can r e a c h out

w i t h compassionate concern. This outreach involves p e r c e i v i n g ( i . e . , creating)

a s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n which t h e needs o f o t h e r s a r e b o t h a p p r e c i a t e d and s a t i s f i e d .

The a p p r e c i a t i v e i n s i g h t ' " ( p r a j n a ) i n t o t h e i r p l i g h t is-.-not^'pure. openhess.-to

e x p e r i e n c e , f o r t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o be e x p e r i e n c e d . I t i s t h e e p i s t e m i c aspect

o f t h e mature p a t t e r n e d concern f o r o t h e r s . The a c t i o n which s o l v e s t h e

problem i s not a m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s , f o r t h e r e a r e no l i v e s

t o be manipulated. The p e r c e i v e d - e n c o u n t e r , c r e a t e d by compassionate concern,

w i t h i n which t h e needs o f t h e o t h e r can be a p p r e c i a t e d , i s a l s o t h e v e r y

one w i t h i n which t h e s e needs a r e s a t i s f i e d . . T h a t - i s , through t h e v e r y

process o f a p p r e c i a t i n g the o t h e r ' s problem, t h e s o l u t i o n develops"

spontaneously.

T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n r a i s e s t h e obvious problem o f t h e l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e

r e c i p i e n t o f t h e Dk's a s s i s t a n c e . He seems t o have no s t a n d i n g - a p a r t from

the s i t u a t i o n which has been c r e a t e d by t h e Dk. There can be no q u e s t i o n o f

t r a d i t i o n a l s o l i p s i s m because t h e r e i s no r e a l s e l f i n v o l v e d , but some s o r t o f

q u a s i - s o l i p s i s m appears t o be u n a v o i d a b l e . I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s problem i s

i n h e r e n t i n t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h i s t e x t as a byproduct o f t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an

epistemology d i v o r c e d from metaphysics. The l a t e r V i j n a n a v a d a t h i n k e r s seem

t o have r e a l i z e d t h e problem and developed doctrines that avoid i t .

T h i s b r i n g s us t o t h e r e a l m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problem o f t h e p r e s e n t section,

t h a t o f p r o p o s i n g a m e t a p h y s i c a l . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Asanga's t h e o r y . We must

f i r s t note t h a t t h e pure epistemology o f t h e t e x t a p p a r e n t l y s a t i s f i e d many

w i t h i n t h e samgha. Why?.

While t h i s q u e s t i o n must be l e f t t o t h e h i s t o r i a n , I w i l l make a simple

s u g g e s t i o n based on o b s e r v a t i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y bKa'-brgyud-pa communities

 137

that follow a s i m i l a r doctrine. I suspect t h a t e p i s t e m o l o g y may satisfy the

"believer who l i v e s w i t h i n a d i s c i p l i n e d community under the d i r e c t i o n and

i n s p i r a t i o n o f a s p i r i t u a l master. He may draw d i r e c t l y from h i s i n t e r a c t i o n

w i t h the master the" reassurance.and guidance t h a t we expect from a metaphys-

i c a l statement. He may require•the theory t o do n o t h i n g more than t o e x p l a i n .

how h i s p r a c t i c e s and m e d i t a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s are r e l a t e d ' t o the main p o i n t s

o f Buddhist dogma. Such a requirement .would "be e a s i l y met by the t h e o r y of

.the Mahayanasamgraha.

The s c h o l a r needs more. The p r a c t i t i o n e r has h i s guru, a l i v i n g symbol

of h i s g o a l , c o n t i n u a l l y b e f o r e him. His t a s k i s t o emulate the guru, not to

d i s c u s s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f h i s e x i s t e n c e . The scholar deals i n ideas, not

persons. He r e q u i r e s an i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f the Buddha r a t h e r than an

incarnation. He l e g i t i m a t e l y a s k s , "What i s the Dharmakaya?" The answer may

not be e n t i r e l y s a t i s f y i n g , but i t must g i v e him some concrete p o r t r a i t of the

Buddha.

We c o u l d , l i k e Guenther, t u r n t o a l a t e r s c h o o l o f V i j n a n a v a d a thought

and accept i t s metaphysic. I f such a s c h o o l had appeared i n immediate post-

Asafiga I n d i a , t h i s would be the proper t a c t i c . Emphasis c o u l d then be trans-

f e r r e d t o the w r i t i n g s o f t h a t s c h o o l , and the Mahayanasamgraha i n t e r p r e t e d as

a forerunner o f the mature d o c t r i n e . However, Guenther's s o u r c e — t h e rNying-

ma-pa m a s t e r s — a p p e a r e d much l a t e r , i n a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , and were i n f l u e n c e d

by i n t e r v e n i n g developments; i t s i d e a s may not be a legitimate vehicle for

i n t e r p r e t i n g the e a r l y Indian t r a d i t i o n . Therefore, I s h a l l attempt t o derive

an answer d i r e c t l y from the c o n t e n t s o f the Mahayanasamgraha.

At t h i s p o i n t i d e a l i s m reappears. Even though Asanga has failed to

develop such a d o c t r i n e , i s i t not the obvious concomitant t o h i s epistemology?

The answer i s Ho. An idealistic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e s one o f two unaccept-

able alternatives-. E i t h e r some element o f the e p i s t e m i c p r o c e s s must be

d e c l a r e d more b a s i c than the o t h e r s , or some v e r y a b s t r a c t u n i f y i n g concept,

such as an " a b s o l u t e , " must be i n t r o d u c e d . In the former case i t i s v i r t u a l l y

i m p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d r e g a r d i n g the chosen element as an e x i s t e n t e n t i t y , thus

i n t r o d u c i n g an unacceptable substantialism. A crude example o f t h i s would be

the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the a l a y a v i j n a n a as a r e a l substratum of personal

existence.

I f the second c h o i c e i s accepted and an A b s o l u t e that i s s u f f i c i e n t l y

transcendent t o a v o i d o n t o l o g i c a l problems i s p o s i t e d , the u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e

has simply been e l e v a t e d t o a r a r e f i e d s t a t u s where i t i s o f s l i g h t h e l p with

a c t u a l problems.

The t a s k of: d e r i v i n g a. more s a t i s f a c t o r y • e x p l a n a t i o n i s simultaneously

rendered both more and l e s s d i f f i c u l t by the need t o a v o i d o n t o l o g y . It i s

more d i f f i c u l t because we cannot simply use the p u d g a l i s t i c n o t i o n o f an indi-

v i d u a l who sees t h i n g s f i r s t as a common man and l a t e r In an enlightened

manner. Nor can we a s s i g n o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s t o any o t h e r element o f the

epistemology theory.

The .=task. becomes l e s s , d i f f i c u l t because we are f o r c e d t o acknowledge t h e

view o f many p h i l o s o p h e r s t h a t the m e t a p h y s i c i a n ' s t a s k i s not t o uncover real

e n t i t i e s , but t o d e v i s e a scheme w i t h i n which e x p e r i e n c e may be i n t e r p r e t e d .

In the words o f A. N. Whitehead, " S p e c u l a t i v e P h i l o s o p h y i s the endeavour t o

frame a coherent, l o g i c a l necessary system o f g e n e r a l i d e a s i n terms o f which

66
every element"of our e x p e r i e n c e can be i n t e r p r e t e d . "

As a demand f o r a p e r f e c t system, t h i s sounds l i k e an o n t o l o g i c a l quest

in disguise. However, Whitehead means i t o n l y as the i d e a l i n the sense t h a t

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a p e r f e c t s c i e n t i f i c h y p o t h e s i s i s the i d e a l . Any a c t u a l t h e o r y may still be

acceptable, a l t h o u g h f a l l i n g short o f t h i s . He adds:

P h i l o s o p h e r s can never hope f i n a l l y t o f o r m u l a t e t h e s e

m e t a p h y s i c a l f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s . Weakness o f i n s i g h t and d e f i -
c i e n c i e s o f language stand i n the way i n e x o r a b l y . Words and
p h r a s e s must be s t r e t c h e d towards a g e n e r a l i t y f o r e i g n t o
t h e i r o r d i n a r y usage; and however such elements o f language
be s t a b i l i z e d as t e c h n i c a l i t i e s , t h e y remain metaphors mutely
a p p e a l i n g f o r an i m a g i n a t i v e l e a p .

Throughout t h i s study I use the term "metaphysics" t o mean t h i s search

f o r an i n t e g r a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e . That i s , I s h a l l f o l l o w what S. K. Verma i n

The Nature o f Metaphysics c a l l s the "root-metaphor" t h e o r y o f metaphysics.

Our problem i s much more modest than t h a t o f the g e n e r a l m e t a p h y s i c i a n i n

search o f a scheme embracing the t o t a l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e . We need o n l y a r o o t -

metaphor t h a t i s c a p a b l e o f u n i f y i n g the ideas about the Dk. While i t need

not be t o t a l l y s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t , i t must be a v i v i d , concrete metaphor which

will s t a y - f i r m l y i n our-mind and ( a l m o s t . M i t e r a l l y ) r e s t r a i n the tendency t o

drift o f "into meaningless inhuman a b s t r a c t i o n s .

Materials f o r such a metaphor l i e r e a d i l y at hand. Asanga's t a l k o f

ground, seeds, m a t u r a t i o n and fruit suggests an o r g a n i c metaphor i n whiclf'the

o r d i n a r y p e r s o n a l i t y becomes a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g weed-patch ( k l e s a s ) . The

paramitas are d e s i r a b l e p l a n t s which, i f p l a n t e d among the weeds and properly

tended, w i l l e v e n t u a l l y crowd them out. The r e s u l t i s a mature crop o f

p a r a m i t a s , which i s c a l l e d the Dharmakaya.

T h i s metaphor has several useful features. F i r s t , i t c l e a r l y i s no more

than a metaphor. No one w i l l take i t l i t e r a l l y . Second, i t i l l u s t r a t e s two

o f the most p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s o f the Dk: the f a c t that i t i s both obtained at

the s t a r t o f the a s p i r a n t ' s c a r e e r and developed throughout and the fact that
 iko

it i s n e i t h e r s i n g u l a r nor p l u r a l . The o r d i n a r y use o f t h e term "crop"

e x h i b i t s e x a c t l y those p e c u l i a r i t i e s . Furthermore, t h e n o t i o n o f a " c r o p " and

"seeds" i s e a s i l y extended t o account f o r t h e i d e a s o f t h e dharma which, as an

o u t f l o w o f t h e dharmadhatu, i n i t i a t e d t h e spread o f Dharmakaya(s). Finally,

the metaphor m a i n t a i n s t h e c o n t i n u i t y between common man and Dk.

I t s f a i l u r e s a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e nature o f metaphor. The a c t u a l

s i t u a t i o n i s always p e r c e i v e d from w i t h i n by one s t a n d i n g somewhere on t h e

continuum between common man and Dk. Yet t h e metaphor p o r t r a y s a s i t u a t i o n

from w i t h o u t , as a t h i n g , thus r e i f y i n g and d i s t o r t i n g t h e "ground" o f t h e

situation. T h e r e f o r e , d e t a i l e d c o n c l u s i o n s about t h e ground o r b a s i c nature

cannot be drawn from such a p o r t r a i t .

D e s p i t e t h e apparent t r i v i a l i t y o f t h i s metaphor, i t i s a t r u e

m e t a p h y s i c a l view which w i l l serve b e t t e r than many couched i n more f o r m a l

p h i l o s o p h i c a l terms. I t i s a model which e x h i b i t s many important character-

i s t i c s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d by Asanga, and can e a s i l y be kept i n mind t o

p r o v i d e a p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h i n which any i d e a s about t h e Dk can be kept w i t h i n

the system. No one h a v i n g t h i s metaphor i n mind c o u l d mistake t h e Dk f o r a

d e i f i e d f i g u r e , speak o f a cosmic Buddha, or see i t as a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f

some i n e f f a b l e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y . I t p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l way t o grasp Asanga's

g e n e r a l sense o f Buddhahood and w i l l be h e l p f u l l a t e r as we d e a l w i t h specific

q u e s t i o n s under each o f t h e t h r e e kayas i n t o which t h e Dk may be a n a l y z e d .

The most s t a r t l i n g aspect o f t h i s p o r t r a i t may be i t s c o n s e r v a t i s m . Most

s c h o l a r s have seen t h e Mahayana Buddhology as a r a d i c a l departure from earlier

concepts, i n v o l v i n g the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a t h e l s t i c , g o d - l i k e , transcendent

68

Buddha f o r t h e e a r l i e r awakened a s p i r a n t . Y e t , t h e p r e v i o u s passages c o n t a i n

none o f t h i s . The Dk i s not a god and h i s a c t i v i t i e s a r e not g o d - l i k e . H i s

 abilities are remarkable o n l y f o r t h e i r s o t e r i o l o g i c a l e f f i c a c y , i . e . , he can

c o n t r o l both h i m s e l f and the s i t u a t i o n i n order to teach e f f e c t i v e l y . There

is, no s u g g e s t i o n o f any cosmic powers such as w o r l d c r e a t i o n or dissolution.

He c e r t a i n l y i s no deus ex machina meddling w i t h the f a t e o f man, even f o r the

latter's benefit. He i s even unable t o abrogate the karma o f another without

that .individual's conscious co-operation (X:38-39)-

3. THE TRIKAYA

While Asanga drew the p r e c e d i n g i d e a s d i r e c t l y from o t h e r authorities,

the arrangement o f t h i s f i n a l set i n t o a t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e appears t o be his

own contribution.

I shall first v e r i f y t h a t Asanga a c t u a l l y p o s i t s a unified trikaya, and,

as the t e x t mentions f o u r kayas, d i s c o v e r which t h r e e form the trikaya and

c l a r i f y t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the fourth.: The c o r e o f the p r e s e n t study, an

examination o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between'the t h r e e elements and-.of the develop-

ment o f the-key i d e a s , w i l l follow. As Asanga mentions s e v e r a l ' p e r e n n i a l •• .

.'Buddhological dilemmas i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these kayas, I-shall,investigate'the

u t i l i t y o f the t r i k a y a i n s o l v i n g them. F i n a l l y , • I s h a l l propose a model o f

the t r i k a y a doctrine which can guide i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . i n t o related doctrines.

a. A U n i f i e d T r i k a y a or Three Kayas?

The l a t e r s t a n d a r d term " t r i k a y a " i s not used i n the Mahayanasamgraha;

Asanga speaks o f the "triple Buddhakaya" ( s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i sku-gsum; ^~j$f ^ ):

P. 3-10 The triple Buddhakaya . . . i s the 'phala.jnana o f t h e s e

X:l
 lh2

[three Bodhisattva observances!.

111:2; 111:1"+ and V:2.10

[These t h r e e s i m i l a r passages l a b e l t h e r e s u l t o f

p r a c t i s i n g non-conceptual and subsequent awareness as

"omniscience," "the t r i p l e Buddhakaya," and " f i l l i n g t h e

Dharmakaya," respectively.!

V I I I : 13 . . . t h e terminus o f t h e n i r v i k a l p a . j n a n a i s t h e obtainment

of the t h r e e pure kayas and o f t h e h i g h e s t m a s t e r i e s . To

Vasubandhu (Bh 365b8), "pure" i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y have

reached the t e n t h bhumi.

X:28 By t h e t h r e e kayas,

You have o b t a i n e d t o t a l mahabodhi . . .

X:28.2 A l l Buddhas have t h r e e kayas.

II:33.l8 e
. . . t h e u n l i m i t e d domain of• t h e t r i p l e Buddhakaya.

In t h e s e passages, " t r i p l e Buddhakaya" i s synonymous w i t h t h e "Dharmakaya"

p r e v i o u s l y examined. Furthermore, none o f t h e s e passages suggests t h a t one

kaya may be o b t a i n e d by i t s e l f or b e f o r e 'the" others-. This strengthens the

assumption t h a t none o f them can stand a l o n e , and t h a t t h e " t r i p l e Buddhakaya"

i s a u n i t a r y concept, e q u i v a l e n t t o Dharmakaya or "Buddhahood."

The evidence t h a t i t s t h r e e a s p e c t s are o b t a i n e d and developed simultane-

ously (VIII:13; X:25) a l s o warns us not t o m i s c o n s t r u e the various a s s e r t i o n s

t h a t one kaya "depends upon" another as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t one i s t e m p o r a l l y

p r i o r t o the o t h e r s .
 11*3

b. Which Three Kayas?

The i d e n t i t y o f the t h r e e kayas (are t h e y Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and

Nirmanakaya, or are t h e y Svabhavikakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya?) i s

bound up w i t h t h e meaning o f t h e term Svabhavikakaya. This question w i l l be

answered on t h e b a s i s o f the f o l l o w i n g passages:

P.3.10 The t r i p l e Buddhakaya: Svabhavikakaya, Sambhoghakaya and

\ Nirmanakaya, i s the r e s u l t i n g awareness of these [Bodhi-

sattva practices! . . .

There can be no m i s t a k e . The f i r s t i s d e f i n i t e l y Svk, not Dk, i n t h e

T i b e t a n as w e l l as the Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s by Hsuan-tsang, Dharmagupta and

Paramartha. Buddhasanta uses j|l r a t h e r than |j 'l"-^ but t h i s s h o u l d

c e r t a i n l y be a l s o understood as "svabhava."

Vasubandhu (Bh 32.3&?.3-?h ) comments t h a t •

The t r i p l e Buddhakaya i s c a l l e d the ' r e s u l t i n g awareness'

— ' . ' r e s u l t i n g ' because' i t - i s t h e result, o f p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d
;

p r a c t i c e s and ' r e s u l t i n g awareness' because t h i s r e s u l t i s

aware. [Thus,] i t s b a s i c n a t u r e (svabhava) i s t o be 'the aware
result of these.'

Now, i f t h e r e were no Svabhavikakaya ET:- ' i f - t h e r e were

no svabhava'] t h e r e would be. no Dharmakaya . . .

Asvabhava (U38lal6) says t h a t the t h r e e are t h e Svk, Sbk and Nk, and adds

(,38lcll|) t h a t the "Svabhavikakaya i s unimpeded and s t a i n l e s s awareness (jnana).

As such, i t i s a term f o r Dharmakaya."

X:l.l The Svabhavikakaya i s the Tathagata's Dharmakaya because

it i s the support f o r the s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas.

 Asvabhava (uH36al-5) o f f e r s s e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e term Svk i n t h

above passages:

I t i s c a l l e d 'svabhava' because i t c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g a r t i -
f i c i a l and 'kaya' because i t i s t h e support. Because t h e dharma-
n a t u r e (dharmata) i s a body, i t i s c a l l e d 'Dharmakaya' Cu333al:
"the body composed o f t h e dharmas i s t h e dharmatakaya"j or because
i t i s t h e support f o r t h e dharmas, i t i s c a l l e d 'Dharmakaya.' The
phrase, ' i t i s t h e support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas' means
i t i s t h e support f o r o b t a i n i n g such s o v e r e i g n t y .

X:3.2 [The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( l a k s a n a s ) o f t h e Dharmakaya a r e b e i n g

explained. The second l a k s a n a i s : II "Having white dharmas

as s v a b h a v a — b e c a u s e t h e t e n m a s t e r i e s a r e o b t a i n e d through

the f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e s i x p a r a m i t a s . " [The t e n m a s t e r i e s

are e x p l a i n e d by t h e commentators. These w i l l be t a k e n up

later.1

X:25 "The t h r e e kayas. . ." g l o s s e d by Asvabhava as "the

Svabhavikakaya,"-etc.

X:28.2 [Vasubandhu. r e f e r s t o t h e f i r s t o f t h e t h r e e as "Svabhavikakayav

X:23.1 A l l Buddhas have o b t a i n e d s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas,

because throughout t h e e n t i r e w o r l d they have o b t a i n e d

unhindered p e n e t r a t i n g awareness . . .

X:31 The Buddha's dharmadhatu a t a l l times e x h i b i t s f i v e sorts

of activity . . . [Asvabhava i d e n t i f i e s t h e dharmadhatu as

the Dk.:

X:35 Why i s t h e Sambhoghakaya not t h e Svabhavikakaya?

 11+5

X:36 Why i s the Nirmanakaya not t h e Svabhavikakaya?

The answers t o X:35 s t r e s s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Svk cannot appear i n d i v e r s e

ways. The answers t o X:36. s t r e s s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Svk cannot a c t i n an

i n c o n s i s t e n t manner. Asvabhava (Tjl+U8bl5-l6) seems t o suggest t h a t t h e Svk i s

e n l i g h t e n e d i n t h e T u s i t a heaven but a c t s i n the w o r l d by means o f a nirmana.

These passages appear t o c o n t a i n two c o n t r a d i c t o r y ideas:

— t h a t Svk is. synonymous w i t h Dk.

— t h a t Svk r e f e r s t o the f i r s t o f t h r e e kayas, whereas Dk has been used as a

g e n e r a l term f o r enlightenment, r o u g h l y synonymous w i t h t h e " t r i p l e Buddha-

kaya."-.'

The o n l y d i r e c t d i s c u s s i o n o f whether Dk and Svk are synonymous,,- Vasuban—•

dhu's commentary t o P:3.10 (Bh 323a23-bl+), i s r e n d e r e d no more i n t e l l i g i b l e by

Asvabhava's apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h i s q u e s t i o n must be r e s o l v e d by

comparing statements about t h e Svk w i t h t h o s e made about t h e Dk. Before doing

t h i s , two t y p e s o f passages must be d e l e t e d from the d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e Svk.

Those i n which the Svk i s equated w i t h t h e Dk and t h o s e i n which t h e Svk i s

listed as t h e f i r s t o f t h e t h r e e merely r e p e a t our b a s i c problem. In a d d i t i o n ,

those t h a t speak o f t h e "svabhava o f t h e Dharmakaya" w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d as

r e f e r e n c e s t o the Svk.

Two types o f d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e Svk. (or the svabhava o f the Dk) remain.

They a r e :

— an awareness r e s u l t i n g from t h e B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s (.P:3.10; X:35-6 ( U ) ) .

T h i s compound i d e a may be d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e concepts o f b e i n g a 'result'

o f B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s , and o f b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y 'awareness.'
 146

— a support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y o r mastery over t h e dharmas ( X : l . l ; X:3.2).

Thus, t h e Svk e n t a i l s t h r e e b a s i c concepts: r e s u l t , awareness and

sovereignty. I n o r d e r t o e x p l o r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Svk and t h e Dk,

we w i l l now r e o r g a n i z e t h e Dk passages from t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n under t h e

above t h r e e headings.

Again, c e r t a i n passages which would obscure t h e argument have been s e t

aside: the l i s t o f e i g h t e e n a v e n i k a Buddhadharmas a t X:24 (which a r e c l e a r l y

of little i n t e r e s t t o Asanga and c o n t a i n n o t h i n g new), t h e p r o f u n d i t y o f t h e

Dk (X:28; which d e a l s w i t h t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s view and has been e x p l a i n e d as

s u c h ) , and t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether t h e Dk i s u n i t a r y (X:8; which w i l l be

considered later).

When t h e remaining passages a r e examined, we f i n d t h a t t h e Dk, l i k e t h e

Svk, i s the culmination or r e s u l t o f the Bodhisattva p r a c t i c e s . I t i s obtained

by " B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s , " i . e . , by p r a c t i s i n g t h e paramitas (X:4.3; X:26),

by l i s t e n i n g t o the dharma ( 1 : 4 6 - 4 8 ) , and by meditation. (.III:12,l4; V:2.10;

X : l ; X:4.2, 4; X:7-2).

L i k e t h e Svk, t h e Dk i s "awareness" ( j n a n a ) . Dk awareness i s d e s c r i b e d

in great d e t a i l . I t i s pure and u n o b s t r u c t e d by vasanas, k l e s a s and avaranas

which prevent a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n (.1:46-48; X:7.1; X : l l ; X:17; X:20; X:21;

X:29.3; X:29.6).

T h i s awareness i s an omniscience d i r e c t e d t o questions necessary f o r the

s a l v a t i o n o f others ( X : l l ; X:13; X : l 4 ; X:15; X:19; X:25). As such, i t i s n o t

merely an a c c u r a t e , unemotional p e r c e p t i o n o f s u r r o u n d i n g o b j e c t s , b u t i s

compassionate concern f o r others* w e l f a r e (.X:6.1; X:7-3; X:10; X:23). -

From t h i s concern s p r i n g t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f p r o t e c t i o n and a i d

which e v e n t u a l l y l e a d o t h e r s t o a s i m i l a r way o f p e r c e p t i o n (,X:6.2-3; X:7-6;

X : l 6 ; X:22; X:29-7; X : 3 l ) . As t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s are c e a s e l e s s or at l e a s t

coterminous w i t h the l i b e r a t i o n o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , the Dk may be called

e t e r n a l (X:3.^; X:29.2,k).

The c e n t r a l i d e a t h a t awareness n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s a c t i o n i s t r e a t e d as

a t h i r d category: the Svk as the support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y over the dharmas.

The c o n n e c t i o n between s o v e r e i g n t y (or mastery) and awareness i s e x p l a i n e d at

X:29-l, w h i l e s o v e r e i g n t y i s d e s c r i b e d at X : l . l ; X:3-2; X:7.^ and X:7.5.

The key passage at X:5 o u t l i n e s the way i n which each skandha o f o r d i n a r y

man i s r e o r i e n t e d i n order t o o b t a i n a s p e c i f i c s o v e r e i g n t y o f Buddha. Reori-

e n t a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n s e v e r a l passages, but X : 3 - l i s e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t t o

the present t o p i c . D e t a i l s on s o v e r e i g n t y may be found at X : l l , 1 2 and X:l8.

From the ease w i t h which the Dk passages have been subsumed under the

t h r e e a s p e c t s o f the Svk, we may conclude t h a t the Svk and the Dk are not two

d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s or even the same e n t i t y ("Buddhahood") viewed by different

types o f i n d i v i d u a l s . They are d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the same phenomena viewed at

different levels of generality. The Svk i s v e r y g e n e r a l , w h i l e the Dk i s

exceedingly detailed. When Asanga wishes t o r e i f y the phenomenon o f Buddhahood

to "a Buddha," he uses Svk or Dk i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . When he wishes t o s t r e s s

the broader c a t e g o r i e s , he r e f e r s t o the "svabhava o f the Dharmakaya," or

"Svabhavikakaya." His p r i n c i p a l use o f t h i s term i s as the f i r s t member o f

the t r i k a y a , t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e the f a c t o f b e i n g a Buddha from the way i n which

the Buddha appears t o s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .

In b r i e f , the members o f the t r i p l e Buddhakaya are Svabhavikakaya, Sambho-

gakaya and Nirmanakaya, and t o g e t h e r t h e y form a u n i t y which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o

the term "Dharmakaya."

 Ik8

c. The Nirmanakaya: Buddha i n the World

The Nirmanakaya i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o "be t h e form i n which Buddhahood

i s m a n i f e s t e d w i t h i n the w o r l d , i . e . , the h i s t o r i c a l Buddhas such as Dipaiiikara,

Sakyamuni or M a i t r e y a .

P:3-10 [Commenting on the f i r s t mention o f the NkT,. Vasubandhu

(Bh323a29) s a y s : !

I f t h e r e were no Nirmanakaya, the B o d h i s a t t v a s on the

^ ^ TO' - ^

adhimukticaryabhumi .' and the Sravakas etc /whose a s p i r a -

t i o n i s i n f e r i o r , would not be a b l e t o escape from samsara.

VI:5.2 [Asanga i s e x p l a i n i n g t h a t the supreme m o r a l i t y i s t o l e a d

o t h e r s t o p r a c t i c e the dharma, and t h a t the q u e s t i o n o f

means used t o do t h i s t r a n s c e n d s ordinary categories of

morality,3

"Furthermore, the a f f e c t e d (nirmana) b o d i l y and v o c a l

a c t i o n s a r e t o be understood as t h e profound m o r a l i t y o f

the B o d h i s a t t v a . By them, he e x e r c i s e s a u t h o r i t y , i n f l i c t -

ing v a r i o u s torments on s e n t i e n t beings i n order to secure

them i n [ t h e p r a c t i c e o f l Buddhist d i s c i p l i n e (vinaya)."

VIII:10 The retribution (vipaka) o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s nirvikal-

pajnana occurs i n the two Buddha assemblies according to

p r e p a r a t i o n and acquisition.

" R e t r i b u t i o n " i n d i c a t e s ' t h e f a t e o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s next i n c a r n a t i o n .

». 71

"Nirvikalpajnana" ( n o n - c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g awareness) i s a g e n e r a l term f o r

e n l i g h t e n e d awareness. Here the q u e s t i o n i s , "Where w i l l the B o d h i s a t t v a who

 Ik9

p o s s e s s e s n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a be r e b o r n ? " The commentators (Bh 365alO-l"+;

U"+30cl8-2"4-) agree t h a t , i f h i s n i r v i k a l p a j nana i s o n l y i n p r e p a r a t i o n , he will

be b o r n i n the Nirmanakaya assembly, while» i f he has a c t u a l l y a c q u i r e d

n i r v i k a l p a j S a n a , he w i l l be r e b o r n i n the Sambhogakaya assembly.

That i s , the assembly s u r r o u n d i n g the Buddha's Nk_ i s composed o f t h o s e who

are " p r e p a r i n g " t h e i r awareness. This preparation i s further characterized

(vTII:l"+) by a s p i r a t i o n (adhimukti) and simple c o n f i d e n c e (sraddhamatra).

X:1.3 The Nirmanakaya a l s o depends upon the Dharmakaya because

i t m a n i f e s t s Lthe f o l l o w i n g B u d d h a - a c t i v i t i e s ! : residing

i n the T u s i t a heaven, descending, b e i n g b o r n , l e a v i n g the

household l i f e , frequenting t i r t h i k a s , p r a c t i c i n g auster-

i t i e s , a r r i v i n g at mahabodhi, and e n t e r i n g mahaparinirvana.

Asvabhava (U"+36al7-19) s a y s , "Because o f h i s developed i n s i g h t , he l e a v e s

the. T u s i t a heaveniCand^performs a l l the Buddha a c t i v i t i e s ! , finally•entering

nirvana. Such i s the way i n which anthropomorphic mental images a r i s e i n

another's stream o f b e i n g . "

X:6.3 CThe Dharmakaya! i s the support f o r the v a r i o u s Nirmanakayas

because i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures the m a t u r a t i o n o f the Sravakas.

Asvabhava (u"+38cll-15) e x p l a i n s t h a t " p r i n c i p a l l y " i n d i c a t e s t h a t . t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a s on the lowest l e v e l — t h e a d h i m u k t i c a r y a b h u m i — a l s o need the Nk:

"Because o f t h e i r i n f e r i o r a s p i r a t i o n , the Sravakas and a d i k a r m i k a B o d h i s a t - -

t v a s are not c o m p l e t e l y matured i f t h e y do not see t h e Buddha. But t h e B o d h i -

s a t t v a s who have e n t e r e d the g r e a t bhumis are not matured by the Nirmanakaya

because they p e n e t r a t e the v a s t and p r o f o u n d dharma."

 150

X:8 [To the q u e s t i o n o f whether o r not the v a r i o u s Sarabhogakayas

are d i f f e r e n t or not d i f f e r e n t , Asanga r e p l i e s : " ! . . . As

t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and a c t i o n s do not d i f f e r , t h e y are not

different. I t i s not the case t h a t t h e i r d i f f e r e n t supports

do not d i f f e r — a n immeasurable v a r i e t y o f supports are

found. The p r e c e d i n g remarks on the Sambhogakaya a l s o a p p l y

t o the Nirmanakaya.

X:12 [Asvabhava (u440cl-l6) i s commenting on the a b i l i t y o f the

Tathagata t o d e s t r o y k l e s a s o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . He says

t h a t , i f t h e T a t h a g a t a sees t h a t s e n t i e n t b e i n g s w i l l produce

k l e s a s i n r e g a r d t o the Buddha's body, i f t h e y are capable

o f e n j o y i n g a nirmana o f the Buddha, he approaches them and

skillfully d i s c i p l i n e s them. Asvabhava c o n t r a s t s t h i s

T a t h a g a t a w i t h the Sravaka who, upon f i n d i n g t h a t h i s presence

i n a town or grove might excite passion, refrains from

entering it.1

X:l6 When a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s see you,

They r e c o g n i z e you as a mahapurusa.

By a mere glimpse t h e y a c h i e v e faith.

Homage t o you, the e f f e c t i v e one.

Asvabhava (uU4lbT-12) says t h a t s e n t i e n t b e i n g s see t h e t h i r t y - t w o major

and e i g h t y minor marks which convince them t h a t the Buddha i s the good a r r a n g e r

(H: "dharma-opener") o f the w o r l d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s no c l e a r indication

o f which kaya(.s) manif e s t (s) t h e s e , Hsuan-tsang p r o b a b l y understood both. Sbk.

and Nk, but t h i s i s not supported by.the T i b e t a n .

 151

X:27 ... [You the BhagavanH are i n the w o r l d and i n the Buddha

assemblies. . .

Asvabhava (u4U3a23) says,". . . the Nirmanakaya i s m a n i f e s t e d i n ( & )

the w o r l d , w h i l e the Sambhogakaya r e s i d e s i n ( ) the great assembly."

X:31.1 [The Dharmakaya] p r o t e c t s s e n t i e n t beings from s u f f e r i n g

because a mere glimpse o f i t p r o t e c t s a g a i n s t such miseries

as b l i n d n e s s , d e a f n e s s , madness, e t c .

Asvabhava (W6cl6-21; u351b8-352a3) d e a l s w i t h the d i f f i c u l t y r a i s e d by

the f a c t t h a t elsewhere the Dk has been d e c l a r e d t o be invisible. How can a

"mere g l i m p s e " o f i t p r o t e c t someone? He replies:

[ I w i l l now e x p l a i n the way i n which o r d i n a r y b e i n g s

may"! 'see the Dharmakaya.' The Dharmakaya i s p e r f e c t e d by
the p r o j e c t i n g power o f i t s p r e v i o u s Great Vow. I t then
m a n i f e s t s a f u n c t i o n i n g ( $\ ) Nirmanakaya which causes the
b l i n d t o see, e t c . From the p r o j e c t i n g power o f p r e v i o u s
equipment i t o b t a i n s ( ^ ) the Dharmakaya, spontaneously
) s e n d i n g f o r t h [ a c t i o n s 1 l i k e a wheel which
f i n a l l y returns to i t s s t a r t i n g point. So a l t h o u g h we say
t h e y 'see the Dharmakaya; t h e y r e a l l y see o n l y a nirmana.

X:36 Why i s the Nirmanakaya not the Svabhavikakaya?

This question r e c e i v e s a complex r e p l y i n e i g h t s e c t i o n s . In the first

f i v e , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s p r a c t i c e d by a Buddha between h i s l a s t earthly

r e b i r t h and h i s p a r i n i r v a n a are shown t o be inexplicable i f t h i s worldly form

(Nk) were, q u i t e simply, the Buddha. To a v o i d such, c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , i t i s neces-

sary t o p o s i t an e a r t h l y body (Nk) and an e s s e n t i a l body (Svabhavikakaya).

X:36.1 I t i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a who has long ago

acquired the imperishable samadhis, should be born i n

 the T u s i t a heaven o r among men.

A b e i n g i s reborn a c c o r d i n g to" h i s past a c t i o n s .arid 'the a c t i o n "of

p r a c t i s i n g the m e d i t a t i o n i n v o l v i n g i m p e r i s h a b l e samadhis throughout the

B o d h i s a t t v a c a r e e r cannot r e s u l t i n r e b i r t h i n the kamadhatu. But scripture

r e v e a l s t h a t the Buddha i s r e b o r n i n the T u s i t a heaven and then i n Jambudvipa,

b o t h o f which are i n the kamadhatu. Thus, we must p o s i t a bimodal Buddha.

T h i s r e a s o n i n g i s extended i n Paramartha's t r a n s l a t i o n o f Vasubandhu's Bhasya

(T. v o l . 31, p. 26Tcl6) ,' where t h e human body t h a t t h e Buddha t a k e s i n o r d e r

to convert s e n t i e n t beings i s s a i d t o e x i s t without cause (^^, 1^1 ) and

t h e r e f o r e t o be Nk r a t h e r than Vipakakaya o r Svabhavikakaya.

That i s , we must a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h a t no r e l a t i o n o f karmic causality

h o l d s between the two modes. T h i s w i l l be an important point for understanding

the sense o f "nirmana•"

X:36..2 I t i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , who has l o n g s i n c e

remembered h i s . former b i r t h s , s h o u l d The Ignorant 'of ..

•• '• -•• '•

1
75
w r i t i n g , c a T c u l a t i o h , numbers, f i n g e r r e c k o n i n g ,
:
arts,

s c i e n c e s , and the enjoyment o f o b j e c t s o f d e s i r e .

X:36.3 It i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , who has l o n g s i n c e

known the dharma, b a d l y preached or w e l l preached, should

go t o the tirthikas.

X:36.U It i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , who has l o n g s i n c e

known the good dharma o f t h e p a t h o f the t h r e e vehicles,

should p r a c t i c e a s c e t i c i s m .

X:36.5 It i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a s s h o u l d n e g l e c t one - -

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hundred k o t i s o f Jambudvipas i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e complete,

enlightenment and t u r n the dharmkacakra i n a s i n g l e p l a c e .

The problem i s here thrown i n t o t h e s t a r k e s t p o s s i b l e r e l i e f by t h e

cosmological s e t t i n g . To t h e Mahayana a u t h o r s , the cosmos c o n s i s t s o f e n d l e s s

r e p l i c a t i o n s o f the f o u r - c o n t i n e n t . u n i v e r s e . Now, the B o d h i s a t t v a has vowed

t o save a l l b e i n g s , presumably i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f o t h e r u n i v e r s e s . I f the

Buddha were merely a s i n g l e e n t i t y , he would have t o choose one o f these i n

which t o e x e r c i s e h i s s a l v i f i c a c t i v i t y , thus v i o l a t i n g h i s vow. Furthermore,

Asvabhava (uUl+8bl2) says t h a t these d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s are i d e n t i c a l . Thus,

the c h o i c e i t s e l f would n e c e s s a r i l y be made on p u r e l y f o r t u i t o u s grounds, a

concept a l i e n t o Buddhist thought.

X:36.6 I f , i n s t e a d o f m a n i f e s t i n g complete enlightenment Cin

every JambudvipaU, t h e Buddha performed Buddha a c t i v i t i e s

everywhere e l s e by Nirmanakayas Ewe c o u l d say t h a t l he had

reached enlightenment o n l y i n t h e T u s i t a heaven.

X:36.7 Why not admit t h a t i n Jambudvipas, Buddhas are born

simultaneously? There i s no s c r i p t u r e or reason h i n d e r i n g

this conclusion.

Asvabhava (U^"+8bl5) sees t h i s as a r e p l y t o those who would attempt t o

m a i n t a i n t h e i d e n t i t y o f Svk and Nk by p o s i t i n g a q u a s i - u n i t a r y Buddha who

becomes e n l i g h t e n e d i n t h i s Jambudvipa and sends nirmanas t o a c t i n o t h e r

Jambudvipas. S u r e l y these t h i n k e r s would be w i l l i n g t o go f u r t h e r and admit

t h a t the enlightenment t a k e s p l a c e i n the T u s i t a heaven and t h a t a l l activities

i n the Jambudvipas a r e by means o f nirmanas. Asvabhava sees no harm i n t h i s ,

and such an admission i s q u i t e enough t o support the c l a i m t h a t the Svk must

be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the Nk.

T h i s argument assumes t h a t v a r i o u s Nks may be p r e s e n t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

The author must now e x p l a i n why t h i s does n o t c o n t r a d i c t the s c r i p t u r a l maxim

t h a t two Buddhas cannot a p p e a r - i n _ t h e w o r l d a t the'same t i m e . He says:-

X:36.8 Even i f many nirmanas appear, because "the w o r l d " i s a

f o u r - c o n t i n e n t world-system, the b i r t h o f two Tathagatas

i n the w o r l d does not c o n t r a d i c t the s u t r a which [asserts 1

t h a t two Tathagatas do not a r i s e i n the w o r l d , j u s t as

two C a k r a v a r t i n s cannot a r i s e i n the same w o r l d .

Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t the " w o r l d " o f the s u t r a i s one f o u r - c o n t i n e n t

world-system, n o t an e n t i r e u n i v e r s e c o n t a i n i n g one thousand four-continent

world-systems. There i s no s c r i p t u r a l o b s t a c l e t o simultaneous Buddhas, as

l o n g as each world-system c o n t a i n s o n l y one;

A s t a n z a i s quoted t o c l o s e t h i s . a r g u m e n t :

Many o f the Buddha's s u b t l e Nirmanakayas

Are i n t h e womb s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,

In o r d e r t o m a n i f e s t

The M a n i f o l d Enlightenment.

The commentary (Bh 379b8-13; U 41i8c2-5) i n t r o d u c e s an important i d e a .

When the Buddha's Nk descends from'the T u s i t a heaven i n t o i t s mother's womb,

nirmana !3ravakas such as Sariputra are c r e a t e d by the Buddha and descend t o

t h e i r mothers' wombs. Without t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y , t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f the Buddha

would not be apparent. T h i s s u r p r i s i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n shows t h a t the phrase

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77
" m a n i f o l d enlightenment" i s not "the v a r i o u s t y p e s o f enlightenment," hut a

s i n g l e synonym f o r t h e h i g h e s t enlightenment, thus j u s t i f y i n g the superiority

o f the Mahayana enlightenment. While I t may he p o s s i b l e t o see t h i s as the

b a s i s o f the l a t e r n o t i o n t h a t v a r i o u s b e i n g s may be Nks, t h e r e i s no indica-

t i o n t h a t Asanga o r h i s commentators e n t e r t a i n e d such a n o t i o n .

X:36.8 CThe Buddha"! made h i s vow and p r a c t i s e d the r e l i g i o u s life

i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e g r e a t enlightenment f o r the w e l f a r e

and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . It i s i l l o g i c a l to

h o l d t h a t he has c o m p l e t e l y gone t o n i r v a n a , because that

would render h i s vow and p r a c t i c e s t e r i l e and useless.

Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t we are t o conclude t h a t the Buddha who has

e n t e r e d n i r v a n a i s the Nk, distinct from the Svk, which i s s t i l l p r e s e n t t o

aid others.

X:37 CIn t h i s d i s c u s s i o n (which w i l l be s t u d i e d l a t e r ) o f whether

the Buddha's body i s e t e r n a l , Asanga m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e Nk

i s not e t e r n a l ( n i t y a ) but i s r e p e a t e d l y m a n i f e s t e d . ]

X:38 The Nirmanakayas o f the Buddha Bhagavans do not remain

Cin the w o r l d l f o r s i x reasons:

( l ) Because t h e i r . a c t i v i t y i s complete when the matured

s e n t i e n t b e i n g s have been l i b e r a t e d .

The Nk i s c l e a r l y a r e l a t i o n a l body whose appearance depends on both the

Buddha and the s e n t i e n t b e i n g s f o r whom i t i s m a n i f e s t . When t h e y no l o n g e r

need i t , i t w i l l disappear.
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(2) To prevent [ s e n t i e n t beings3 from not d e s i r i n g nirvana

w h i l e s e e k i n g t h e Tathagata's e t e r n a l body.

(3) To prevent mistaken i d e a s about t h e Buddha and t o cause

sentient beings t o understand the profound teachings o f

the t r u e dharma.

(U) In o r d e r t o cause [ s e n t i e n t beings!] t o l o n g f o r t h e

Buddha's profound b i r t h because t h e y [ t h e BhagavansU

f e a r t h a t , i n those who o f t e n see t h e Buddha, a f e e l i n g

o f contempt w i l l a r i s e .

(5) In o r d e r t o cause [each s e n t i e n t b e i n g l p e r s o n a l l y t o

e x e r t h i m s e l f when he knows t h a t t h e r e a l t e a c h e r i s

difficult to find.

(6) In o r d e r t h a t s e n t i e n t b e i n g s be q u i c k l y matured by

not r e j e c t i n g t h e yoke o f p e r s o n a l exertion.

These a r e a l l s p e c i f i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f one p o i n t . The Nirmanakaya e x i s t s

because i t i s t h e most e f f i c a c i o u s way i n which t h e Buddha may a i d s e n t i e n t

beings. The h e l p which can be g i v e n i s not an a c t i o n - o n - b e h a l f - o f , but i s a

stimulus to personal e x e r t i o n and a d i r e c t i o n f o r i t . F o r t h i s purpose, an

eternally-present Buddha would be u s e l e s s t o the Sravaka who sees t h e Buddha

as an e x t e r n a l , a u t h o r i t a t i v e , g o d - l i k e figure. To one w i t h such an a t t i t u d e ,

the d e b i l i t a t i n g p r e s e n c e o f t h e e t e r n a l w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t o r y would l e a d t o a

passive dependency, t h e p r e c i s e o p p o s i t e of the desired maturation.

i. The Nirmanakaya: a Summary

The p r e c e d i n g passages p o r t r a y t h e Nirmanakaya as t h e Buddha-form

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m a n i f e s t e d i n the w o r l d by the Dharmakaya. As such, i t i s the f a m i l i a r Buddha

(Dipamkara, iSakyamuni, M a i t r e y a , e t c ) d e f i n e d by a set p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n s .

These passages a l s o suggest s o l u t i o n s t o t h e p r i n c i p a l problems arising

from such a p o r t r a y a l . The f i r s t problem, "Who can see the Nk?",. i s not•as

simple as i t may appear. While VIII:10 suggests t h a t the Nk appears t o t h o s e

Sravakas who have made some s p i r i t u a l p r o g r e s s , t h e remainder o f t h e passages

suggest t h a t the Nk i s v i s i b l e t o a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , but i s n e c e s s a r y o n l y

for the s p i r i t u a l p r o g r e s s o f the Sravakas and B o d h i s a t t v a s on the a d h i m u k t i -

caryabhumi. That i s , a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s can see t h e Nk, but o n l y t h e

!3ravakas and n o v i c e B o d h i s a t t v a s b e n e f i t from t h i s exposure.

A second problem i n v o l v e s t h e a c t i o n o f the Nk. The q u e s t i o n , "What does

the Nk do?" r e c e i v e s two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f answers. First, (VI:5-2) Asanga

suggests t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , by means o f b o d i l y and v o c a l a c t i o n s which are

nirmanas, can do a n y t h i n g ( i n c l u d i n g apparent harm) which might h e l p e s t a b l i s h

s e n t i e n t b e i n g s i n the Mahayana d i s c i p l i n e . While t h i s passage appears t o

r e f e r t o the Nk, t h e r e are no s i m i l a r ones elsewhere i n the Mahayanasamgraha.

Furthermore, the T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t o r i s c a r e f u l t o use the word l u s ( " p h y s i c a l

body") r a t h e r than sku used elsewhere, t o t r a n s l a t e the kaya o f Nirmanakaya.

T h e r e f o r e , t h i s i d e a o f t a k i n g d i r e c t a c t i o n upon the a s p i r a n t does not seem

to b e l o n g t o Asanga's b a s i c v i s i o n o f the Nk. Second, the Nk performs certain

actions i n a prescriptive mythical pattern- I t i s b o r n , l e a v e s the house- .

hold l i f e , a c h i e v e s enlightenment, t u r n s the dhafmacakra, and so on. The

p a t t e r n o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s d e f i n e s the Nk_ and c o n s t i t u t e s i t s h i s t o r i c a l

r e a l i t y , i . e . , i t s v i s i b i l i t y to sentient beings. However, t h e r e i s no sugges-

t i o n t h a t the Nk's main t a s k — m a t u r a t i o n o f the Sravakas—is d i r e c t l y achieved

by t h e s e a c t i o n s . Not even p r e a c h i n g ( " t u r n i n g the dharmacakra") i s c e n t r a l

to this soteriological action.

T h i s m a t u r a t i o n seems t o he a c h i e v e d not by t h e Nk 'doing' something t o

the laravaka, but by t h e s i t u a t i o n i n which t h e Nk (present by v i r t u e o f t h e

Buddha a c t i v i t i e s ) i s seen by t h e Sravakas, by B o d h i s a t t v a s on t h e a d h i m u k t i -

caryabhumi, and by s e n t i e n t b e i n g s i n g e n e r a l . I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s maturing

a c t i o n , a mere glimpse o f t h e Nk p r o t e c t s t h e Sravakas from w o r l d l y c a l a m i t i e

This maturation involves f a i t h (sraddha) and a s p i r a t i o n ( a d h i m u k t i ) .

VIII:10 h o l d s t h a t t h e Sravaka must have t h e s e i n o r d e r t o be born i n t h e

presence o f a Nk; X:6.3 says t h a t t h e i r i n f e r i o r adhimukti c a l l s f o r a glimps

of t h e Buddha; and X : l 6 says t h a t t h i s glimpse r e s u l t s i n adhimukti.

A r e a s o n a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s would be t h a t t h e Sravakas and t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a s see t h e Nk because t h e y have a c e r t a i n c o n f i d e n c e and a s p i r a t i o n

and t h a t t h e s e a r e strengthened by t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s i s i n g e n e r a l agree-

ment w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f h e a r i n g about t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f

the Tathagatas which i s found i n t h e Abhidharmakosa v i i l : 3 ^ c L .

The verb " t o s e e " ( ^ , mthong-baj i m p l i e s o r d i n a r y g r a s p i n g p e r c e p t i o n

and I s c o n t r a s t e d by Asvabhava a t X:6.3 w i t h t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s " p e n e t r a t i o n "

of t h e dharma. T h i s l e a d s i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n between Nirmana-

kaya, Sambhogakaya and Dharmakaya, a d i s c u s s i o n which w i l l be taken up a f t e r

the data on t h e Sbk have been examined.

But what does ' s e e i n g t h e Nirmanakaya' mean? Does Asariga l i t e r a l l y mean

t h a t t h e mere s i g h t o f t h e Nk i s e f f i c a c i o u s , o r i s t h i s a metaphor f o r b e i n g

able" t o meet w i t h , and undertake t h e r e l i g i o u s l i f e under, an h i s t o r i c a l

Buddha? We should f i r s t note t h a t ' s e e i n g ' t h e Buddha cannot be a metaphor

for h e a r i n g o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e Buddha-word. Both h e a r i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g

have t h e i r own c o n s i s t e n t t e r m i n o l o g y throughout t h e Mahayanasamgraha, and

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t h a t t e r m i n o l o g y i s not found here. Furthermore, Asvabhava (Ulj-36al9) r e f e r s

to "anthropomorphic mental images." While t h e r e i s a l s o some chance t h a t

' s e e i n g ' means j o i n i n g the Buddha's entourage, the m a j o r i t y o f passages seem

t o be based upon the more l i t e r a l n o t i o n . Asvabhava's statement that the

glimpse o f the Buddha i s a c t u a l l y a glimpse o f h i s t h i r t y - t w o major and e i g h t y

minor c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e (X:l6) ' suggests t h a t the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a B u d d h a i s t h e

essence-of•the soteriological event.

Such an u n d e r s t a n d i n g makes good sense o f these passages. Ordinary sen-

t i e n t b e i n g s can see, but not r e c o g n i z e , the Nk. The Sravaka does r e c o g n i z e

it. H i s c a r e e r i s a l r e a d y w e l l l a u n c h e d — h e knows the b a s i c d o c t r i n e , p r a c t i c e

t h e m e d i t a t i o n , and keeps t h e p r e c e p t s . He r e q u i r e s assurance. A 'mere

glimpse' o f the Buddha w i l l indeed assure him t h a t the g o a l and f o u n d a t i o n o f

his p r a c t i c e i s r e a l i z a b l e , and w i l l t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s e h i s c o n f i d e n c e and

aspiration.

The q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Nirmanakaya and Svabhavika-

kaya w i l l be taken up later.

d. The Sambhogakaya—-Buddha i n the B u d d h a f i e l d

In the Mahayanasamgraha, the Sambhogakaya i s the form i n which Buddhahood

r e s i d e s w i t h i n a B u d d h a f i e l d , t e a c h i n g an e n j o y a b l e d o c t r i n e t o t h e B o d h i s a t -

tva.. Relevant passages w i l l be examined under t h r e e headings:

1. The Sambhogakaya; i i . The B u d d h a f i e l d ; i i i . The Bodhisattva.

i. The Sambhogakaya—General

Prastavana LThe commentators (Bh323a25-29; U 3 8 l c l 7 - 2 0 ) say t h a t , due

3.10
 l6o

t o the Sambhogakaya, the Great B o d h i s a t t v a s who have

e n t e r e d the great bhumis e x p e r i e n c e the p l e a s u r e s o f the

dharma and t h e s e p l e a s u r e s assure the p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e i r

equipment.1

VIII:10 [ T h i s passage on the r e t r i b u t i o n o f n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a was

quoted when d i s c u s s i n g the Mrmanakaya. Asvabhava adds

t h a t b e i n g born i n the Sambhogakaya Buddha assembly i s

t h e r e t r i b u t i o n f o r h a v i n g o b t a i n e d the fundamental

n i r v i k a l p a j nana ( d e s c r i b e d at V I I I : i h t ) . ]

The i m p l i c a t i o n seems t o be t h a t t h e fundamental n i r v i k a l p a j nana l e a d s

t o r e b i r t h i n t h i s assembly, and t h a t t h e r e the "subsequent (.prsthalabdha)

n i r v i k a l p a j nana," "whose p o s s e s s o r c a n . c i r c u l a t e throughout the world without

being s o i l e d , " i s obtained.

X:6.2 [The Dharmakaya] i s t h e support f o r t h e v a r i o u s Sambho-

gakayas because i t assures the m a t u r a t i o n o f the

Bodhisattvas.

X:8 [To the q u e s t i o n o f whether the v a r i o u s Sambhogakayas

are d i f f e r e n t ^ o r not d i f f e r e n t , Asanga r e p l i e s : ] . . .

As t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and a c t i o n s do not d i f f e r , t h e y are

not d i f f e r e n t . I t i s not the case t h a t t h e i r various

supports do not d i f f e r — i n n u m e r a b l e supports occur.

Asvabhava (.UU39b2-5) e x p l a i n s t h a t the Buddhaf i e l d s , a s s e m b l i e s , v e r b a l

e x p r e s s i o n s , s i z e s o f the b o d i e s , major and minor marks, taste'O'f the d o c t r i n e ,

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etc., d i f f e r i n various universes.

X:27b . . . [You, t h e Bhagavan! a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e w o r l d and

the Buddha a s s e m b l i e s . ... .

Both commentators agree t h a t t h e Buddha appears i n t h e w o r l d by t h e

Nirmanakaya and i n t h e Buddha assemblies by t h e Sambhogakaya.

X:35 Why i s t h e Sambhogakaya not t h e Svabhavikakaya? For s i x

reasons:

(1) Because a rupakaya can be seen.

A g a i n , Vasubandhu i s ambiguous. Asvabhava (;Tjl+l+7c27-28). s a y s , " . . . t h e

Sambhogakaya has a m a t e r i a l (rupa) appearance w h i l e t h e Svabhavikakaya does n o t . "

(2) Because i t appears v a r i o u s l y i n t h e innumerable

Buddha a s s e m b l i e s .

Asvabhava (u"+"+7c29-^8al) says t h e Sambhogakaya e x h i b i t s d i v e r s e forms

whereas t h e Svabhavikakaya does n o t .

(.3) Because i t can be seen a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a s p i r a t i o n s

Cof t h e d e v o t e e ] , i t appears t o have an i n d e t e r m i n a t e

svabhava.

Asvabhava (uHU8al-l+) says t h a t t h e Sambhogakaya i s m a n i f e s t i n a c c o r d

with the " a s p i r a t i o n s " (adhimukti)_ o f t h e o b s e r v e r and l a c k s a f i x e d n a t u r e .

He quotes "a s u t r a " t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t some see a ' 'Sambhoga-Buddha, o t h e r s a'

young man, and s t i l l others a c h i l d .

(h) Because i t appears i n d i f f e r e n t ways, i t can be seen

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t o have a changing svabhava.

Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Sbk appears d i f f e r e n t t o t h e same o b s e r v e r

at v a r i o u s times.

(5) Because i t can be seen mixed w i t h v a r i o u s assemblies

of Bodhisattvas, Sravakas, devas, e t c .

The term "mixed" i s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d by t h e commentators. I t probably

means t h a t t h e Sbk i s seen "as a member o f " t h e v a r i o u s assemblies. This i s

c e r t a i n l y t h e case at X:1.2 where t h e Sbk i s s a i d ". . . t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by t h e v a r i o u s Buddha assemblies because i t e x p e r i e n c e s t h e v e r y pure Buddha-

fields. ..."

(6) Because t h e two r e o r i e n t a t i o n s - o f - s u p p o r t , t h a t o f

the a l a y a v i j n a n a and t h a t o f t h e p r a v r t t i v i j n a n a ,

do not appear l o g i c a l l y t o c o i n c i d e .

Asvabhava (uUWalC—12) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n " o f t h e a l a y a v i jnana

y i e l d s t h e Svabhavikakaya w h i l e t h a t o f t h e other active vijnanas y i e l d s the

Sambhogakaya.

X:37 As n e i t h e r t h e Sambhogakaya nor t h e Nirmanakaya i s

e t e r n a l , how can t h e s u t r a say t h a t t h e Tathagata's body

1

i s eternal? Because b o t h Nisyandakaya and Nirmanakaya

depend upon t h e e t e r n a l Dharmakaya. As t h e enjoyment i s

never i n t e r r u p t e d and t h e nirmanas a r e r e p e a t e d l y manifest,

it i s proper t o regard t h e Tathagata's body as e t e r n a l . . . .

Asvabhava ( u W 8 c l 9 ) equates t h e Nisyandakaya w i t h t h e Sambhogakaya.

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X:1.2 The Sambhogakaya depends on t h e Dharmakaya and i s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v a r i o u s Buddha assemblies because i t

experiences t h e v e r y pure B u d d h a f i e l d s and p l e a s u r e s

o f t h e Mahayana dharmas.

80

The term " i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by" i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s i s t h e way the

Buddha i s p e r c e i v e d , not t h a t t h e Buddha a s s e m b l i e s , e t c . are i n h e r e n t

characteristics.

Asvabhava (TjU36a6-12) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e " B u d d h a f i e l d " i s a g a t h e r i n g ' o f

v a r i o u s groups o f Great Bodhisattvas (as i n S u k h a v a t i , etc.). The " p l e a s u r e s "

a r e : t h e p l e a s u r e s o f jewels and p r e c i o u s m e t a l s ; the p l e a s u r e s o f understanding

the meaning o f Mahayana s u t r a s , e t c . ; and t h e p l e a s u r e s o f s c h o l a s t i c reasoning

enjoyed by t h e Buddha and B o d h i s a t t v a s . I t might be p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t

Asvabhava (.TjU36all-12) as s a y i n g t h a t both t h e Buddhas and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s

possess Sambhogakayas, but t h i s passsage i s obscure and i s not supported by

the T i b e t a n .

In t h e s e passages, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a who has p e r f e c t e d n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a

f i n d s h i m s e l f i n the presence of the Tathagata ( t h e Sambhogakaya) i n a Buddha

assembly. The p h y s i c a l appearance (rupa) o f t h e Sbk i s p r o j e c t e d by t h e

aspiration (adhimukti) o f the observer, and hence v a r i e s from s i t u a t i o n t o

situation. The B o d h i s a t t v a t a k e s g r e a t p l e a s u r e i n t h e o c c a s i o n , and h i s

pleasure i s instrumental i n f u r t h e r i n g h i s s p i r i t u a l progress.

There i s no s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e Sbk can appear apart from t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ;

it i s an i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f Sbk. Asanga devotes more space

t o d e s c r i b i n g the B u d d h a f i e l d than t o t h e Sbk itself.

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Q-i
ii. The Buddhafield

The primary d e s c r i p t i o n o f the B u d d h a f i e l d o c c u r s at X:30. The Bhagavan

o f t h i s passage s h o u l d be understood as the Sbk of others. To the p o s s i b l e

o b j e c t i o n t h a t i f Asanga had meant "Sambhogakaya" he would have used t h a t term,

I can o n l y r e p l y t h a t , asX:30 i s based upon a d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n from an earlier

text (presumably a v e r s i o n o f the Samdhinirmocanasutra), i t i s determined by

the l a t t e r ' s terminology.

J u s t as the Sambhogakaya c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d the s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f an

appearance p r o j e c t e d by the B o d h i s a t t v a on the f a c t o f Buddhahood, so the

B u d d h a f i e l d can be c o n s i d e r e d t o be a symbol which m a i n t a i n s t h e p e r f e c t congru-

ence o f t h e image o f a s p a t i a l country r u l e d by t h e T a t h a g a t a , and t h e n o t i o n

o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n which j o y f u l and e n r i c h i n g

communion i s p o s s i b l e .

X:30 How s h o u l d we understand the pure B u d d h a f i e l d s o f the

Buddhas? In the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the Bodhisattvapitaka-

satasahasrikasutra, they are d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s :

The Bhagavan r e s i d e s i n an i n f i n i t e grand p a l a c e :

(.1) which i s adorned w i t h the b l a z e o f the seven jewels

f i l l i n g the i n f i n i t e u n i v e r s e w i t h a g r e a t radiance,

(.2) whose immense rooms are w e l l disposed,

(.3) whose compass i s unbroken,

(.k) whose domain t o t a l l y t r a n s c e n d s the t h r e e dhatus,

(.5) which a r i s e s from supremely wholesome w o r l d -

transcending roots.
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At X:30 the p h y s i c a l model f o r the B u d d h a f i e l d i s a great palace b l a z i n g

with jewels, possessing immense, w e l l - p r o p o r t i o n e d rooms, an u n l i m i t e d a r e a

and immeasurable dimensions. Asvabhava (uU^6al2-ll+) e x p l a i n s " i t s domain

transcends the t h r e e dhatus" t o mean t h a t the B u d d h a f i e l d i s not something

t h a t can be e i t h e r d e s i r e d o r a t t a i n e d l i k e an o r d i n a r y p h y s i c a l p a l a c e .

R a t h e r , i t " a r i s e s from supreme and w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g wholesome r o o t s , " which

Vasubandhu (Bh377alO) i d e n t i f i e s as. non-conceptual awareness and subsequent

awareness. T h i s idea- o f an e p i s t e m i c nature i s supported by (.6):

(.6) which may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as v e r y e f f i c a c i o u s and

v e r y pure v i j n a p t i •

Asvabhava (U^U6al7-20) e x p l a i n s t h a t no j e w e l s , e t c . , can be found apart

from the awareness o f them. Thus, the B u d d h a f i e l d i s not a "more r e a l " p l a c e

than the common world. Both are " i d e a s " ( v i j n a p t i ) ; the d i f f e r e n c e o r i g i n a t e s

from the d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d on e x p e r i e n c e by t h e common man,

Sravaka and Bodhisattva.

Vasubandhu has confirmed the s u g g e s t i o n (noted p r e v i o u s l y at V I I I : 1 0 ) t h a t

the'Bodhisattva i n the B u d d h a f i e l d e x e r c i s e s subsequent awareness (prsthalabdha-

jnana). As t h i s i s the awareness whose p o s s e s s o r can c i r c u l a t e freely

throughout the w o r l d without b e i n g s o i l e d , t h i s i s another indication that the

Buddhafield i s not some " p l a c e " apart from the world. F u r t h e r , h i n t s t h a t the

B u d d h a f i e l d i s simply the p r e s e n t environment viewed from a r e v a l u a t i n g

p e r s p e c t i v e occur at X:35-6," where Asvabhava .affirms t h a t the r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f -

the a l a y a v i j n a n a y i e l d s the Dharmakaya, w h i l e r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the other

a c t i v e v i j n a n a s y i e l d s the Sambhogakaya; and at X:5> where t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n of

the rupakaya i s s a i d t o y i e l d s o v e r e i g n t y over the B u d d h a f i e l d , i . e . , the

 166

Buddhafield i s a r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e common world.

(.7) which i s t h e r e s i d e n c e o f t h e Tathagata.

X:30.lU [The BuddhafieldH surpasses a l l other arrays (vyuha)

because i t i s d i s p l a y e d by t h e Tathagata's b l e s s i n g .

Asvabhava ( U ^ 6 b 5 ) says t h a t i t surpasses the arrays o f the Bodhisattva

because i t i s t h e seat (asana) o f t h e Tathagata's m a n i f e s t a t i o n .

These passages, which p o r t r a y a f i g u r e seated i n t h e m i d d l e " o f a space

arranged and b e a u t i f i e d by his. p r e s e n c e j l e a v e no doubt-that t h e Tathagata

has a r e a l i t y apart from t h e ' B o d h i s a t t v a , even though t h e l a t t e r ' s expectation

•provides t h e • form under which he,..beholds t h e Tathagata. ...

L a t e r i n X:30 we f i n d :

' "(••.15'-') whose roads a r e g r e a t memory, i n t e l l i g e n c e and

insight,

(.16) whose v e h i c l e s a r e samatha and v i p a s y a n a ,

(.17) which i s e n t e r e d through t h e g r e a t doors t o

liberation: sunyata and a n i m i t t a .

(.18) which r e s t s upon t h e arrangement c o n s i s t i n g o f a

g r e a t j e w e l l e d r o y a l l o t u s ornamented by innumer-

able qualities.

L i k e a p h y s i c a l r e g i o n , t h e B u d d h a f i e l d has g a t e s , roads and v e h i c l e s .

The gates a r e t h e g r e a t e n t r i e s t o l i b e r a t i o n — s u n y a t a , . a n i m i t t a , . a n d p a s s i o n -

lessnessV The roads a r e t h e paths (marga) t o l i b e r a t i o n — h e a r i n g , reflection

and m e d i t a t i o n . The v e h i c l e s a r e calm (samatha) and i n s i g h t (vipasyana).

F i n a l l y , i t r e s t s upon a "great j e w e l l e d r o y a l l o t u s " which Asvabhava

(U*+"+6bl5-23) says may be e i t h e r a p h y s i c a l t h i n g or the l o t u s seat o f the

Tathagata himself.

X:30 (.10) which i s m a i n t a i n e d by the j o y f u l t a s t e o f the

dharma and g r e a t bliss,

(.11) whose a c t i o n s a r e e n t i r e l y f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a l l

sentient beings,

(.12) which t o t a l l y excludes klesa-induced torments,

(.13) which expels a l l maras.

Any d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding Asanga's concept o f the B u d d h a f i e l d arises

from our p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . The f i r s t preconception.comes from our familiarity

with' t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon such passages by t h e Pure Land s c h o o l s o f

China and Japan, which r e g a r d the B u d d h a f i e l d as a p l a c e reached by pilgrimage,

as an a e r i a l r e g i o n ? i n which one may be r e b o r n or as a s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d by

meditation. These i d e a s may be comprehended by r e g a r d i n g the B u d d h a f i e l d as a

symbolic environment i n which both the p h y s i c a l p l a c e and the soteriological

s i t u a t i o n are e q u a l l y and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n d i c a t e d by the'term' "Buddha-

field."

But such a symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n cannot be a p p l i e d t o Asanga's explana-

tion „ He g i v e s a h i g h l y r a t i o n a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f the B u d d h a f i e l d which so

e x h a u s t i v e l y i n t e r p r e t s the myth o f the B u d d h a f i e l d as a b e a u t i f u l dwelling

that i t r e t a i n s l i t t l e of i t s polyvalence. I n s t e a d , the d e s c r i p t i o n becomes

a d i d a c t i c a l l e g o r y i n which B u d d h a f i e l d s a r i s e from supremely pure, world-

t r a n s c e n d i n g r o o t s ; t h e i r roads are g r e a t memory, i n t e l l i g e n c e and insight;

they are t r a v e l l e d by the v e h i c l e s o f samatha and v i p a s y a n a , and so on.. Even

the most b a s i c s p a t i a l q u e s t i o n : Where i s the B u d d h a f i e l d ? " is left dangling.

 168

Asvabhava (uU36a9) says t h a t t h e y a r e " S u k h a v a t i , e t c . i n t h e f o u r d i r e c t i o n s . "

However, t h e r e i s no o t h e r mention i n t h i s t e x t o f t h i s n o t i o n .

The d i d a c t i c nature o f X:30 i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t Asanga has not

a p p l i e d t h e same type o f hermeneutic as he d i d t o t h e e a r l i e r (11:33) d e s c r i p -

t i o n of the Buddhafields and r e s i d e n c e s . There i s l i t t l e need t o i n t e r p r e t

the p r e s e n t d e s c r i p t i o n — i t i s i t s e l f an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e myth.

iii. Bodhisattvas—Residents of the Buddhafield

The Buddhafield:

X:30 (.8) i s t h e r e f u g e o f t h e Great Bodhisattvas,

(.9) i s t h e promenade o f i n f i n i t e numbers o f nagas,

yaksas, gandharvas, a s u r a s , garudas, kimnaras,

mahoragas, manusyas, and amanusyas.

The image o f t h e Buddha surrounded by a group o f a t t e n d a n t s i s a familiar

scene from t h e s u t r a s . At X:1.2 t h e f o l l o w e r s a r e o n l y B o d h i s a t t v a s , w h i l e a t

X:35-5 t h e Sambhogakaya i s surrounded by assemblies o f Sravakas, devas, and so

on. At X: 30.8-9, Asvabhava (u4^6a21-26) r e c o n c i l e s t h e s e by s a y i n g t h a t t h e

Buddhafields a r e r e a l l y i n h a b i t e d o n l y by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s who have e n t e r e d

the g r e a t bhumis, and who a s s i s t t h e Tathagata. The remaining i n h a b i t a n t s —

the devas, nagas, and so o n — a r e nirmanas, not r e a l a s p i r a n t s . The q u e s t i o n

of whether t h e Sravaka i s , i n any sense, capable o f e n t e r i n g a B u d d h a f i e l d o r

s e e i n g t h e Sbk i s not answered i n t h i s text,- However, even i f he can see t h e

Sbk, h i s Buddha i s t h e Nk. The Sbk i s t h e f o r m . r e l a t e d t o t h e Great Bodhi-

sattvas .

The B o d h i s a t t v a p e r c e i v e s t h e Buddha and h i s environment as a Sambhogakaya

i n a Buddhafield. Both a r e permeated w i t h p l e a s u r e (sambhoga: enjoyment;

s u c c e s s f u l l o v e ; s e x u a l u n i o n ) j u s t as t h e w o r l d o f t h e common man o r t h e

Sravaka i s pervaded w i t h s u f f e r i n g (duhkha). Even t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c e n t r a l

Sbk " d w e l l s " w i t h i n t h e f i e l d r a t h e r than b e i n g "manifested ,' as was t h e Nk, i s

v

i n t e r p r e t e d as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a s p i r a n t ' s constant p l e a s u r e , r a t h e r than as

an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e presence of a subsistent being. T h i s p l e a s u r e r l s such an

important element o f t h e t h e o r y t h a t a s y s t e m a t i c examination o f i t s nature

and cause w i l l form an e x c e l l e n t framework w i t h i n which t o examine Asanga's

understanding o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a who. e x p e r i e n c e s i t .

Let us f i r s t note t h a t t h i s p l e a s u r e - f i l l e d B u d d h a f i e l d i s one o f t h e

most s u r p r i s i n g i n n o v a t i o n s t o appear w i t h i n t h e Buddhist tradition. Earlier

t h i n k e r s had p i c t u r e d a w o r l d permeated w i t h t h e m i s e r y a r i s i n g from t h e

i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n v e t e r a t e tendency t o c l i n g t o o b j e c t s generated by r e i f i c a t i o n

of experience. Such immediate and l i m i t e d p l e a s u r e as might be g a i n e d from

t h e s e pseudo-objects would be more than o f f s e t . b y t h e pain, and f r u s t r a t i o n

r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n e v i t a b l e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c e x p e r i e n c e . The o b j e c t

o f Buddhist p r a c t i c e was seen as t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e misapprehensions t h a t

caused t h e r e i f i c a t i o n . When t h i s p r a c t i c e was s u c c e s s f u l , t h e a s p i r a n t was

beyond s u f f e r i n g and, i n c i d e n t a l l y , beyond p l e a s u r e .

Suddenly, t h e V i j n a n a v a d a p r e s e n t s , a l o n g with, t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l model,

the n o t i o n t h a t t h e B o d h i s a t t v a enjoys p l e a s u r e r a t h e r than abandoning both

p l e a s u r e and p a i n as he nears enlightenment. How can Asanga h o l d t h a t t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e s p l e a s u r e and abandons p l e a s u r e ?

We cnannot a v o i d t h e problem by t h e f a c i l e assumption t h a t " p l e a s u r e i n

the B u d d h a f i e l d " denotes a B o d h i s a t t va-emotion which i s f o r e v e r beyond t h e

grasp o f o r d i n a r y man. Statements o f t h a t type a r e c l e a r l y l a b e l l e d "profound"

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(gambhira), a l a b e l not a t t a c h e d t o these p l e a s u r e s . Asanga i s a t t e m p t i n g to

c o n s t r u c t a r a t i o n a l system, and h i s i d e a s must be g i v e n a l o g i c a l inter-

pretation.

At f i r s t r e a d i n g , the Mahayanasamgraha might appear t o c o n t a i n a symbolic

83

arrangement such as t h a t f r e q u e n t l y found i n l a t e r Indo-Tibetan works, which

would e x p l a i n the c o n t r a d i c t i o n : the a s p i r a n t abandons the t h r e e b a s i c k l e s a s

i n r e v e r s e o r d e r , i . e . , he f i r s t abandons r e v u l s i o n - m i s e r y , then d e s i r e -

p l e a s u r e , and f i n a l l y nescience-dullness. The a s p i r a n t who was originally

dominated by misery moves t o a s i t u a t i o n dominated by p l e a s u r e . This certainly

would be i n a c c o r d w i t h the move o f t h e a s p i r a n t t o the B u d d h a f i e l d . I t would

reduce the p l e a s u r e s o f the B u d d h a f i e l d t o a s p e c i a l case o f the o l d e r t h e o r y ,

i.e., the B o d h i s a t t v a has simply not y e t abandoned them. However, i n t h i s

p a t t e r n the t e x t would then show him moving t o a s i t u a t i o n dominated by dull-

n e s s , and then t o f u l l enlightenment. The Mahayanasamgraha does not mention

the d u l l n e s s , and the f u l l enlightenment i s not simply a f u r t h e r s t a g e . In

a d d i t i o n , the p l e a s u r e s o f the B u d d h a f i e l d are o b v i o u s l y not t h e r e s u l t of

l i n g e r i n g k l e s a s — t h e y are h e a l t h y , p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s . Therefore t h i s expla-

nation fails.

I suggest t h a t the problem can be r e s o l v e d by v i e w i n g the concept of

p l e a s u r e w i t h i n the b a s i c t r i s v a b h a v a framework o f the Mahayanas amgraha. That

i s , both common man and B o d h i s a t t v a are c o n s t a n t l y engaged i n p e r c e p t u a l

' s i t u a t i o n s t h a t may be analyzed'through t h e same c a t e g o r i e s — t h e skandhas.

These i n c l u d e t h e vedanaskandha'- ( f e e l i n g - t o n e ) o f which p l e a s u r e i s one

p o s s i b l e aspect. '-The' d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e common m a n - r e i f i e s h i s • exper-

iences and.finds himself within"a f i e l d of f i x e d external objects that

dominate h i s e x i s t e n c e . The B o d h i s a t t v a may be s a i d t o share the same b a s i c

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e x p e r i e n c e , but i n a r e o r i e n t e d manner. He sees t h r o u g h t h e nature (which i s

t h a t o f mere i d e a , v i j n a p t i ) of. the e x p e r i e n c e by h i s non-conceptual awareness

(jnana o r n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) , and so i n h a b i t s a w o r l d o f c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

Rather than b e i n g d r i v e n by imaginary e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s , he h i m s e l f c r e a t e s ,

or e x e r c i s e s sovereignty over, the world. Both may e x p e r i e n c e p l e a s u r e b u t ,

w h i l e t h e common man e x p e r i e n c e s i t as an i n h e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c e r t a i n

t r a n s i t o r y o b j e c t s , t h e Bodhisattva experiences i t as a phenomenon which he

can maintain.

I s h a l l now v e r i f y t h e above s o l u t i o n by examining r e l e v a n t passages o f

the t e x t . As t h e s e a r e s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e Mahayanasamgraha, t h e y w i l l be

a b s t r a c t e d and arranged under t h e f o l l o w i n g headings: Pleasure, Reorientation,

S o v e r e i g n t y , Awareness, P l e a s u r e and t h e Other, P l e a s u r e and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s

Maturation.

Pleasure

The B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e i s d e f i n e d as " t h e enjoyment o f t h e Mahayana

dharma" (X:1.2). T h i s has b o t h an obvious and a s u b t l e sense. The obvious

g l o s s i s g i v e n by Asvabhava (.U*+36a9-12) as t h e enjoyment o f t h e j e w e l s , e t c . ,

i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d and t h e p l e a s u r e o f d i s c u s s i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

Mahayana t e x t s . T h i s must be i n t e n d e d f o r those w i t h a l i t e r a l concept of the

Buddhafield. The " j e w e l s " a r e t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , and a r e seen

as v a l u a b l e j u s t as t h e " o b j e c t s " o f t h e common w o r l d a r e v a l u e l e s s . The

p l e a s u r e s o f d i s c u s s i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e t e a c h i n g s a r e almost certainly

an i d e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f a m i l i a r monastic d e l i g h t i n t h e evening d i s c u s s i o n

between master and d i s c i p l e s . Neither o f these r a t h e r l i t e r a l explanations

is c e n t r a l o r i s developed further.
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The s u b t l e sense i s r e a l i z e d when we r e c a l l t h a t by "the Mahayana" Asanga

means h i s t r i s v a b h a v a - b a s e d d o c t r i n e , and t h a t chapters II-IV teach that

understanding the d o c t r i n e and b e i n g a b l e t o understand one's w o r l d i n the

r e o r i e n t e d way i t d e s c r i b e s are e q u i v a l e n t . T h e r e f o r e , enjoyment o f the

Mahayana dharma i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s e e i n g the w o r l d i n a r e o r i e n t e d manner.

Reorientation

X:5.2 By r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the vedanaskandha i t Cthe Sbk]

a t t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over i r r e p r o a c h a b l e , immeasurable,

immensely p l e a s a n t residences.

Both Vasubandhu (Bh372a3) and Asvabhava (U^38a2) agree t h a t the residence

is "immensely" {J^jf ) p l e a s a n t because i t " t r a n s c e n d s " ( fcji ) the

p l e a s u r e s o f the t h r e e worlds.

That i s , the B o d h i s a t t v a a l s o experiences any p e r c e p t i o n as painful,

p l e a s u r a b l e or i n d i f f e r e n t b u t , because he sees through i t s n a t u r e , he

evaluates i t d i f f e r e n t l y . U n l i k e the o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n "the three

w o r l d s , " the B o d h i s a t t v a does not a s c r i b e these f e e l i n g s t o some e x t e r n a l

o b j e c t and hence h i s p l e a s u r e i s not l i m i t e d by the c a p r i c e o f such an o b j e c t .

He e x e r c i s e s s o v e r e i g n t y which i s "immense" and "transcendent."

Sovereignty

Sovereignty ( y i b h u t v a ) and mastery ( v a s i t a ) both imply a r e v e r s a l o f

relationships within a l i f e , r a t h e r than-the abandonment o f any maj-or

aspect o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p . In the most g e n e r a l sense, the "drivenness"

is r e p l a c e d by " c o n t r o l , " even i f the a c t u a l a c t i o n s are i d e n t i c a l . For

example, the B o d h i s a t t v a abandons l i f e o f h i s own f r e e w i l l r a t h e r than being

 "taken" by death; he i s a b l e t o choose t h e s t a t i o n o f r e b i r t h r a t h e r than

b e i n g d r i v e n t o a womb; he i s a b l e t o p e r c e i v e a c c u r a t e l y and m i n i s t e r e f f e c -

t i v e l y i n s t e a d o f b e i n g g r i p p e d by misapprehensions and p r e a c h e d t o b y o t h e r s .

The most important such r e v e r s a l i s connected w i t h t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s vow

t o work f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s . The common man, working f o r h i s own w o r l d l y

g a i n , i s permeated w i t h m i s e r y . The Sravaka, working f o r h i s own s p i r i t u a l

b e n e f i t , becomes f r e e from m i s e r y . But t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , working f o r t h e

s p i r i t u a l w e l f a r e o f others (X:7.6; X:10; X:12; X:29-5; X:37), i s permeated

with pleasure. While t h e common man.or Sravaka strives t o ingest.desirable

aspects o f h i s environment, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a donates these t o o t h e r s . The

former a c t i v i t y engenders s u f f e r i n g ; t h e l a t t e r , pleasure.

The i d e a t h a t t h e w o r l d s o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a and o f t h e common man a r e

mirror-images suggests the p o s s i b i l i t y that the Bodhisattva's pleasure i s the

a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e common man's s u f f e r i n g . Such an i d e a would be v e r y conven-

i e n t , f o r , w h i l e t h e p l e a s u r e s -of• t h e B u d d h a f i e l d a r e d i s c u s s e d i n g e n e r a l ,

o b l i q u e , and symbolic terms, s u f f e r i n g (duhkha)—in p a r t i c u l a r , t h e famous

dictum " a l l t h a t is:'Impermanent i s s u f f e r i n g " (yad - anityam t a d duhkham)—has

been t r e a t e d v e r y d i r e c t l y and e x h a u s t i v e l y i n t h e Abhidharma l i t e r a t u r e .

T h e r e f o r e , we should expect t h i s l i t e r a t u r e t o f u r t h e r our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s pleasure.

T h i s l i n e o f thought l e a d s t o a f a s c i n a t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Were we t o

view t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e i n a s t r i c t Abhidharmic frame

of reference ( i . e . , not i n v o k i n g t h e t r i s v a b h a v a ) , i t c o u l d be r e p h r a s e d as

f o l l o w s : The B o d h i s a t t v a must have t h e same i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , either

p l e a s a n t o r p a i n f u l , as does t h e common man. The o v e r a l l tone, however, i s

pleasant. How can t h i s be? How can a s p e c i f i c p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e have an

 o v e r a l l p l e a s a n t tone? The i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g about t h i s q u e s t i o n i s t h a t i t

is a mirror-image o f t h e a c t u a l Abhidharma q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g m i s e r y . How can

l i f e , which has b o t h p l e a s a n t and p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e s , be s a i d t o be permeated

with suffering?

The answer o f t h e Abhidharmasamuccaya ( a l s o a t t r i b u t e d t o Asanga) may be

summarized as f o l l o w s . Various s p e c i f i c instances o f misery or s u f f e r i n g

(duhkhaduhkhata) a r e concomitants t o common e x p e r i e n c e s . However, t h i s ex-

p e r i e n c e i s not s u f f e r i n g as such, but i s only, one l i m i t e d - a s p e c t . o f a broader,

phenomenon: " s u f f e r i n g ofi a l l conditioned existence" (samskaraduhkhata).

B. K. M a t i l a l has d e s c r i b e d t h i s as t h e "anguish o f t h e human h e a r t caused by

8h
our constant awareness o f l a c k o f freedom."

S i n c e b o t h p l e a s u r e and s u f f e r i n g are f e e l i n g s t h a t r e s u l t from t h e

primary p r o c e s s e s , t h e y need not be understood.as t i g h t l o g i c a l concepts. The

joy which an i n d i v i d u a l may o c c a s i o n a l l y f e e l need not i n v a l i d a t e t h e statement

that h i s l i f e i s permeated w i t h m i s e r y ( o r a n g u i s h ) , n o r i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o

deny t h e s i m i l a r i t y between t h e momentary j o y and t h e p e r v a s i v e , anguish.

I f t h i s way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g m i s e r y i s a p p l i e d t o t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s • .

p l e a s u r e , t h e l a t t e r i s seen as a thoroughgoing enjoyment o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ,

d i f f e r e n t o n l y i n degree from common p l e a s u r e . I can f i n d no passages i n the

Mahayanasamgraha which would r u l e out such an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and many t a c i t l y

support i t . F o r example, i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d at X:30.12-13,

Asanga says t h a t i t i s f r e e from a l l t h e torments caused by k l e s a s and t h a t

a l l t h e maras a r e e x p e l l e d . T h i s does not n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e an absence o f

p a i n caused by t h e automatic emotional r e a c t i o n s (klesas). Asvabhava (U^l+8b3)

says t h a t e v e r y t h i n g a s s o c i a t e d t w i t h f e a r , i . e . , klesamara, skandhamara,

r

mrtyumara (death) and devaputramara (the d e v i l ) , i s e x p e l l e d . Again, while

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p a i n may be p r e s e n t , i t does not engender d r i v i n g f e a r .

N o t i c e t h a t we have been a b l e t o e x p l a i n t h e p l e a s u r e i n Abhidharmic

terms, without recourse t o the trisvabhava.

Thus, b o t h t h e t r i s v a b h a v a e x p l a n a t i o n and our Abhidharma-derived view

show t h e c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between o r d i n a r y p l e a s u r e and t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e

B u d d h a f i e l d , and s t r e s s t h e concept o f s o v e r e i g n t y as t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g

factor.

Awareness (inana o r n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a )

An examination o f the l o g i c a l status o f the pleasurable experience

r e v e a l s s t i l l more f e a t u r e s . As we have seen, t h i s t e x t does not c o n t a i n an

ontology. Asanga regards any s i t u a t i o n as an e x p e r i e n c e formed by a complex

preconscious process ( c a l l e d "dependent upon another," paratantra). The

experience can appear o n l y as t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a s u b j e c t who completes i t by

t a k i n g a c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e , thus a s s i g n i n g t o i t some p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s . If

the o b s e r v e r i s a commoner o r Sravaka, t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s r e i f i e d i n t o an

"awareness o f " ( v i - j n a n a ) some t o t a l l y imaginary (parikalpita) object. I f he

i s a B o d h i s a t t v a , he sees through t h e nature o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e and so has a

"non-conceptual awareness" ( n i r v i k a l p a - j nana) without any o n t o l o g i c a l

referent, i . e . , i t i s "perfected" (parinispanna).

We can i n f e r t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s pleasurable perceptions are the

non-conceptual awareness, and t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e l a t t e r w i l l a l s o be

i n d i r e c t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e former. T h i s i n f e r e n c e i s upheld by X:7-3:

CThe Svk i n v o l v e s t h e a t t r i b u t e ofH " r e s i d e n c e " because

from t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i f e of d e s i r e , etc., the

immeasurable "awareness" (jnana) r e s i d e n c e i s o b t a i n e d .

 Chapter V I I I , which appears t o he the c h i e f passage i n V i j n a n a v a d a

s a s t r a s devoted t o the n i r v i k a l p a j nana, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l . It lists

t h r e e types o f n i r v i k a l p a j nana:

— t h e p r e p a r a t o r y n i r v i k a l p a j nana (prayogika°), t h e attainment o f which

enables t h e a s p i r a n t t o e n t e r t h e Nirmanakaya assembly.

— the fundamental n i r v i k a l p a j nana (mula°)—often s i m p l y c a l l e d n i r v i k a l p a j nana

or even j n a n a — t h e attainment o f which enables t h e a s p i r a n t t o e n t e r t h e

Sambhogakaya assembly o r B u d d h a f i e l d .

— t h e subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j f i a n a (prsthalabdha° ) which i s developed by t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a w i t h i n the B u d d h a f i e l d , and which enables him t o c i r c u l a t e i n

the w o r l d w i t h o u t b e i n g s t a i n e d .

The n o t i o n o f t h e subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a has been n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y

when examining the way i n which t h e Dk may be o b t a i n e d . The b a s i c passage i s

worth repeating:

111:12 . . . t h e subsequent awareness,.which sees-everything arising

from t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a and merely mental appearances t o be

l i k e an i l l u s i o n , a r i s e s by i t s v e r y n a t u r e f r e e from misap-

prehensions. Thus, j u s t as a m a g i c i a n i s f r e e from misappre-

h e n s i o n s about the r e a l i t y o f t h i n g s he has c r e a t e d , so the

B o d h i s a t t v a , a l t h o u g h s p e a k i n g o f causes and e f f e c t s , i s

always f r e e from misapprehensions about them.

Furthermore, we have a l s o seen (at X-,30.5 and . 6 ) t h a t t h e B u d d h a f i e l d

arises from supremely wholesome w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g r o o t s (.which Vasubandhu

i d e n t i f i e s as fundamental and subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) , and t h a t i t may be

c h a r a c t e r i z e d as v e r y e f f i c a c i o u s and v e r y pure v i j n a p t i •
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These passages l e a v e no doubt t h a t , d e s p i t e the n e g a t i v e form o f the term

n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a , the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s awareness ("subsequent"- n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) -"

i s not a mental blankness or an i n e f f a b l e s t a t e . I t i s the p e r c e p t i o n o f an

environment which, a l t h o u g h i t may have the same form as t h a t p e r c e i v e d by the

common man, i s understood t o be simply a t r a n s i e n t e x p e r i e n c e r a t h e r than a

b i n d i n g and o p p r e s s i n g assemblage o f o b j e c t s .

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n suggests t h a t the p l e a s u r e e x p e r i e n c e d by the Bodhisattva

i s connected w i t h h i s awareness o f freedom. I f m i s e r y r e s u l t s from a percep-

t i o n o f o n e s e l f as d r i v e n w i t h i n a w o r l d o f o b j e c t s , then p l e a s u r e results

from a p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e s e l f as b e i n g i n a c o n t r o l l i n g p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a field

o f experiences.. R e v e r s i n g M a t i l a l ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f duhkha g i v e s an e q u a l l y

good d e s c r i p t i o n o f p l e a s u r e : the j o y o f the human h e a r t caused by our

constant awareness o f the presence o f freedom.

P l e a s u r e and the Other

The p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e r e i s s t i l l something odd

about a p p l y i n g such an a p p a r e n t l y e g o c e n t r i c f e e l i n g as p l e a s u r e t o a non-

e g o c e n t r i c phenomenon. T h i s o b j e c t i o n d i s a p p e a r s b e f o r e the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t

the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e i i s not s e l f i s h but i s the p l e a s u r e taken i n the

l i b e r a t i o n o f b o t h s e l f and others..

The key t o f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n i s the note at P r a s t a v a n a : 3.10 which

s t a t e s t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n t e r s the B u d d h a f i e l d s and first

g r e a t bhumi, the j o y f u l (pramudita) bhumi. Therefore, a description of t h i s

bhumi w i l l a l s o d e s c r i b e the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e . The V i j n a n a v a d i n d o c t r i n e

of t h e bhumis f i n d s i t s c l a s s i c a l statement i n the Dasabhumikasutra. That

t e x t , the Mahayanasutralamkara (XX-XXII, 32) and the Mahayanasamgraha (V:2)

a l l agree t h a t :
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V:2.1 [The pramud.itabhumi takes i t s name from the f a c t t h a t

thereD . . . one o b t a i n s , f o r the f i r s t t i m e , the ability

to assure both h i s own p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e and t h a t o f o t h e r s .

Asvabhava (ul+2^al8-23) adds t h a t the Sravaka, working o n l y f o r h i s own

welfare, obtains a clear insight (abhisamaya) but does not and never w i l l feel

joy, whereas the B o d h i s a t t v a e x p e r i e n c e s j o y which w i l l c o n t i n u e u n t i l full

enlightenment i s reached.

It i s tempting t o suppose t h a t the former i s t h e b a s i c n i r v i k a l p a j nana

and the l a t t e r i s the subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j nana, but t h e r e i s no r e a l support

for t h i s assumption. Note t h a t Asanga i s not s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the Sravaka

takes p l e a s u r e i n h i s own l i b e r a t i o n w h i l e the B o d h i s a t t v a takes p l e a s u r e i n

the l i b e r a t i o n o f o t h e r s , an i d e a which would r e q u i r e the Sravaka to feel

p l e a s u r e and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a e g o c e n t r i c a l l y t o "evaluate h i s experiences

d i f f e r e n t l y from those o f o t h e r s . Both o f t h e s e i d e a s a r e r e j e c t e d i n t h e

text. The B o d h i s a t t v a f e e l s p l e a s u r e i n h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f both h i m s e l f and

o t h e r s as l i b e r a t e d . The B o d h i s a t t v a has vowed t o e s t a b l i s h a new pattern of

l i f e based upon an a l t r u i s t i c r e g a r d f o r o t h e r s . While t h i s i s d e s c r i b e d i n

chapter IV, i t I s e a s i l y o v e r l o o k e d i n the p r e s e n t c o n t e x t . At X:30.8,

Asvabhava (uU"+6a23) says t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a " a s s i s t s " the T a t h a g a t a , and at

VII:5 t h i s assistance i s described: " . . . CThe B o d h i s a t t v a , ! w h i l e residing

i n m e d i t a t i v e b l i s s , t a k e s b i r t h where he w i s h e s . "

P l e a s u r e and the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s Maturation

The B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e has been p i c t u r e d as an epiphenomenon a r i s i n g

from h i s engagement w i t h h i s world. T h i s i m p r e s s i o n i s c o n t r a d i c t e d by the

commentators who, i n s e v e r a l passages (e.g., P:3.10, Bh323a25-29; U38lcl7-20),

i n s i s t t h a t the p l e a s u r e i s i t s e l f i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s maturation,

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or i n the c o l l e c t i o n or p e r f e c t i o n o f h i s equipment (samhhara).

At X: 30.10 Asvabhava (Ul+U6a27) says t h a t i n the pure B u d d h a f i e l d the j o y

and p l e a s u r e i n the t a s t e o f the Mahayana dharma serves as f o o d , and at X:8

(uU39b5) t h a t i n each u n i v e r s e the "enjoyment o f the t a s t e o f the dharma" i s

special. The same p o i n t i s made i n d i r e c t l y at X:6.3, where Asvabhava (uU38clU-

15) comments, " . . . the B o d h i s a t t v a s who have e n t e r e d the g r e a t bhumis do not

need t o see the Buddha's Nirmanakaya i n o r d e r t o be matured,' because t h e y

themselves p e n e t r a t e the profound and e x t e n s i v e dharma." The equivalence of

the " p e n e t r a t i n g ( i . e . , understanding) the dharma" and o f - t h e Bodhisattva's

p l e a s a n t awareness has been noted.

The concept o f p l e a s u r e cannot be f u l l y understood u n t i l the mechanism

whereby i t a s s u r e s t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s m a t u r a t i o n has been accounted for. The

f a c t t h a t the Mahayanasamgraha does not e x p l a i n i t d i r e c t l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t

Asanga had some s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d concept i n mind, p r o b a b l y t h a t the p l e a s u r e i s

simply the motive f o r the B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s . The Mahayanasamgraha maps

the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p r o g r e s s w i t h i n the B u d d h a f i e l d i n t o t e n stages (bhumis,

c h a p t e r V ) , which t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ascends as he develops t h e s i x f a c e t s o f

a l t r u i s t i c p e r s o n a l i t y (paramitas, chapter IV). I t mentions the vow by which

t h i s a l t r u i s t i c a c t i v i t y i s d i r e c t e d and c h a n n e l l e d . What i t does not mention

i s the m o t i v a t i o n r e q u i r e d by any model o f g o a l - o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t y .

The common man's m o t i v a t i o n i s the p l e a s u r e and s u f f e r i n g t h a t d r i v e him

through h i s l i v e s . In t h e Sravaka, the motive f o r c e i s t h e c o n f i d e n c e

(sraddha) and a s p i r a t i o n (adhimukti) i n s p i r e d by h i s encounter with the

Nirmanakaya. I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s motive f o r c o n t i n u a l

p r a c t i c e of the paramitas i s t h e i n c r e a s i n g j o y which i s p r e s e n t from the

f i r s t bhumi onward.
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e. The Three Kayas: I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s

The essence o f the t r i k a y a doctrine l i e s i n t h e way i n which each member

i s r e l a t e d t o each o f t h e o t h e r s . Only a few passages address this question

directly. They a r e :

P:3.10 The t h r e e types o f Buddhakaya: Svabhavikakaya, Sambho-

gakaya and Nirmanakaya, a r e t h e -awareness-result of-these

[Bodhisattva p r a c t i c e s ] .

Both commentaries e x p l a i n t h i s by a s u c c i n c t preview o f t h e t r i k a y a

doctrine. Vasubandhu (,Bh 323a22-b4) s a y s ,

The t r i p l e Buddhakaya i s c a l l e d t h e 'aware r e s u l t '

( p h a l a j n a n a ) — ' r e s u l t ' because i t i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e p r e v i -
o u s l y mentioned p r a c t i c e s , and 'aware r e s u l t ' because t h i s
r e s u l t i s aware. [Thus,] i t s b a s i c nature (svabhava) i s t o
be 'the aware r e s u l t o f t h e s e . '

Now i f t h e r e were no Svabhavikakaya [ T : " i f t h e r e were

no svabhava ] , t h e r e would be no D h a r m a k a y a — t h i s i s s i m i l a r
t o t h e c a k s u r i n d r i y a . I f t h e r e were no Dharmakaya, t h e r e
would be no Sambhogakaya—this i s s i m i l a r t o t h e c a k s u r v i -
jnana. I n t h i s s i m i l e t h e support and t h e supported s h o u l d
be c o n s i d e r e d as e q u a l s .

I f t h e r e were no Sambhogakaya, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s would

not enjoy t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e dharma a f t e r e n t e r i n g t h e g r e a t
bhumis. Without t h i s p l e a s u r e t h e i r equipment f o r e n l i g h t e n -
ment would not be p e r f e c t e d — t h i s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e rupa
[bh: " s i m i l a r t o not s e e i n g t h e r u p a " ] .

I f t h e r e were no Nirmanakaya, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s on t h e
a d h l m u k t i - p r a c t i . c i n g bhumi, and t h e Sravakas, e t c . o f l e s s e r
adhimukti, would f a i l ' from t h e v e r y f i r s t t o .'leave t h e
stations of rebirth (gati).' Therefore, i t i s established
t h a t t h e r e must be t h r e e kayas.

VIII:10 [ T h i s passage on t h e r e t r i b u t i o n o f t h e n i r v i k a l p a j nana

has a l r e a d y been i n c l u d e d under b o t h Nirmanakaya and

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Sambhogakaya. Vasubandhu (Bh 365all+) adds t h a t b o t h

kayas are t h e o u t f l o w s (nisyanda) o f t h e n i r v i k a l p a j nana.

I f the Dharmakaya (or Svabhavikakaya) i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h

the n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a , we now have the r e l a t i o n o f "outflow"

between i t and the o t h e r two kayas. T h i s term i s not as

simple as i t appears, s i n c e i t cannot imply temporal

p r i o r i t y and s t i l l be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h V I I I : 1 3 , below. 1

VIII:13 The terminus o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s n i r v i k a l p a j nana i s the

acquisition o f the t h r e e pure Buddhakayas and h i g h e s t

sovereignty (vasita)»

Vasubandhu (Bh 365b7-9) and Asvabhava ( U ^ 3 1 a l 0 - l l ) agree t h a t the t h r e e

are o b t a i n e d on the f i r s t bhumi, but t h a t t h e y become "pure" o n l y on the t e n t h .

T h i s s u r e l y e l i m i n a t e s any p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one might be acquired p r i o r to

the o t h e r s .

The commentators a l s o i d e n t i f y the s o v e r e i g n t y w i t h those s o v e r e i g n t i e s

whose s v a l a k s a n a i s d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , presumably at X:3.2.

X:1.2 The Sambhogakaya depends upon ( b r t e n - p a ; ) the

Dharmakaya . . . because i t e x p e r i e n c e s the v e r y pure

B u d d h a f i e l d s and the enjoyment o f the Mahayana dharma.

Asvabhava (U^36a6) e x p l a i n s t h a t "depends upon" means t h a t "because o f

the e x i s t e n c e o f a, Dharmakaya, a Sambhogakaya i s 'obtained."

X:1.3 The Nirmanakaya depends upon the Dharmakaya because i t

manifests Cthe v a r i o u s Buddha a c t i v i t i e s 3 .

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X:5 [ T h i s passage was quoted e a r l i e r . Each o f the skandhas,

when r e o r i e n t e d , becomes an aspect o f the Dharmakaya.

Two o f them are r e l e v a n t t o the t r i k a y a q u e s t i o n : :

X:5.1 By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the rupaskandha, i t Cthe Dharmakaya1

o b t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over the B u d d h a f i e l d , t h e body, the

l a k s a n a s , the minor m a r k ( s ) , the i n f i n i t y o f phonemes

and the i n v i s i b l e c r a n i a l marks,

From t h i s we might conclude t h a t a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the rupaskandha y i e l d s

the Sambhogakaya and associated Buddhafields, etc. However, both Vasubandhu

(Bh 371c24-29) and Asvabhava (U^37c22-29) say t h a t the "body" i s m a n i f e s t e d i n

v a r i o u s g r e a t assemblies a c c o r d i n g t o the p a r t i c u l a r c a p a c i t i e s o f the s e n t i e n t

beings t o be t a u g h t . I f the Sambhogakaya i s - v i s i b l e o n l y t o the Bodhisattva,

then t h i s passage may a l s o r e f e r t o the Nirmanakaya.

X:5 -^ [ R e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the samskaraskandha r e s u l t s i n s o v e r -

eignty over: ... nirmana, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , convening the

great assemblies, and c o l l e c t i n g white dharmas.

T h i s would appear t o i n d i c a t e the Nirmanakaya, but a g a i n the commentators

do not support such a view. They e x p l a i n t h e s e as the Buddha's a b i l i t i e s to

c r e a t e , t r a n s f o r m , e t c . , as d e s i r e d , but do not l i n k t h e s e a b i l i t i e s more

d i r e c t l y t o the Nk.

X:6 How many t h i n g s does the Dharmakaya support?

(1) I t i s the support f o r the v a r i o u s Buddha r e s i d e n c e s . . .

(2) I t [the Dk: i s the support f o r the v a r i o u s Sambhogakayas

because i t a s s u r e s the m a t u r a t i o n o f the Bodhisattvas.

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The Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n (U*+38clO-ll) o f the key p o r t i o n o f the Asvabhava

commentary d i f f e r s from the T i b e t a n (u337b2). The Chinese says t h a t the

Dharmakaya i s the a d h i p a t i p r a t y a y a f o r the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a Sambhogakaya,

but not i n the same way t h a t the sun supports i t s rays. The Tibetan says:

"The Dharmakaya i s the support f o r the Sambhogakaya. I f i t Cthe Dharmakaya!

e x i s t s , then i t m a n i f e s t s Cthe Sambhogakaya!. T h i s i s l i k e the sun and i t s

rays." I t i s p r o b a b l y unwise t o conclude a n y t h i n g beyond the simple fact that

the Sbk i B p r i m a r i l y dependent upon the Dk.

(3) I t i s the support f o r the v a r i o u s Nirmanakayas because

i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures the m a t u r a t i o n o f the Sravakas.

X:37 ... both the nisyandakaya C i . e . , the Sambhogakaya! and

the Nirmanakaya depend upon the e t e r n a l Dharmakaya . . .

Calthough i n d i f f e r e n t ways!.

In these passages, the key term i s o b v i o u s l y "dependence." The Sbk and

Nk each "depend upon" or "are supported by" the Dk, but do not depend upon

each o t h e r .

We s h o u l d note i n p a s s i n g t h a t t h i s e l i m i n a t e s any p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the

Dk (or Svk) i s the .real^transcendent Euddha^wha^msnif est.s a- Sbk which i n t u r n

m a n i f e s t s a w o r l d l y Nk_. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b o t h Nk and Sbk i s d i r e c t l y to

the Dk.

The most important c l u e t o a proper u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the dependence

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s Asvabhava's commentary t o P:3.10 i n which he compares the kayas

t o the p e r c e p t u a l t r i a d : r u p a - c a k s u r i n d r i y a - c a k s u r v i j n a n a . Unfortunately, i t

i s not c l e a r which f a c t o r i s b e i n g l i k e n e d t o which kaya, and the d e t a i l s are

v e r y ambiguous. However, I f t h i s s i m i l e simply means t h a t the relationship

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between the kayas should be understood i n the same way as t h a t between the

perceptual elements,':the d e t a i l s are s u p e r f l u o u s . I t i s based upon t h e

Abhidharmic a n a l y s i s o f a moment o f r e l a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e i n t o : an epistemic

object ( i n t h e case o f v i s i o n , the r u p a ) , an e p i s t e m i c subject (the faculty

o f v i s i o n or c a k s u r i n d r i y a ) , and the awareness a r i s i n g from t h e i r conjunction

(the c a k s u r v i j n a n a ) . Most t h e o r e t i c i a n s a c c e p t e d the s u b j e c t and object as

dharmas ( i . e . , components found at a f i n a l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s ) and d i d not

attempt t o go f u r t h e r t h a n s a y i n g t h a t t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f s u b j e c t and object

gave r i s e t o awareness. The j u x t a p o s i t i o n was e x p l a i n e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s i n

the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n , such as h a b i t s and memories.

The s i m i l e must mean t h a t we s h o u l d adopt a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e t o the three

kayas. I n s t e a d o f s e a r c h i n g f o r the mechanism by which t h r e e different

e n t i t i e s are r e l a t e d , we should r e g a r d them as a b s t r a c t i o n s from a s i n g l e

g i v e n s i t u a t i o n c a l l e d Buddhahood or Dk. The reasons f o r p o s i t i n g the three,

and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between them, become e q u i v a l e n t q u e s t i o n s t o be answered

by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r power o f e x p l a i n i n g s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f t h e t o t a l group

o f phenomena termed "Dk." Thus, the statement t h a t the Nk and Sbk "depend

upon" the Dk p o i n t s t o the l a r g e r s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n which each o f them makes

sense.

This l i n e of reasoning i s e x a c t l y the one f o l l o w e d at X : l : ". . . because

it experiences the v e r y pure B u d d h a f i e l d s . . . because i t m a n i f e s t s . . .

because i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures the maturation o f the B o d h i s a t t v a s . . . because

i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures the m a t u r a t i o n o f the Sravakas. . . .." The Asvabhava

commentary t o X:6.2 may support t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n even more e x p l i c i t l y , but

t e x t u a l problems, i n c l u d i n g wide divergences between the Chinese and Tibetan

v e r s i o n s , render i t suspect.
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i. Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya Compared

The question o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be seen more c l e a r l y i f Asanga's ideas

about the Nk and Sbk are summarized and compared. The first similarity is

t h a t b o t h are ways i n which the Buddha appears t o a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f observers,

r a t h e r than b e i n g a s p e c t s or p a r t s o f the Buddha. This interpretation is

v a l i d a t e d by the f a c t t h a t b o t h e x h i b i t the same t h r e e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

as do the Dk or the Svk, i . e . , each i s the r e s u l t o f c e r t a i n p r a c t i c e s , each

can be described as an awareness, and each e x h i b i t s sovereignty.

That i s , the Sbk r e s u l t s from the p r a c t i c e s by which the a s p i r a n t perfects

h i s non-conceptual awareness. L i k e the Svk, the Sbk i s an "awareness" r a t h e r

than a c o n c r e t e o b j e c t . This is'implicit i n the p r e v i o u s p o i n t and explicit at

X:35»6(u). F i n a l l y , l i k e the Svk, the Sbk exercises sovereignty, which

i n v o l v e s the j o y or p l e a s u r e aroused i n the B o d h i s a t t v a (P:3.10; X:1.2; X:30.10;

X : 3 l ) , and which ensures h i s m a t u r a t i o n (P:3.10; X:6.2). L i k e the Svk, the Sbk

i s e t e r n a l because t h i s maturing a c t i v i t y does not cease (X:3l).

The s i x d i f f e r e n c e s between the Svk and the Sbk l i s t e d at X:35 amount t o

one point—the Sbk, u n l i k e the Svk, appears i n a s e r i e s o f s p e c i f i c determinate

forms depending upon s p e c i f i c circumstances.

The passages d e s c r i b i n g the Nk are v e r y s i m i l a r i n form and may be grouped

under the same t h r e e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . L i k e the Sbk,. i t r e s u l t s from two

types o f p r a c t i c e s : t h o s e by the Buddha and those by the a s p i r a n t . However,

the l a t t e r are not r e a l l y Bodhisattva p r a c t i c e s i n s o f a r as they are accom-

p l i s h e d by Sravakas or l o w - l e v e l B o d h i s a t t v a s . The a c t i o n o f the Buddha, not

o f the a s p i r a n t , i s emphasized.

The Nk_ and Sbk b o t h appear i n s i t u a t i o n s where b o t h the Buddha, who has

vowed t o a i d a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , and a s e n t i e n t b e i n g who i s prepared to

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accept such a s s i s t a n c e , are p r e s e n t . The Buddha's vow remains the same i n each

c a s e , but the stage o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r o g r e s s e l i c i t s e i t h e r a Nk o r a Sbk.

The v a r i o u s passages examined g e n e r a l l y agree t h a t t h e Nk appears only to

t h e Sravakas and t o the adhimukticaryabhumi Bodhisattvas (novice Bodhisattvas

on the f i r s t and lowest B o d h i s a t t v a l e v e l ) . X:l6, the o n l y passage which might

be r e a d as s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o r d i n a r y b e i n g s who are not B o d h i s a t t v a s may see

the Nk, i s g l o s s e d by Asvabhava as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h o s e who, sooner or later,

will see the Nk (presumably as Sravakas).

A major problem a r i s e s from the d i f f e r e n c e s between the i n f o r m a t i o n i n

chapter V I I I and chapter X. In V I I I : 1 0 - l U t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s who are " p r e p a r i n g "

their nirvikalpajnana—who l i s t e n t o o t h e r s e x p l a i n t h e non-conceptual (nirvi-

k a l p a ) c h a r a c t e r o f t h i n g s but cannot see i t d i r e c t l y t h e m s e l v e s — a r e said to

be r e b o r n i n the Nk assembly. The B o d h i s a t t v a s who have p e r f e c t e d t h e i r

n i r v i k a l p a j nana—who have p e r s o n a l l y grasped the t r u t h o f t h i s d o c t r i n e — a r e

r e b o r n i n the Sbk assembly. On the o t h e r hand, at X:2T Asvabhava (U^ll3a23-26)

says t h a t the Dk is:" i n v i s i b l e t o gods and men, the Nk i s manifested i n (

) the assembly.

These two v e r s i o n s must be based e i t h e r upon d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s o r upon

d i f f e r e n t viewpoints. S i n c e the Mahayanasamgraha i s reasonably free of

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , I b e l i e v e t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e i s one o f v i e w p o i n t . VIII:10 i s

a m y t h i c a l statement o f an o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r r e c o u n t i n g , from some detached

cosmic s t a n d p o i n t , the p l a c e o f each i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e b i r t h . The v i e w p o i n t of

chapter I , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s t h a t o f an o r d i n a r y man f o r whom t h e Nk appears

to " e n t e r " the w o r l d as a p r o j e c t i o n from somewhere o u t s i d e . The Sbk assembly,

on t h e o t h e r hand, i s i t s e l f o u t s i d e t h i s commonplace w o r l d and i t s a s p i r a n t

is seen t o move toward i t .

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The Sbk a f f o r d s a more complex s i t u a t i o n . The aspirant sees not only the

Sbk, but an e n t i r e t r a n s f o r m e d environment i n which he i s a b l e t o hear or

r e c e i v e the Buddha-word from which he a t t a i n s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g which involves

pleasure. This pleasure encourages him t o c o n t i n u e p r a c t i c i n g the paramitas

and i n t h i s way helps perfect a l i f e dedicated t o the w e l f a r e of others.

E x a c t l y what the a s p i r a n t must do t o enter the Buddhaland i s u n c l e a r . In

chapter V I I I Asanga suggests t h a t he i s reborn there. The i d e a , known i n

l a t e r p r a c t i c e , t h a t the Buddhaland i s e n t e r e d during meditation i s not

85

c o n t r a d i c t e d i n the Mahayanasamgraha. F i n a l l y , the t r a d i t i o n that a f t e r

many y e a r s o f r i t u a l p r a c t i c e Asanga was taken t o the T u s i t a heaven and taught

by M a i t r e y a may a l s o be relevant.

ii. The T r i k a y a and the C l a s s i c a l Problems

Many developments i n Buddhology appear t o have been f o r c e d by the need t o

r e s o l v e c e r t a i n b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n the concept o f the Buddha. The most

ubiquitous o f t h e s e can be considered t o be the " c l a s s i c a l " problems. They

are:

— One Buddha, or many Buddhas?

— Is the Buddha m o r t a l , or- immortal?

— Does the Buddha remain i n n i r v a n a , o r not?

As the i n t e l l e c t u a l horizons o f the e a r l y Buddhist t h i n k e r s expanded and

the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r b a s i c dogmas became b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d , earlier

attempts t o set a s i d e such q u e s t i o n s or t o p r o v i d e simple answers were seen as

inadequate. I t became c l e a r t h a t t h e s e q u e s t i o n s c a l l e d f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of

a t r a n s c e n d e n t Buddha i n w o r l d l y terms. A s a t i s f a c t o r y answer must be mediated

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by a frame o f r e f e r e n c e which w i l l a l l o w the ambiguity i n h e r e n t i n t h i s concept.

As the trikaya i s the fundamental Buddhology o f the Mahayanasamgrahawe should

expect t h a t Asanga and h i s commentators would have a p p l i e d i t t o t h e s e ques-

tions. In the following section, I s h a l l examine t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n and, from

its effectiveness, attempt t o judge the degree t o which such q u e s t i o n s might

have encouraged the development o f t h i s concept.

One Buddha, or Many Buddhas?

A l l Buddhist t r a d i t i o n s share a common myth o f s u c c e s s i v e Buddhas, each

t r a i n i n g a d i s c i p l e who, upon r e a c h i n g Buddhahood, t r a i n s another. T h i s myth

r a i s e s the u n i t y / p l u r a l i t y problems t h a t a r i s e from one basic dilemma. On the

one hand, "Buddha" i s a c e r t a i n cluster of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t makes no sense

to speak o f more than one. It i s a single concept a p p l i e d when an individual

has become coterminous w i t h t h i s i d e a l . On the o t h e r hand, a l t h o u g h the

Buddhist cannot speak o f a p l u r a l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n a s t a t e known as Buddha-

hood, he can and does speak o f the personalities and practices of various

individuals who have reached Buddhahood. I t seems unreasonable t o deny any

sense o f p l u r a l i t y t o the r e s u l t i n g Buddha(s). Note t h a t this is a peculiarly

Buddhist problem. In almost a l l o t h e r systems o f thought a d i s t i n c t i o n between

the i n d i v i d u a l and h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be maintained. No matter what set

of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s the i n d i v i d u a l a c q u i r e d , the "one, or many".problem c o u l d

be s o l v e d simply by c o u n t i n g the individuals i n the c l a s s of those possessing

the set of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In the Buddhist system, which r e c o g n i z e s no

i n d i v i d u a l a p a r t from h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , an aspirant who has successfully

taken on those o f Buddha i s "Buddha"—totally.

Most Buddhist t h i n k e r s have s o l v e d the problem by r e c o g n i z i n g a Buddha

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p o s s e s s i n g two a s p e c t s . F o r example, i n Abhidharmakosa, v i i : 3 U t h e q u e s t i o n ,

"Are t h e Buddhas s i m i l a r t o each o t h e r ? " r e c e i v e s t h e r e p l y , "The Buddhas are

s i m i l a r w i t h r e g a r d t o equipment f o r enlightenment, Dharmakaya, and t h e

service of sentient beings. They are d i s s i m i l a r w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e l e n g t h o f

l i f e , c a s t e , h e i g h t , and so on." The subsequent commentary i m p l i e s a t h r e e - f o l d

Buddha: a Dharmakaya and i t s v i s i b l e aspect c a l l e d the rupakaya (which a r e

i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l Buddhas), and t h e appearance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l who e v e n t u a l l y

reaches Buddhahood (which d i f f e r s from one Buddha t o a n o t h e r ) . T h i s argument

i s adopted and expanded i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha:

X:8 I s i t n e c e s s a r y t o say t h a t t h e Dharmakayas o f Buddhas

are d i f f e r e n t o r not d i f f e r e n t ?

As t h e i r s u p p o r t , i n t e n t i o n , and a c t i o n s do not d i f f e r ,

we must say t h a t t h e y a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t . But, i n s o f a r

as innumerable persons r e a c h enlightenment, we must say

t h a t t h e y do d i f f e r .

What has been s a i d about t h e Dharmakaya may a l s o be

a p p l i e d t o the Sambhogakayas. As t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and

a c t i v i t i e s a r e not d i f f e r e n t , then we must say t h a t they

are not d i f f e r e n t . But as t h e i r supports a r e d i f f e r e n t ,

t h e y a r e not n o n - d i f f e r e n t because innumerable supports

appear.

'The p r e c e d i n g remarks on t h e Sambhogakaya a l s o a p p l y t o

the Nirmanakaya.

Asvabhava (Ul*39a25-b6) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e " s u p p o r t " ( f o r t h e Dk) i s

t a t h a t a ; i t s " i n t e n t i o n " i s t h e i n t e n t i o n t o work f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a l l

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sentient beings; and i t s " a c t i o n s " a r e t h e v a r i o u s B u d d h a - a c t i v i t i e s .

The supports t h a t d i f f e r f o r t h e Nk and Sbk a r e t h e B u d d h a f i e l d s , t h e

assemblies, t h e s i z e o f b o d i e s , and so on.

X:3i3 [The Dharmakaya i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n o n - d u a l i t y ] o f

p l u r a l i t y and u n i t y because, Eon the'one hand,! t h e support

of a l l t h e Buddhas i s not d i f f e r e n t i a b l e , ' [ w h i l e , on t h e

o t h e r , ! innumerable streams o f e x i s t e n c e a r e e n l i g h t e n e d .

Two stanzas develop this point. These a r e bext expressed by a paraphrase

based upon Asvabhava's commentary:

In t h e case o f a Dharmakaya, no element i n t h e c o g n i t i v e

p r o c e s s i s i d e n t i f i e d as more fundamental than t h e o t h e r s ,
i . e . , as an " I " o r a " s e l f . " T h e r e f o r e , no d i v i s i o n i n t o
" i " and " o t h e r , " o r i n t e r i o r and e x t e r i o r o c c u r s . S i n c e no
s e l f and no d i v i s i o n i s r e c o g n i z e d , and t h e Dharmakaya
c e r t a i n l y i s hot seen; as a s e l f , then t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o
speak o f s e v e r a l Dharmakayas.

However, from a w o r l d l y v i e w p o i n t , m a n y . i n d i v i d u a l s
appear t o have reached Buddhahood. Therefore., we must a l s o
say t h a t t h e r e a r e m u l t i p l e Dharmakayas.

The second s t a n z a (drawn from Mahayanasutralamkara IX:77) o f f e r s a s e r i e s

86
of reasons t o r e j e c t t h e "one, o r many" c h o i c e . The f i r s t reason i s based

on t h e concept of gotra o r . s p i r i t u a l lineage. As t h i s i s a complex passage,

I will paraphrase:

There a r e two types o f l i n e a g e s — i n n a t e and a c q u i r e d .

When we r e g a r d o n l y t h e f i r s t , we can say t h a t because t h e
same i n b o r n t e n d e n c i e s l e a d t o enlightenment, t h e r e s u l t i s
the same. However, t h e a c q u i r e d l i n e a g e which depends on t h e .
s p i r i t u a l guide, e t c . , i s o f d i f f e r e n t types and l o g i c a l l y
s h o u l d g i v e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t Buddhas. I t i s i n a d m i s s i b l e
to m a i n t a i n o n l y t h a t t h e r e i s one Buddha, because:

— i f o n l y one Buddha a r r i v e d a t enlightenment, the p r a c t i c e s

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o f h i s f e l l o w B o d h i s a t t v a s would he i n v a i n , an i n a d m i s -
s i b l e conclusion.
— t h e r e must be more than one Buddha i n o r d e r t o l e a d
various types o f beings t o enlightenment.
— i t i s always n e c e s s a r y f o r a B o d h i s a t t v a t o p r a c t i c e under
a Buddha, who must h i m s e l f have p r e v i o u s l y p r a c t i c e d under
a Buddha. Thus, t h e r e must be a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f Buddhas.

On.the o t h e r hand, we cannot simply say t h a t t h e r e i s

a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f Buddhas because t h e "immaculate" ( i n t h e
sense t h a t i t d e s t r o y s a d v e n t i t i o u s s t a i n s ) support or
dharmadhatu cannot c o n t a i n d i f f e r e n t Buddhas.

X:33 I f t h e Dharmakayas o f a l l Buddhas a r e t h e same, why do

we speak o f many Buddhas? T h i s q u e s t i o n i s answered i n

a stanza:

CWe say t h e r e i s one BuddhaD because t h e r e are not two

Buddhas i n t h e same w o r l d . CHowever,_i because innumer-

a b l e [ B o d h i s a t t v a s I f i n i s h c o l l e c t i n g t h e i r equipment a t

the same t i m e , because Cthe i d e a ofl an o r d e r l y p r o g r e s s i o n

Cof Buddhas! a r r i v i n g at enlightenment i s i n a d m i s s i b l e ,

we a f f i r m t h e p l u r a l i t y o f Buddhas.

The p r e c e d i n g passages a l l o f f e r s i m i l a r arguments which do not depend

upon, or even harmonize w i t h , t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e . They group t h e Nk and Sbk

t o g e t h e r as the p l u r a l , and r e g a r d t h e Dk as t h e s i n g u l a r , aspect o f t h e

Buddha. To t h e o b j e c t i o n t h a t a p l u r a l i t y o f Nks c o n t r a d i c t s t h e maxim t h a t

o n l y one Buddha may appear at one t i m e , Asanga replies:

X:36.8 Even:".if many nirmanas appear, because "the w o r l d " i s a

f o u r - c o n t i n e n t w o r l d system, t h e b i r t h o f two Tathagatas

i n t h e w o r l d does not c o n t r a d i c t t h e s u t r a which CassertsD

t h a t two Tathagatas do not a r i s e i n the w o r l d , j u s t as

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two C a k r a v a r t i n s cannot a r i s e i n the same w o r l d .

That is-, t h e a f f i r m a t i o n o f the::existence o f s e v e r a l Nks i s orthodox i f t h e y

inhabit different world-systems.

From t h i s i t appears not o n l y t h a t Asanga d i d not need the t r i k a y a i n

o r d e r t o s o l v e t h e one-or-many problem, b u t t h a t he was f o r c e d t o reduce i t t o

a two-kaya system t o d e a l w i t h t h i s problem.

Is the Buddha M o r t a l , or Immortal?

The most obvious approach t o t h i s problem, v i a the Buddhist concept o f

87

t i m e , i s i m p r a c t i c a l because no s u i t a b l e study o f t h a t t o p i c i s a v a i l a b l e .

T h e r e f o r e , I w i l l merely p o i n t out a few c o n c l u s i o n s a r i s i n g d i r e c t l y from our

text.

The Majjhima Nikaya: 63 l i s t s f o u r q u e s t i o n s which t h e Buddha d e c l i n e d t o

answer on t h e grounds t h a t t h e answer would not be conducive t o s a l v a t i o n : Is

the u n i v e r s e e t e r n a l ? Is the u n i v e r s e i n f i n i t e ? Are the j i v a and t h e body

identical? Does the T a t h a g a t a s u r v i v e death? I suggest t h a t l a t e r thinkers

devoted a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f i n a l q u e s t i o n because i t proved t o

be f a r from p e r i p h e r a l f o r s o t e r i o l o g i c a l purposes. The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e

Mahayanasamgraha i n v o l v e s two t y p e s o f answers: an a b s t r a c t , p h i l o s o p h i c a l

answer which shows t h a t t h e m o r t a l / i m m o r t a l dilemma cannot undermine the

l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a system; and a s p e c i f i c answer which shows

t h a t orthodox statements q u e s t i o n i n g t h e Buddha's:'immortality cannot undermine

his soteriological dependability.

The most fundamental d i s c u s s i o n i s found at 11:30 where any dharma ( i n -

c l u d i n g the Buddha) i s s a i d t o be e t e r n a l , t r a n s i t o r y , o r n e i t h e r , depending

on whether one i s speaking o f p a r i n i s p a n n a , p a r i k a l p i t a , o r p a r a t a n t r a . In

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the case o f the Buddha, t h i s means t h a t the experience "Buddha" (paratantra)

w i l l e i t h e r be r e i f i e d as an i n d i v i d u a l who w i l l inevitably perish (parikal-

p i t a ) ; or i t w i l l be understood as pure e x p e r i e n c e and so become one pole of

a l i b e r a t i n g encounter, i n which case i t need never end (parinispanna). Which

o f t h e s e views;'.is f o l l o w e d depends upon the past experience and religious

p r a c t i c e s o f the aspirant.

Asanga i s p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the d e p e n d a b i l i t y (the soteriological

sense o f n i t y a ) o f the Buddha, r a t h e r than w i t h the s t r i c t l y l o g i c a l question

of immortality. T h i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l sense i s best expressed i n terms o f the

Abhidharma from which i t developed. The Abhidharma masters a n a l y z e d a l l

experience i n t o a number o f c o n s t i t u e n t s (dharmas), which f e l l i n t o one of two

groups: samskrta or asamskrta. The dharmas composing any event i n samsara

were termed s a m s k r t a — " p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the c a u s a l p r o c e s s " — w h i l e t h o s e which

c o u l d be r e l i e d upon not t o c r e a t e new worldly s i t u a t i o n s were c a l l e d asamskrta.

The samskrta dharmas were d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g t h r e e or f o u r b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s -

tics, typically: jati (coming i n t o e x i s t e n c e ) , s t h i t i (remaining in existence

f o r some t i m e ) , j a r a ( r e a c h i n g the end o f t h e i r t e r m ) , and a n i t y a t a (going out

of existence). While t h e s e were understood i n v a r i o u s ways, t h e y are a l l forms

o f one i d e a which i n the Abhidharmasamuccaya i s c a l l e d a n i t y a t a , "impermanence."

Therefore, as the major c r i t e r i o n o f asamskrta. dharmas was n i t y a t a , "permanence,"

t h a t term came t o d e s i g n a t e ultimate r e l i a b i l i t y . T h i s i d e a t h a t something i s

n i t y a i f i t provides a firm basis for personal s a l v a t i o n u n d e r l i e s the Mahaya-

nasamgraha.

In passages which equate the Buddha w i t h a u n i t a r y Dk t h e following

statements appear:

X:3.1+ CA l a k s a n a o f the Buddha's Dharmakaya isH n i t y a because

 ±9h

it i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d hy the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e true

nature; i t i s the outcome o f a former vow; and i t s

a c t i v i t y i s never completed.

In t h e f i r s t statement n i t y a t a r e f e r s t o the t r u e pure' nature (tathatavisuddhi)

which Asvabhava i d e n t i f i e s w i t h t h e Dk. T h i s i s equivalent t o the trisvabhava

e x p l a n a t i o n at 11:30, s i n c e the t a t h a t a v i s u d d h i c h a r a c t e r i z e s the parinispanna.

The same p o i n t i s r e p e a t e d at X:29-2 where Asvabhava (lAU5bl5-l6) adds t h a t

" e t e r n a l " r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Dk's pure t a t h a t a , i t s r e a l n a t u r e , i s

u n a l t e r a b l e and immutably pure. The.other two explanations refer to the

Buddha's a c t i v i t y . As t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between nature and activity i s just

t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between Svk and Nk-Sbk, t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f n i t y a can be

brought i n t o harmony w i t h t h e t r i k a y a .

The argument i s f u r t h e r developed at X:37, which begins from t h e contra-

d i c t i o n g e n e r a t e d by a n a i v e view o f t h e term n i t y a :

X:3T As t h e Sambhogakaya and Mrmanakaya a r e not eternal, how

can the s u t r a say t h a t t h e Tathagata's body Is e t e r n a l ?

Because both the Nisyandakaya and the Nirmanakaya depend

upon t h e e t e r n a l Dharmakaya.

As the enjoyment i s never i n t e r r u p t e d and the nirmanas

are r e p e a t e d l y m a n i f e s t , i t i s proper to regard the

T a t h a g a t a ' s body as e t e r n a l . This i s s i m i l a r to saying

t h a t , "CHe~] always nourishes."

That i s , w h i l e the author must accept the t r a d i t i o n t h a t the Tathagata's body

i s n i t y a , t h e Sk and Nk, which are c e r t a i n l y b o d i e s of the Tathagata, are not

nitya. How i s t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o be explained?

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Asvabhava ( l A l + 8 c l 8 ) advances two c r i t e r i a " f o r c a l l i n g something n i t y a ;

if i t s substance ( f £ ) is n l t ^ , a s l n t h e c a s e o f t h e m a n d „ l t .

support i s n i t y a , as i n the o t h e r two kayas. Hence, the f a c t t h a t the other

two depend upon the Dk i s s u f f i c i e n t to characterize a l l t h r e e as n i t y a . This

explanation c o n t a i n s a t a c i t d i s t i n c t i o n between the s o t e r i o l o g i c a l sense o f

n i t y a ( i n which a l l t h r e e may be c a l l e d n i t y a as t h e y possess or p a r t i c i p a t e

i n the s a l v i e r e l i a b i l i t y ) , and the p h i l o s o p h i c a l sense: i n which the Nk and Sk

are not nitya.

By f u r t h e r e x p l a i n i n g the s o t e r i o l o g i c a l sense as constant r e p e t i t i o n , he

divorces i t from any f l a v o r o f an e t e r n a l l y s u b s i s t i n g t h i n g . As Asvabhava

(lM8c27-28) says,

The Buddha's Nirmanakaya i s t o be understood i n t h i s

way: i t i s not freedom from b i r t h and death which earns i t
the e p i t h e t n i t y a , but the f a c t t h a t i t i n c e s s a n t l y appears
a g a i n and a g a i n a c c o r d i n g t o the needs o f beings to- be
converted.- T h i s is>the i n t e n t i o n o f the term n i t y a .

T h i s i s supported at X:29.^:

X:29.h ... The Tathagatas are spontaneous because t h e i r

actions flow i n an u n i n t e r r u p t e d , e f f o r t l e s s stream.

The f i n a l two passages ( X : 3 8 , 39) o f our t e x t e x p l a i n the n e c e s s i t y for

m a i n t a i n i n g a c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e between a Dk which i s n i t y a , and a Nk which i s

not. At X : 3 9 the n o t i o n t h a t an e t e r n a l Dk necessarily leads to quietism is

r e f u t e d on the grounds t h a t i t would then undercut i t s own cause ( i . e . , spiri-

t u a l e f f o r t ) , a unique argument not a v a i l a b l e t o the t h e o l o g i a n s o f theistic

religions! T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e must be two a s p e c t s : the e t e r n a l Dk, and a mortal

Nk which i s v i s i b l e t o the a s p i r a n t . Asahga has already ( X : 3 8 ) shown t h a t the

 196

second i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e Ek which does not "remain" ( t i s t h a t e ; gtan-du

bzhugs; ^*^> ) -*- ^

n e
"world.

In c o n c l u s i o n , an answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e Buddha's immortality,

l i k e t h a t o f h i s p l u r a l i t y , r e q u i r e s a two-term r a t h e r than a t h r e e - t e r m model.

The t r i k a y a i s unnecessary and must "be reduced t o a two-kaya by grouping t h e

Nk and Sbk as one term.

Does t h e Buddha Remain i n N i r v a n a , o r Not?

T h i s p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n , l i k e t h e l a s t one, a l s o concerns t h e Buddha's

soteriological efficacy.

VIII:22 CThe awareness (jnana)] o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a i s distinguished

from t h a t o f t h e Sravaka by i t s " n o n - s t a y i n g " (aprati-

s t h i t a ) , because i t s t a y s i n n o n - s t a y i n g nirvana." [This

awareness i s f u r t h e r e x p l a i n e d a t X:13.1

Asvabhava (U"+3^all-12) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Sravakas, e t c . , stay only i n

nirvana while the B o d h i s a t t v a s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r karuna and prajna-, s t a y i n

non-staying nirvana.

X:36.8 CThe BuddhaH made h i s vow and p r a c t i c e d t h e r e l i g i o u s

life i n order t o achieve g r e a t enlightenment f o r t h e

welfare and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . It i s

i l l o g i c a l t o h o l d t h a t he has completely gone t o n i r v a n a ,

because t h a t would render h i s vow and p r a c t i c e s t e r i l e

and useless.

The a p f a t i s t h i t a - n i f v a n a i s o n l y h a l f o f Asanga's v i s i o n . The complete

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statement at X:3h reads:

X:3k How do we know t h a t t h e Buddha's Dharmakaya i s n e i t h e r

w h o l l y i n n i r v a n a nor not w h o l l y i n nirvana?. The

q u e s t i o n i s answered by t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a n z a :

Because Che Isl f r e e from a l l o b s t a c l e s , and

Because C h i s I a c t i v i t y i s not completed.

The Buddha i s Cat t h e same timeD w h o l l y i n

n i r v a n a Cbutn w h o l l y not i n n i r v a n a .

T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Buddha's a c t i o n s as t h e c o n t i n u i n g w o r l d l y

aspect i s t h e key t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha?s answer. At X:31.1, Asvabhava

(Ukh6cl8) says t h a t t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s proceed v i a t h e Nk. T h i s does not imply

i m m o r t a l i t y f o r t h e Nk. As we have seen, each Nk has a normal human l i f e s p a n ,

although a r e p e a t e d s e r i e s o f them i s . p o s s i b l e . Even s o , t h e s e r i e s w i l l end

when a l l beings a r e saved.

The o n l y . d i r e c t mention o f t h e f u l l t r i k a y a - i n - connection, with.-, t h i s •

problem i s X:28.2:

X:28.2 . . . The Buddha's a c t i v i t y i s s t a b l e (dhruva; b r t a n - p a ;

) and u n s t a b l e , because a l l Buddhas have t h r e e kayas.

Here a l s o , t h e t r i k a y a i s more an embarrassment than a n e c e s s a r y concept.

Both commentators reduce t h e t r i k a y a t o a two-kaya model, a l t h o u g h not i n t h e

same way. Asvabhava says t h a t t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e Svk i s s t a b l e , w h i l e t h a t

o f t h e Nk and Sbk i s u n s t a b l e . Vasubandhu h o l d s t h a t t h a t o f t h e Sbk i s

s t a b l e w h i l e t h a t o f t h e Nk i s u n s t a b l e .
 198

Conclusion

The importance o f these c l a s s i c a l problems tempts us t o r e g a r d the

a b i l i t y o f the t r i k a y a (or any other Buddhological d o c t r i n e ) t o r e s o l v e them

as t h e key t o t h e d o c t r i n e ' s p o p u l a r i t y . Nagao has taken t h i s view (Eastern

Buddhist, 6, no. 1, p. 38). On c l o s e r examination, the t r i k a y a seems t o be

not simply unnecessary, but even a hindrance to t h e i r s o l u t i o n . Asanga has

reduced i t t o a two.,kaya system when d e a l i n g w i t h them. Therefore, these

problems cannot have been t h e motive f o r c e b e h i n d the development o f the

t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e , and my attempt t o develop an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i l l not be

f o c u s s e d on them.

f. Why Three Kayas?

There seem.to be t h r e e p o s s i b l e c l a s s e s o f reasons why Asanga chose t o

develop a t r i k a y a r a t h e r than simply modify one o f the two-kaya t h e o r i e s .

These a r e :

(a) He may have been the f i r s t t o r e a l i z e t h a t the e a r l i e r schemes were

inadequate f o r the d o c t r i n e s which they p u r p o r t e d to systematize.

(b) He may have i n c o r p o r a t e d r a d i c a l l y new i d e a s , which f o r c e d the a d d i t i o n

o f a t h i r d term i n t o h i s system.

(c) He may have been l e d t o a t r i a d i c scheme by e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , e.g., a

g e n e r a l I n d i a n vogue f o r t r i n i t i e s .

In the l i g h t o f the p a u c i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on I n d i a n c u l t u r e ,

the l a s t i s the l e a s t d e s i r a b l e c h o i c e , and w i l l be considered only i f neither

o f the f i r s t two seems p l a u s i b l e .

 199

The second c h o i c e seems most l i k e l y . As we have seen, e a r l i e r thinkers

r e s o l v e d the c l a s s i c a l dilemmas hy d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the v i s i b l e rupakaya from a

b a s i c Svk or Dk. Asanga found h i m s e l f w i t h two a d d i t i o n a l , mutually i r r e d u -

cible doctrines. The f i r s t was t h a t o f the vow o f b e n e v o l e n t conduct (bhadra-

carya-pranidhana) by which the aspirant binds himself to continual worldly

manifestation i n any form n e c e s s a r y f o r the s a l v a t i o n of s u f f e r i n g sentient

beings. As the a c t o r , he i s i n general c o n t r o l o f the encounter w i t h them.

Provided o n l y t h a t the p r a c t i t i o n e r : . i s a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e the Buddha, the

l a t t e r presents himself.

T h i s seems t o be d i r e c t l y c o n t r a d i c t e d by the second new doctrine, that

o f the B u d d h a f i e l d which the a s p i r a n t reaches by h i s own e f f o r t s , and within

which he encounters the Buddha.

Although the'other two p o s s i b i l i t i e s cannot be ignored, I suggest t h a t

the need t o m a i n t a i n both the u n i t y and the mutual i r r e d u c i b i l i t y o f t h e s e

concepts f o r c e d Asanga t o adopt t h e t r i k a y a . Embryonic forms o f the vow and

the Buddhaland were present e a r l i e r , and we might say t h a t Asanga was the

f i r s t to recognize the problem t h a t they r a i s e d . Furthermore,, i t i s d i f f i c u l t

t o imagine t h a t he remained u n a f f e c t e d by the t r i a d i c t e n d e n c i e s throughout

the nascent I n d i a n theistic traditions. However, d u r i n g h i s e r a b o t h o f t h e s e

new d o c t r i n e s had become so e x p l i c i t t h a t he was forced to d i f f e r e n t i a t e

between a Nk. (which, went o u t . t o the p r a c t i t i o n e r } , a Sbk (which the practi-

t i o n e r approached i n a Buddhaland), and a Svk which m a i n t a i n e d the u n i t y of

t h e s e two..,
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NOTES

Giuseppe T u c c i , On Some A s p e c t s o f t h e D o c t r i n e s o f MaitreyaCnathaH and

Asanga ( C a l c u t t a : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l c u t t a , 1930; r e p r i n t e d by Chinese M a t e r i a l s
C e n t e r , I n c . , 1975), PP- 18-20.

2
B i m a l K r i s h n a M a t i l a l , "A C r i t i q u e o f B u d d h i s t I d e a l i s m , " i n L. C o u s i n s
et a l . , eds., B u d d h i s t S t u d i e s i n Honour o f I . B. Horner ( D o r d r e c h t and B o s t o n :
197M, p. 139-

The w o r d i n g o f t h e T i b e t a n and t h e Chinese (l35a20-2l) v e r s i o n s differ.

I have t r a n s l a t e d f r e e l y i n o r d e r t o emphasize t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . The
v e r b "embraces" i s no t i g h t e r i n t h e T i b e t a n (bsdus) t h a n i n t h e Chinese
(J^l ). I t s e x a c t meaning must be u n d e r s t o o d from t h e c o n t e x t . See a l s o
note 26 below.

h
A p a r t i c u l a r l y v i v i d example o f t h i s procedurerxs h i s d i s m i s s a l o f t h e
trisvabhava doctrine:
C'est a i n s i que j e ne t r a i t e r a i pas de l a t h e o r i e des
t r o i s n a t u r e s , i m a g i n a i r e , dependante e t a c c o m p l i e , b i e n
q u ' e l l e a p p a r t i e n n e en p r o p r e au V i j n a n a v a d a ; e l l e n ' o f f r e
en e f f e t aucun element de n a t u r e v e r i t a b l e m e n t i d e a l i s t e ( p . 272).

^ M a t i l a l does r e f e r t o t h e L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Ch'eng
Wei S h i h Lun, and t r a n s l a t e s a k e y passage o f t h e Samdhinirmocanasutra from
Lamotte's r e c o n s t r u c t e d S a n s k r i t . The l a t t e r c o n t a i n s a good example o f t h e
p e r i l s o f r e l y i n g on such r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . He has m i s s e d t h e problem r a i s e d by
d i s c r e p a n c i e s between t h e Chinese ( B o d h i r u c i — T . 675; H s u a n - t s a n g — T . 676) and
T i b e t a n ( O t a n i 77^) d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p a r i k a l p i t a and p a r i n i s p a n n a .

^ Ashok Kumar C h a t t e r j e e , Readings on Yogacara Buddhism ( V a r a n a s i : C e n t r e

o f Advanced Study i n P h i l o s o p h y , Banaras Hindu U n i v e r s i t y , 1971).
7
H e r b e r t V. Guenther, B u d d h i s t P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e (Balti-
more: P e n g u i n , 1972). pp. 13-1h.
Q
H, V. Guenther, B u d d h i s t P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e , pp. 98-103-

H. V. Guenther, " M e n t a l i s m and Beyond," JAOS, 86, no. 3:297-30*+.

 201

T h i s statement i s a paraphrase from P r a s t a v a n a : ^ . The original

S a n s k r i t must have been ambiguous, as b o t h commentators have g l o s s e d t h e key

terms (U382al8-27; Bh323bl6-27) and the T i b e t a n and Chinese (l33a21-22)

t r a n s l a t o r s seem t o have understood t h e grammar d i f f e r e n t l y .

The key terms d e s c r i b i n g the path a r e :

, — " l o g i c a l l y sound": shin-tu 'thod-pa j|: iL» (Lamotte reconstructs:

upapanna^._.and t r a n s l a t e s , "pleinement j u s t i f i e s " ) . T h i s c o u l d be understood i n

many ways, but the commentators agree t h a t a l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y i s meant.

— "orthodox": mthun-pa; (Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : anukula, and
translates, "conformes").

— " n o n - c o n t r a d i c t o r y " : 'gal-ba med-pa; jjt^. (Lamotte reconstructs:

a v i r u d d h a , and t r a n s l a t e s , "sans c o n t r a d i c t i o n " ) . Both commentators stress
the i d e a o f l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y .

The T i b e t a n r e a d s : shes-par bya-bas na shes-bya'o, w h i l e the Chinese

reads: . ; . Both are s t r o n g e r than s i m p l y "may be."

12
These l a s t two paragraphs are an extremely s i m p l i f i e d statement o f the

"three natures" (trisvabhava) d o c t r i n e . Both t h e c h a r a c t e r and fundamental".

importance o f t h i s d o c t r i n e are f r e q u e n t l y misunderstood by t h o s e who suppose

the V i j n a n a v a d a t o be an i d e a l i s m . A more a c c u r a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s emerging

as more e a r l y t e x t s become known. An e x c e l l e n t modern work embodying such an

a p p r e c i a t i o n i s S t e f a n Anacker's Vasubandhu: Three A s p e c t s . Anacker's work

has been p a r t i c u l a r l y encouraging f o r t h i s study as he, working from the

Karmasiddhiprakarana and Madhyantavibhagabhasya, has a r r i v e d at t h e same view^

o f the V i j n a n a v a d a as I have d e r i v e d from t h e Mahayanasamgraha.

He summarizes t h e importance o f t h e t r i s v a b h a v a as f o l l o w s :
Rather than p o i n t i n g towards an i d e a l i s t i c system, t h e
t h e o r y o f the s t o r e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s used f o r t o t a l l y d i f f e r -
ent purposes by Vasubandhu. I t i s the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t one's
normal mental and p s y c h i c a l i m p r e s s i o n s are c o n s t r u c t e d , i . e . ,
a l t e r e d and seemingly s t a t i - i z e d by our consciousness-com-
p l e x e s , t h a t forms the a c t u a l main p o i n t o f the Trims-ika.
" C o g n i t i o n - o n l y " i n v o l v e s p r i m a r i l y the d o c t r i n e o f the t h r e e
natures o f r e a l i t y and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In f a c t ,
the s t o r e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s s e r v e s o n l y as a b r i d g e t o t h i s more
e s s e n t i a l d o c t r i n e , which i n the l a s t a n a l y s i s reduces i t s e l f
t o a Sunyavada which i s t h o r o u g h l y a l l - e m b r a c i n g (p. 70).
J a n i c e D. W i l l i s comes t o a s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n . , In "A Study o f t h e Chapter
t
 202

on R e a l i t y , Based upon t h e T a t t v a r t h a - P a t a l a m o f Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi"

(p. 87) she s t a t e s t h a t t h e t r i s v a b h a v a i s Asanga's b a s i c o n t o l o g y i n a l l
t e x t s except t h e Yogacarabhumi.

13
T h i s i s : . i m p l i c i t throughout chapter I I . The most n e a r l y e x p l i c i t
statement occurs a t I I : l 6 .
Ik
. A v e r y h e l p f u l work f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i s i d e a i s H a r o l d N. Lee,
P e r c e p t s , Concepts and T h e o r e t i c Knowledge: A Study i n E p i s t e m o l o g y (Memphis:
Memphis S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973).
Dr. Lee has c o n s t r u c t e d an epistemology s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Asanga. His
comments on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between such an epistemology and o n t o l o g y a r e
d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o our problem:
When I speak o f t h e f l u x o f p r o c e s s , I make an o n t o l o g -
i c a l assumption, but i t i s a most g e n e r a l o n e — s i m p l y t h a t
something i s going on and i t i s c o n t i n u o u s . The f l u x i s
p o s i t e d t o g i v e a context f o r e x p e r i e n c e — p a r t s o f t h e f l u x
i n t e r a c t , a f f e c t each o t h e r , and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f each p a r t (p. 2h).
The Mahayanasamgraha a l s o r e q u i r e s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l assumption that "some-

t h i n g i s g o i n g on and t h a t i t i s c o n t i n u o u s " whether t h e a c t i o n i s thought o f

i n terms s u g g e s t i n g a c o n t a i n e r (the a l a y a v i j n a n a ) , o r an o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n

( j n e y a , "the knowable"). However, h i s work demonstrates t h a t , f o r purposes o f

c o n s t r u c t i n g an epistemology, t h e o n t o l o g y need be taken no f u r t h e r ; t h a t t h e r e

i s no need f o r a r e a l something (such as a mind) i n which such a c t i v i t y o c c u r s .

When throughout t h e pre'sent study I deny t h a t t h e Mahayanasamgraha c o n t a i n s

o n t o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , I am not denying t h i s most g e n e r a l sense o f

o n t o l o g y , merely any more s p e c i f i c and d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n . That "something

i s g o i n g on" i s i n d i s p u t a b l e , but Asahga has a v o i d e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether

it i s m e n t a l , m a t e r i a l , o r something else. I t would r e q u i r e a s e p a r a t e study

(based on a d i f f e r e n t t e x t ) even t o c o n f r o n t .the q u e s t i o n o f whether, or-not-he

c o n s i d e r e d such a q u e s t i o n t o be l e g i t i m a t e .

^ Dharmadhatu, t h e r e a l m o r sphere o f dharma ( o r " t h e dharmas"), i s a

u b i q u i t o u s term which has been used i n a number o f ways by Buddhist writers.

The V i j n a n a v a d a use o f t h i s term i s s t i l l u n c l e a r . David S e y f o r t Ruegg

touches up t h e q u e s t i o n s e v e r a l times i n L a T h e o r i e du t a t h a g a r b h a et du g o t r a

( P a r i s : E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d'Extreme-Orient, 1969), but no comprehensive study

 203

is available.

The f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e term i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha i s a t I:H8,

where the seed o f enlightenment o b t a i n e d by h e a r i n g the dharma i s d e c l a r e d t o
be an o u t f l o w from the t r a n s c e n d e n t and v e r y pure dharmadhatu, i . e . , the
dharmadhatu i s the provenance o f the p r e a c h i n g which i n i t i a t e s the convert's
career. At 11:9 and 11, the dharmadhatu i s t h e realm o f p a r i n i s p a n n a , i n
which the B o d h i s a t t v a r e s i d e s by d i r e c t p e r c e p t i o n , o r which he penetrates.
At X:31, the dharmadhatu i s s a i d t o undertake f i v e k i n d s o f a c t i o n . The
dharmadhatu as a c t o r r a t h e r than 'realm' c r e a t e s problems which both Vasubandhu
and Asvabhava s o l v e by g l o s s i n g i t as "Dharmakaya."

These passages suggest t h a t t h e dharmadhatu i s t h e Buddha's p e r c e p t u a l

s i t u a t i o n and t h a t t h i s i s not a s t a t i c way o f .'seeing the t r u t h , ' but a state
of c o n t i n u a l o u t r e a c h t o others..

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e a r t i c l e s mentioned i n t h e e a r l i e r survey o f s c h o l a r -
s h i p , see E. Lamotte, Le T r a i t e ' d e ' l a grande v e f t u de sagesse, tome 3 (1970),
and a r t i c l e s on "Buddha" and r e l a t e d compounds i n G. P. M a l a l a s e k e r a , Encyclo-
p a e d i a o f Buddhism '(Sri Lanka: Government o f S r i Lanka, 1973), v o l . 3.

17
E t i e n n e Lamotte, ed. and t r a n s . , Samdhinirmocanasutra ( L o u v a i n : Univer-
s i t e de L o u v a i n , 1935), T i b e t a n t e x t at I n t r o d u c t i o n , 2, p. 32; translation,
pp. l67-l68. See a l s o the sources l i s t e d by Lamotte i n h i s end-note t o 11:33
o f t h e Mahay arias' amgraha.
18
To Lamotte's note (.see end-note t o chap. I l l ) t h a t I I I - X form a u n i t y ,
we may add t h a t I-II. do a l s o : As each o f t h e s e segments ends i n a Buddhology,
it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the Mahayan as amgr aha was c o n c e i v e d as two t e x t s t h a t were
l a t e r fused. However, i n the absence o f e a r l y manuscripts i n which t h e y are
s e p a r a t e , o r even o f any S a n s k r i t o r i g i n a l which might be a n a l y z e d f o r s t y l i s -
t i c d i f f e r e n c e s , such n o t i o n s must remain as c o n j e c t u r e .
19 A c o n c i s e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s g i v e n by John •MaeQuarrie i- n

The Scope o f Demythologizing (.New York: Harper Torch-books, i 9 6 0 ) , p. 19:

But a l t h o u g h e x i s t e n t i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a s t o r y does
not i n i t s e l f deny the f a c t u a l content o f the s t o r y , i t c e r -
t a i n l y does put t h a t content ' i n b r a c k e t s , ' so t o speak. The
o b j e c t i v e r e f e r e n c e becomes b r a c k e t e d i n t h e sense t h a t i n t e r e s t
has s h i f t e d away from i t t o t h e e x i s t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The
 20h

q u e s t i o n o f f a c t i s no l o n g e r b e i n g r a i s e d . We are not ask-

i n g what happened but about what t h e s t o r y says t o us i n our
s i t u a t i o n now. The o b j e c t i v e r e f e r e n c e has somehow become
irrelevant. Whether we a f f i r m i t or whether we deny i t or
whether we suspend judgement about i t , the e x i s t e n t i a l r e l i g -
i o u s message o f the s t o r y can s t i l l speak home t o us . . .

20 ^
Ruegg, Tathagatagarhha, pp. kll-k^h.
21
F o r Asvabhava's commentary t o 11:33, see U4l0c22-iillb3 and u287a3-
291bU. No i n d i v i d u a l r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h i s passage w i l l be given.
22 <f
t h u g s - s u chud-pa-, . The T i b e t a n t h u g s - s u chud-pa i s used t o
t r a n s l a t e b o t h the S a n s k r i t r o o t Jjna ("to understand") and y/gam ("to go"),
The passage seems t o r e a d b e t t e r i f we use " t o u n d e r s t a n d " but as a l l Chinese
v e r s i o n s have ("to a r r i v e at a c e r t a i n s t a t e or s i t u a t i o n " ) , t h e t r a n s l a -
t i o n must be "has gone t o . " The same a p p l i e s t o t h i s term i n 5. and 9-
23 A v i k a l p i t a ; T: rnam-par ma b r t a g s - p a ; H: 'f of $ ]
1

^ t h e - t shorn med-pa' i y e - s h e s ; ^ ">$j? • • Lamotte reconstructs:

"nihsamsayaj nana."

The key t o t h i s compound i s "doubt" (the-tshom; v i c i k i t s a ) , an Abhidharmic

term which Vasubandhu (Abhidharmakosa v.32c-33) p l a c e s near t h e v e r y r o o t o f
incorrect perception. He says t h a t from n e s c i e n c e (avidvjO arises confusion
which l e a d s t o doubt about t h e Buddhist t r u t h s . T h i s doubt l e a d s t o the f a l s e
views and hence t o the deluded l i f e . Asahga, i n t h e Abhidharmasamuccaya
(pp. 10, hi), agrees.

The term i s l i t e r a l l y "the a c c u r a t e awareness (jnana) which i n v o l v e s the

u t t e r absence o f doubt (vicikitsa)." T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t " a c c u r a t e awareness"
i s not something complete apart from "doubt" as a c o n t e n t ^ o r an evaluation.
The doubt i s a f o r m a t i v e f a c t o r which d i s t o r t s t h e e n t i r e p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s .
I t s absence i s synonymous w i t h t h e " a c c u r a c y " o f t h e awareness. .To s t r e s s t h e
f a c t t h a t t h i s compound,is•one.awareness, not an awareness whose "freedom from
doubt" i s a secondary n o n - e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , I have t r a n s l a t e d "veridi-
c a l , awareness."

5
y i n a y a ; T: 'dul-ba; H: \ ^ ^ . T h i s i s the b r o a d e s t term f o r the

a c t i o n s whereby a B o d h i s a t t v a l e a d s s e n t i e n t b e i n g s toward enlightenment.

 205

Other t r a n s l a t i o n s , such as "to d i s c i p l i n e " and "to t e a c h , " are too narrow.

^ 6
"Involved with" (bsdus-pa; jfj^j ) i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d hy Lamotte as
s a m g r h i t a and t r a n s l a t e d , " r e s s o r t i r au." As i t simply indicates general
c o n j u n c t i o n o f two t h i n g s , such t r a n s l a t i o n s as " c o n t a i n e d i n " or "belongs t o "
are much t o o s p e c i f i c .

27
adikarmika b o d h i s a t t v a ; T: byang-chub-sems-dpa' las-dang-po-pa,
H: ^1 ^ . T h i s i s the f i r s t stage o f the t h i r t e e n i n a B o d h i -
sattva's career. According t o the summary o f t h i s t h i r t e e n - s t a g e t h e o r y found
i n Herbert V. Guenther's The Jewel Ornament o f L i b e r a t i o n by sGam-po-pa
( B e r k e l e y : Shambhala, 1 9 T l ) , PP- 232-256, the adikarmika stage i s equivalent
to the sambharamarga (Path o f P r e p a r a t i o n ) and designates the l e v e l o f those
i n d i v i d u a l s who have j u s t begun Mahayana p r a c t i c e s . I t i s f o l l o w e d by the
adhimukticaryabhumi ( e q u i v a l e n t t o the prayogamarga,.Path o f A p p l i c a t i o n ) , the
t e n great B o d h i s a t t v a bhumis and a f i n a l buddhabhumi.
28
For a d i s c u s s i o n o f the use of t h i s s i m i l e to i l l u s t r a t e a s i m i l a r
q u e s t i o n about the b i r t h o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n the t a t h a g a t a f a m i l y , see Ruegg,
Tathagatagarbha,pp. l l i | - 1 1 5 .
29
The v a r i o u s types o f n i r v i k a l p a j nana mentioned i n these passages are
d i s c u s s e d by A l a n Sponberg i n h i s "Dynamic L i b e r a t i o n i n Yogacara Buddhism"
(.The J o u r n a l o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist S t u d i e s , ,2,-- no.. 1
(1979): iih-65). '.
30
See Walpola Rahula, t r a n s . , Le Compendium de l a super-doctrine
(.philosophie), Abhidharmasamuccaya, d' Asanga ( P a r i s : E c o l e F r a n g a i s e d'Extreme-
O r i e n t , 1971), p. I l 6 .
31
Note t h a t t h i s i s a s i m i l e , not a statement t h a t the v i j n a p t i are

illusory. The t r i s v a b h a v a t h e o r y i s not concerned w i t h such o n t o l o g i c a l ques-

tions., Asanga uses the s i m i l e o f someone s e e i n g through an i l l u s i o n t o describe

the e n l i g h t e n e d mode,of p e r c e p t i o n . The classic set o f the- s i m i l e s - u s e d f o r t h i s

:

purpose i s . found i n the Samdhinirmocanasutra, chapter VI.,

32
M i s a p p r e h e n s i o n ( v i p a r y a s a ; • T: p h y i n - c i - l o g - p a ; H: jj| )
is
 206

described by Edward Conze i n "The Mahayana Treatment o f Vi.paryas.us," Orlens-

Extremus, L e s s i n g Memorial (February 1962): 35-1+7- U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Conze's
implicit i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Mahayana and p r a j n a p a r a m i t a d i s t o r t s t h e p r e s e n t
V i j n a n a v a d a use o f t h e term.

33 A ^
Lamotte's "Dharmadhatu," r a t h e r than "Dharmakaya," i s i n c o r r e c t i n
both t e x t and commentary.

^ See Lamotte, Mahayanasamgraha, 1:1+5 and 111:1.

^ Sarvaj naj nana; T: thams-cad mkhyen-pa'i y e - s h e s ; R: — ^3

36 itf] "-fe
T: yongs-su r d z o g s - p a ; H: )JJ yplRt . Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : paripiparti.
37 *
See L o u i s de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n , t r a n s , , "L'Abhidharmakosa de Vasu-
bandhu," Melanges chinois,- et bouddhiques, 16 ( B r u x e l l e s : l ' I n s t i t u t Beige
des Hautes Etudes C h i n o i s e s , 1 9 7 l ) , y i i : 3 3 , and.Honda Megumu, t r a n s . , Annotated
T r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Dasabhumika Sutra, §ata-pitaka S e r i e s , v o l . 7*+ (New
r Delhi:
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Academy o f Indian C u l t u r e , n . d . ) , f n . 12, p. 2 l 6 .
38 ' '
See L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , t r a n s . , Abhidharmakosa, ; i i i : 53b-55d; i v :
I05c-d; i v : 112b; v i : l+l+d-1+5; and Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 127.

^ H: ^ '
•
> Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : aklistam ajnanam.

^° T i n g Fu-pao, Fo-hsiieh t a - t z ' u - t i e n (.Taipei: Tung Yii Wen Hua Ch'u Pan
She, 19^6), p. 599b.

1+1
The S a n s k r i t p a r a v f t t i means, " t u r n i n g back, r e v o l v i n g , change." The
T i b e t a n '.gyur-ba i s extremely b r o a d : " t o change, t o become, t o revolve."
" 1+ 3
can be read ehuan : " t o r e v o l v e , " o f chuan : " t o change d i r e c t i o n . " I have

abandoned t h e u s u a l t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e s e as " r e v o l u t i o n " or "reversion."

"Revolution" i s unsuitable because: Ca) throughout the Mahayanasamgraha a 180°

change o f d i r e c t i o n i s meant, not a 360° one; (b) t h e T i b e t a n would c e r t a i n l y

have chosen skor-ba (as i n " t u r n i n g t h e dharmacakra") had t h e t r a n s l a t o r under-

stood " r e v o l u t i o n " ; and ( c ) " r e v o l u t i o n " i s now a p o l i t i c a l o r at l e a s t a

s o c i a l term, and sounds odd i n t h i s more p s y c h o l o g i c a l context. . "Reversion"

 207

Buddhist thought. "Reorientation" (from " o r i e n t a t i o n " — t h e p r a c t i c e of facing

churches i n an e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n ) c a r r i e s the correct implication.

1+2 ^ ^
The Mahayanasamgraha c o n t a i n s two important r e l a t e d terms f o r the
Mahayana i d e a l o f c o n t r o l o f a l i f e - s i t u a t i o n : v a s i t a and vibhutva. It i s
d i f f i c u l t t o judge how t h e s e d i f f e r as the v a r i o u s t r a n s l a t i o n s have obscured
the o r i g i n a l Sanskrit term i n each passage. The main o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e s e are
as follows:
X: 1.1: T: dbang-sgyur-ba; H: ^ jj^jjj. ; a l l o t h e r Chinese trans-
lators: |"5 ^fc. . LC_ and Mvy t r a n s l a t e t h i s as v a s i t a (the sgyur and J^^-
p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t the - t a ending). Lamotte, however, r e c o n s t r u c t s : vibhutva,
and translates: " l a souverainete."
X:3.2 contains a l i s t o f t e n dbang-ba; H: . Lamotte's reconstruc-
t i o n o f v a s i t a , " l a m a i t r i s e , " i s c l e a r l y c o r r e c t as t h i s i s the same as the
ten Bodhisattva-vasita i n Mvy, 771-780.
X:5; X:7.1*: T: dbang-'byor-ba, which Mvy gives as v a i b h u t i k a m; a l l Chinese
translators-: ^ . Lamotte again r e c o n s t r u c t s : v i b h u t va, and translates:
"la souverainete." However, he has reconstructed the a b b r e v i a t e d dbang or
which stands f o r the c o n t e n t s o f X:5 i n the v e r s e summary at X:2 as v a s i t a ,
and translated: " l a maitrise."
V I I I : 1 3 ; the terminus o f the r e l i g i o u s path i s s a i d t o i n v o l v e the dbang-
gi mchog; H: ^ ^x. which Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : agravaslta and translates:
"les maitrises superieures."
There appears t o be little l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e s e two terms i f
we f o l l o w Lamotte's r e a d i n g . I f we r e a d v a s i t a at X : l , X:3.2 and V I I I : 1 3 , and
v i b h u t v a at X:2, X:5 and X:7-l+, a d i f f e r e n c e does become apparent. V i b h u t va
is, i n each c a s e , the outcome o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n (paravrtti). T h i s may reflect
the use o f the term i n t h e Mahayanasutralahkara, IX: 1+1-1+8. V a s i t a i s used
when r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s not s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned. T h i s may r e f l e c t the fact
t h a t v a s i t a seems t o have been the customary term through the Mahayana schools.
See Mvy, 771-780,; o rf
; the n t s of Bodhisattva-vaiita.
Throughout the present study I have adopted the l a t t e r readings i n p r e f -
erence t o Lamotte's, and have t r a n s l a t e d v i b h u t v a as " s o v e r e i g n t y , " and vasita
as "mastery."

1+3
These t h i r t y - t w o laks anas and eighty anuvyanj anas are the observable
 208

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a g r e a t man (mahapurusa), whether a w o r l d r u l e r (.Cakra- . .

v a r t i n ) o r a world savior (.Buddha). They i n c l u d e b o t h v i s i b l e b o d i l y c h a r a c -
teristics such as f o r t y t e e t h , a. golden hue, and so on, and b e h a v i o r a l c h a r a c -
teristics such as b o d i l y b e a r i n g and tone o f v o i c e . Asvabhava o b v i o u s l y
understands them t o be t h e most e x o t e r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Buddha, by which
he may be r e c o g n i z e d by even t h e d u l l e s t o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .

A list o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r e f e r e n c e s a r e g i v e n by Lamotte i n

his end-notes to X : l 6 .

To t h e s e s h o u l d be added t h e expanded l i s t and r e f e r e n c e s by Leon H u r v i t z

in " C h i h - I , " Melanges c h i n o i s e t bouddhiques 5 , no. 1 2 (.Bruxelles: l ' I n s t i t u t
Beige des Hautes Etudes C h i n o i s e s , 1 9 6 0 - 6 2 ) , pp. 3 5 3 - 3 6 1 .

kh
See T i n g Fu-pao, Fo-hsiieh t a - t z ' u - t i e n , p. 1 9 5 2 c . Lamotte's p l u r a l
translation: " l e s marques" i s c e r t a i n l y incorrect.

^ See Abhidharmakosa, i i : UT •

^ 6
Note t h a t t h e common m i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f c e t a n a as " v o l i t i o n " would
render t h i s passage n o n s e n s i c a l . Cetana i n d i c a t e s t h a t l i t t l e volition i s
p o s s i b l e , that the i n d i v i d u a l i s driven or motivated t o a c e r t a i n type o f per-
c e p t i o n o r a c t i o n by e x t r i n s i c p r e v i o u s i n f l u e n c e s . See H e r b e r t V. Guenther,
P h i l o s o p h y and Psychology i n t h e Abhidharma (Lucknow: Buddha V i h a r a , 1 9 5 7 ) ,
pp. 61-70.

hi
See A l e x Wayman, "The M i r r o r - l i k e Knowledge i n Mahayana Buddhist
L i t e r a t u r e , " A s i a t i c a S t u d i e n , 25 (.1971): 353..
h8
The term "white dharmas" d e s i g n a t e s a v a r i e t y o f d e s i r a b l e t h i n g s . ,

For a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s term i n Abhidharma thought, see Abhidharmakosa, iv:60.

h9
See above,, note h2,

^ A Madhyamika u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f sunyata must not b e b l i n d l y a p p l i e d here.

Both, the Madhyamika and t h e Yogacara accepted the prajnaparamita l i t e r a t u r e

w i t h i t s terms such as sunyata and t a t h a t a , but each, worked out t h e i m p l i c a -

tions differently. The Yogacara view o f s u n y a t a i s found i n c h a p t e r V I I o f

the Samdhinirmocanasutra, and i s embedded i n t h e t r i s v a b h a v a d o c t r i n e o f t h e

 209

Mahay anas amgr aha. G. M. Nagao offer's u s e f u l g u i d e l i n e s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

between the two i n "From Madhyamika t o Yogacara: An A n a l y s i s o f MMK, XXIV.18

and MV, 1.1-2," The J o u r n a l o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist

Studies, 2, no. 1 (1979'): 29-*-3. 1

T. R. V. M u r t i , The Central Philosophy of Buddhism (.London: George

A l l e n and Unwin L t d . , i960), p. 217- A l t h o u g h M u r t i goes on t o d i s c u s s the
use o f advaya i n the V i j n a n a v a d a w r i t i n g s , h i s a n a l y s i s i s muddled and super-
ficial. A b r i e f mention o f t h i s i s s u e a l s o appears i n Ruegg, T a t h a g a t a -
garhha , p. 3.

52
For example, see P a u l W i l f r e d O ' B r i e n , A Chapter on R e a l i t y from the
Madhyantavibhaga S a s t r a (Tokyo: Monumenta N i p p o n i c a , vol 5, "TX-X. 1953-5^1,
vahd J a n i c e Dean W i l l i s , "A Study'of the Chapter", on R e a l i t y , Based upon, the
Tattvartha-Patalam o f Asahga's B o d h i s a t t v a b h u m i " (Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia
University, 1976).
53 ^
See a l s o Ruegg, Tathagatagarhha, f n ; 1, p. 298, f o r comments on a
s i m i l a r passage o f t h e R a t n a g o t r a v i b h a g a. .'"

Pratyatmavedha; T: r a n g - g i s rig-pa; H:
rt ? Vasubandhu
(Bh371c2) g l o s s e s t h i s as, "the Tathagata's i n t r o s p e c t i o n , " thus identifying
it as an a b i l i t y o f the s p i r i t u a l l y advanced. Asvabhava (ljl+37b20) makes the
same p o i n t i n a n e g a t i v e manner: ". . . Cthe o r d i n a r y man3 can o n l y adhere t o
Cthe Dharmakaya"! by faith."

The doctrine i s explained i n chapter VI o f C a n d r a k i r t i ' s Madhyamaka-

vatara. B r i e f English-language accounts may be found i n Th. Stcherbatsky,

Buddhist L o g i c , 2 v o l s . (.New York: Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1962), v o l . 1, p. 163,

and i n Guenther, Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e , pp. 91-93-

^ Abhidharmakosa li.:57a-b.

^ V i h a r a : T: gnas-pa; H: Iff . The b a s i c meaning o f "a dwelling

p l a c e " must be understood w i t h i n the Buddhist cosmology, which a s s i g n s a cer-
tain state of being or major p r e o c c u p a t i o n t o the r e s i d e n t s o f each division
o f the u n i v e r s e . Hence, v i h a r a d e s i g n a t e s not o n l y a monastery, e t c . , but
 210

a l s o the predominant f a c t o r s i n an i n d i v i d u a l life.

E-Q

Vibhutva. See above, note k2.

^ The a b h i j n a s are the a b i l i t i e s which, i n Buddhist mythology, are gained

by a Buddha d u r i n g the n i g h t o f h i s enlightenment. By the. e x e r c i s e o f t h e s e
a b i l i t i e s he d i s c o v e r s the t r u t h s which form the content o f h i s e v e n t u a l
preaching. The V i j n a n a v a d i n l i s t i s found i n Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasa-
muccaya, pp. 166-167.:

— rddhyabhijna—the s u p e r n a t u r a l powers such as f l y i n g , etc.;

— d i v y a s r o t a b h i j n a — t h e d i v i n e ear;

— c et ahparyayabhij n a — t h e a b i l i t y t o know the thoughts of others;

— purvanivasanusmrtyabhi j n a — t h e a b i l i t y t o remember p r e v i o u s lives;

— cyutyupapadabhijna—the a b i l i t y t o see the b i r t h s and deaths o f o t h e r s ;
— a s r a v a k s a y a b h i j n a — t h e a b i l i t y t o see the e x t i n c t i o n o f i m p u r i t y . .

^ Vyavahara: T: tha-snyad-pa; H: ^t-Xj '• "the outward s i g n or signal

by which communication o c c u r s . I t i s u s u a l l y , but not n e c e s s a r i l y , v o c a l .
T h i s passage p o i n t s -out the communicative n a t u r e o f the Buddha. See also
Abhidharmakosa i v : 7 ^ - 7 5 and F r a n k l i n Edgerton, Buddhist H y b r i d S a n s k r i t Grammar
and D i c t i o n a r y , 2 v o l s . ( D e l h i : M o t i l a l B a n a r s i d a s s , 1 9 7 2 ) , v o l . 2, p. 5l6.

• ^ Lamotte's r e f e r e n c e s are a l l t o p r i m a r y t e x t s . F o r t r a n s l a t i o n o f the

more important passages, see Abhidharmakosa y i i : 2 8 - 5 6 , and Rahula, t r a n s . ,

Abhidharmasamuccaya, pp. 163-176. The most.exhaustive d i s c u s s i o n of these i s

found i n v o l . 3 o f Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n o f the '• Le Traite

de l a grande v e r t u de sagesse ( L o u v a i n : I n s t i t u t O r i e n t a l i s t e , 1970).

62
For a d e f i n i t i o n o f the p r a t i s a m v i d s , see Asvabhava's commentary t o
V : 2 . 9 (.UU2Ubl8-2U).
63
A c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t gambhira was commonly, understood to refer to
the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s view i s found i n Lamotte, t r a n s . , Le T r a i t e , v o l . 1. This
reads in part:

I I en va de meme pour l a pensee: l e sot ( b a l a ) , par

I ' a c t i o n du s a v o i r c o n c e p t u e l , decouvre dans l e s Dharma
d i v e r s c a r a c t e r e s . V o i r que l e v r a i c a r a c t e r e des Dharma
n'est n i v i d e (sunya) n i non-vide (asunya), ni. e x i s t a n t
 211

( s a t ) n i n o n - e x i s t a n t ( a s a t ) , et p e n e t r e r profondement dans
c e t t e d o c t r i n e sans detours n i a r r e t s , c ' e s t ce qu'on nomme
" e t r e passe a l ' a u t r e r i v e de l a p a t i e n c e r e l a t i v e aux Dharma
p r o f o n d s " (gambhiradharmaksantiparamgata) (p. 338).

2. En o u t r e , l e s B o d h i s a t t v a ont un s a v o i r (jnana)
p r o f o n d (gambhira) et a i g u i s e ( t i k s n a ) . . . (p. 370).

6k
See Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhi dharma s amuc caya, p. 88 f f . ; Abhidharmakosa
ii:2l+.7< A good summary i s g i v e n i n Guenther, t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, pp.
229-230. A v e r y c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n by Tsong-kha-pa i s t r a n s l a t e d by A l e x
Wayman i n Calming the Mind and D i s c e r n i n g t h e R e a l (.New York: Columbia U n i v e r -
s i t y P r e s s , 1978), pp. 129-130; and a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n by Kumarajiva i s
found i n Lamotte, Le T r a i t e , v o l . 3, pp. 1329-11+30.
6 5
H. t r a n s l a t e s , »". . . because
T
the_ t^ a.j.,.
t h a.t,a ~ (I jit
&r
-£tl ) i s f r e e from s t a i n . "
IS
6 6
A l f r e d North Whitehead, Process and R e a l i t y : An Essay i n Cosmology
(New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1960),.pp. k-6.

6"7
Samarendra Kumar Verma, The Nature o f Metaphysics (.Varanasi: B h a r a t -
B h a r a t i , 1976), Chapter k.

^ F o r example, see Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought i n I n d i a (.Ann A r b o r :

Ann A r b o r Paperbacks, 1970), pp. 172-173, 232; and D a v i d J . Kalupahana,
Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y : A H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s (Honolulu: U n i v e r s i t y Press of
Hawaii, 1976). X:38-39.

69
The term Nirmanakaya cannot be t r a n s l a t e d without s e v e r e l y b i a s i n g
l a t e r arguments about i t s meaning. E a r l i e r s c h o l a r s who d i d not doubt the
t h e i s t i c n a t u r e o f t h e Mahayana Buddha u s u a l l y t r a n s l a t e d i t as " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n -
body," i . e . , as a form i n t o which the Buddha t r a n s f o r m s h i m s e l f a c c o r d i n g t o
the needs o f the a s p i r a n t . However, t h i s study q u e s t i o n s the t h e i s t i c premise.
The word nirmana i s so ambiguous t h a t i t b r i n g s l i t t l e i n h e r e n t meaning t o t h e
compound. I f the s e a r c h f o r the " b a s i c " meaning o f nirmana i s l i m i t e d t o the
Mahayanasamgraha, we f i n d o n l y a few uncompounded examples o f the term. Asva-
bhava 's commentary t o X:30.9 ((,Ul+l+6a25; u350b8) s a y s , i n Lamotte's translation,
t h a t the devas, nagas, e t c . , o f the Buddhalands are nirmanas," but as n e i t h e r
the Chinese nor the T i b e t a n uses the same term here as t h e y do elsewhere f o r
 212

nirmana i n Nirmanakaya, t h i s i s a q u e s t i o n a b l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . The only

u n e q u i v o c a l d e f i n i t i o n i s g i v e n by Asvabhava at uUUlb20 where he d e f i n e s
nirmana as a c r e a t i o n o f a form not p r e v i o u s l y i n e x i s t e n c e , i . e . , as the
very opposite of a "transformation."

TO ^
The adhimukticaryabhumi i s the stage immediately p r e c e d i n g the first
of the t e n great B o d h i s a t t v a bhumis. In the Mahayanasamgraha t h i s i s p r o p e r l y
the stage o f the B o d h i s a t t v a who has heard, and adheres t o , the t e a c h i n g t h a t
a l l dharmas are v i j napt imat r a ( I I I : 3 ) , but Asanga o f t e n uses i t simply as a
c a t e g o r y f o r those who have the a t t i t u d e o f simple c o n f i d e n c e and d e v o t i o n o f
the Sravaka, but who h o l d a Yogacara r a t h e r than a Hmayana p h i l o s o p h y . See
a l s o Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 1^5 ( f o r adhimukticarya-
b o d h i s a t t v a ) , and pp. 158-159; G. P. M a l a l a s e k e r a , ed., E n c y c l o p a e d i a of
Buddhism (Ceylon: Government P r e s s , 19&3), f a s c . 2, s.v. adhimukti-carya-
bhumi , pp. 202-203; and Guenther, t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, p. 239- Por
adhimukti, see below, note 72.
71 ».
N i r v i k a l p a j nana i s a g e n e r a l term f o r e n l i g h t e n e d awareness. I t must
not be misunderstood as a s t a t e - o f mind which i s n e c e s s a r i l y l a c k i n g i n d i s c u r -
s i v e thought. I t i s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n chapter V I I I o f the Mahayanasamgraha
where i t i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e t y p e s : ( l ) p r a y o g i k a , the awareness p r e p a r a t o r y
to f u l l n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ; (2) n i r v i k a l p a j nana p r o p e r ; and (3) prsthalabdha /
the awareness subsequent t o n i r v i k a l p a j nana.
F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n see A l a n Sponberg, "Dynamic L i b e r a t i o n i n Yoga-
c a r a Buddhism," J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist Studies
2, no. 1 (1979): kk-6h.
Adhimukti; T: mos-pa; H: T h i s term u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o the
act o f d i r e c t i n g the a t t e n t i o n t o a s p e c i f i c o b j e c t w i t h a c l e a r , or even
fervent, expectation of a certain perception. As t h i s o b j e c t i s o f t e n a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Buddha, adhimukti i s frequently t r a n s l a t e d , "devotion."
But, as the e x p e c t a t i o n can amount t o p r o j e c t i n g a v i v i d visualization,
adhimukti should sometimes be " c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n . " S i n c e b o t h elements are
important i n t h i s t e x t , I have f o l l o w e d Lamotte's " a s p i r a t i o n . " See Abhidhar-
makosa, i i : 2 l + . 9 ; 72. h; Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 180; and
Guenther, t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, p. 37•
 213

73 ^
The p r e c i s e meaning o f "simple c o n f i d e n c e " (sraddhamatra; T: dad-pa
feam; H: ^\% ) .is. u n c l e a r . In g e n e r a l , sraddha d e s i g n a t e s a warm and
t r u s t i n g confidence. Rahula, i n h i s Abhi dharmas amuc caya, pp. 1U8-1U9 and lkQ,
fn. 2, drawing from t h e Majjhimanikaya, p i c t u r e s an a s p i r a n t c a l l e d a sraddha-
n u s a r i n — a r a t h e r d u l l i n d i v i d u a l o f no g r e a t s p i r i t u a l a b i l i t i e s who attains
enlightenment due t o the c o n f i d e n c e w i t h which he f o l l o w s i n s t r u c t i o n . The
V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i , p. 3 2 0 , mentions t h r e e t y p e s o f sraddha i n a l i s t which
was l a t e r r e g a r d e d as a s t a n d a r d V i j n a n a v a d a d o c t r i n e , e.g., see Guenther,
t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, pp. 19-21.
Furthermore, sraddha i s f r e q u e n t l y combined w i t h a d h i m u k t i , e.g., sraddha-
dimukta (Abhi dharmas amuc c aya, p. 1U9): " l a personne devouee a l a c o n f i a n c e . "
But t h e term sraddhamatra c o n j o i n e d w i t h adhimukti seems t o occur o n l y i n t h i s
text. I have simply taken the term as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the members o f t h i s
assembly cannot see t h e t r u t h s t h e m s e l v e s , but are w i l l i n g t o f o l l o w the
i n s t r u c t i o n s of the Nk.

^ See U U U 9 b l l ( ^ 'ft-k ) and u3*+2b3-U.

^ Mudra; T: l a g - r t s i s ; H: £."p , i s the most obscure member o f t h i s tra-

ditional l i s t o f s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d or r e c a l l e d by the B o d h i s a t t v a . The common

meanings such as " r i t u a l hand g e s t u r e " o r " o b j e c t o f a symbolic encounter'

(e.g., karmamudra)" o b v i o u s l y do not a p p l y . M. M o n i e r - W i l l i a m s i n A S a n s k r i t -

English Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 9 9 ) 5 P- 822, c i t i n g the

Divyavadana, suggests t h a t t h i s mudra r e f e r s t o a form o f r e c k o n i n g on the

fingers. T h i s i s supported by J . J . Jones, t r a n s . , The Mahavastu, 3 v o l s . ,

S a c r e d Books o f t h e B u d d h i s t s S e r i e s , v o l s . 16-19 (London: The P a l i Text

S o c i e t y and Luzac, 1 9 ^ 9 - 5 6 ) , v o l . 2 , p. 376, who summarizes the comments o f

s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s and o p t s f o r " r e c k o n i n g w i t h t h e f i n g e r s . "

Lamotte's " l a g r a v u r e " almost c e r t a i n l y was suggested by Paramatha's

translation (paraphrase?) o f Vasubandhu's e x p l a n a t i o n as yl* ^ £jl j<5^

^g. ( T a i s h o v o l . 3 1 , p. 367c25).

^ T: mthun-pa; H: ^ ^yXw i m p l i e s a v e r y c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y , not an

ontological identity. Lamotte t r a n s l a t e s : "pareil."

^ H: — \J\ -jj^ ^ ^ j " ^ ^ ' r n a m

~^ u n
mngon-rdzogs byang-chub-pa, but
 21k

u (335a6) r e a d s : rnam-pa thams-cad mngon-par rdzogs-par byang-chub-pa.

78

The i d e a t h a t the Buddha i s not" immediately r e c o g n i z a b l e t o the non-

b e l i e v e r forms an e a r l y and p e r s i s t e n t f e a t u r e o f the accounts o f Sakyamuni's
life. See the s t o r y o f h i s encounter w i t h Upaka, t r a n s l a t e d from s e v e r a l
sources by Andre Bareau i n Recherches sur l a b i o g r a p h i e du Buddha dans l e s
S u t r a p i t a k a et l e s V i n a y a p i t a k a a n c i e n s , 3 v o l s . (Paris: Ecole Francaise
d'Extreme-Orient, 1963), v o l . 3, pp. 155-160.

^ T: 'dres-pa; H: ^fci^L i Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : samsrsta.

80
Rab-tu-phye-ba; H omits t h i s phrase; Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : p r a b h a v i t a .
8l
Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s term i s p u z z l i n g . Both T and H have
used " B u d d h a f i e l d " (Buddhaksetra; T: sangs-rgyas-kyi z h i n g ; H: j£_ )
throughout most of the t e x t . Lamotte, however, sometimes r e c o n s t r u c t s : Buddha-
bhumi ("les t e r r e s du Buddha") and sometimes: Buddhaksetra ("les champs des
Buddha").
Many summaries o f the l i t e r a t u r e on the B u d d h a f i e l d concept are a v a i l a b l e
i n Western languages. The c l a s s i c study i s T e r e s i n a Rowell's "The Background
and E a r l y Use o f the Buddha-ksetra Concept," E a s t e r n Buddhist (published i n
three installments: 6, no. 3 (193*0 ,' 6, no. £"(1935), 7, no. 2 (1937)...
T h i s i s s t i l l one o f the b e s t summaries o f d a t a towards a h i s t o r y o f t h e
proto-Mahayana developments.

Ms. R o w e l l i d e n t i f i e s t h e e a r l i e s t B u d d h a f i e l d concept with the idea that

S a k y a m u n i c o u l d see a n y t h i n g i n h i s world ( h i s " f i e l d " o f knowledge), and t h a t

he c o u l d e x e r c i s e benevolent i n f l u e n c e o r c o n t r o l over t h i s f i e l d . The main

type o f i n f l u e n c e i s h i s t e a c h i n g t o the B o d h i s a t t v a s . She also discusses the

e a r l y w r i t i n g s on how t h e B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s and p u r i f i e s t h i s f i e l d by

p u r i f y i n g h i s mind and a c t i n g f o r o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y by w o r s h i p p i n g the Buddha.

However, her arguments about t h e developed Mahayana t r a d i t i o n wear

extremely t h i n as she attempts t o cover too many t e x t s and ideas.

F a r - E a s t e r n developments o f the B u d d h a f i e l d concept are i n t r o d u c e d by

D a v i d W. C h a p p e l l i n "Chinese Buddhist I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e Pure Lands" i n

-Michael Saso and David.W. C h a p p e l l , eds.*., Buddhist .'and T a o i s t S t u d i e s I

•'.(Honolulu: U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii P r e s s , 1977), pp. 23-5** •

 215

82
I n h i s end-notes t o X:30, Lamotte notes a s u g g e s t i o n hy D e m i e v i l l e
that t h i s text i s a v e r s i o n of the Samdhinirmocanasutra.

See F r a n c e s c a Fremantle and Chogyam Trungpa, t r a n s , and comment., The

T i b e t a n Book o f the Dead: The Great L i b e r a t i o n through H e a r i n g i n the Bardo
( B e r k e l e y : Shambhala, 1975)-

8k
Bimal K. M a t i l a l , a t a l k d e l i v e r e d t o the Department o f R e l i g i o u s
S t u d i e s , UBC, i n October 1975.
O r

See E. O b e r m i l l e r , t r a n s . , H i s t o r y o f Buddhism by Bu-ston (Heidelberg:

1931; Suzuki R e p r i n t S e r i e s ) , pp. 137-1^0.

86
Ruegg has p u b l i s h e d an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s s t a n z a i n h i s T a t h a g a t a -
garbha, p. 83. As i t i s drawn from Vasubandhu's Mahayanasutralamkarabhasya
it differs s i g n i f i c a n t l y from Asvabhava's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , which has been
summarized h e r e .
87
One o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g attempts t o date i s N i s h i t a n i Keiji's
"Emptiness and Time" i n E a s t e r n B u d d h i s t , 9 , no. 1: U2-71; 10, no. 2: 1-30.
While t h i s Heidegger-on-his-head work i s a b r i l l i a n t a p o l o g e t i c f o r the
author's Z e n - o r i e n t e d r e l i g i o n , i t l a c k s the h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e required
o f any u s e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e a r l i e r I n d i a n Buddhism.
CHAPTER I I I

CONCLUSION
 217

In the l a s t s e c t i o n , the B u d d h o l o g i c a l passages o f the Mahayanasamgraha

were a n a l y z e d and the f u n c t i o n o f the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e was clarified. A full

study o f t h i s d o c t r i n e would r e q u i r e two further steps:

(a) An examination. o f other, t e x t s . • -

(b) An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of "the"doctrine. .

These c o u l d be accomplished by two possible strategies: a h i s t o r i c a l

approach i n which (a) would be undertaken b e f o r e ( b ) ; or a h i s t o r i c a l ,

d o c t r i n a l : a n a l y s i s i n which (b) would be undertaken b e f o r e (a).

The h i s t o r i c a l approach would i n v o l v e a n a l y z i n g o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d a t e x t s

i n the same way as was the Mahayanasamgraha, and assembling a comparative

h i s t o r y o f the t r i k a y a from the r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s . The actual inter-

p r e t a t i o n c o u l d then be done i n l i g h t o f t h i s h i s t o r y . The list of texts

examined would i n c l u d e , at a minimum, the R a t n a g o t r a v i b h a g a ( e a r l y Indian

V i j n a n a v a d a ) , the Buddhabhumisutra ( I n d i a n and Far-Eastern), the Ch'eng Wei

S h i h Lun (Far-Eastern t r a d i t i o n s ) , and one o f Guenther's T i b e t a n sources.

T h i s i s a p o p u l a r approach. I t i s the methodology i m p l i c i t i n many o f the

s t u d i e s which have been noted, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e by La V a l l e e P o u s s i n and the

Hobogirin article. Its c l a s s i c a l formulation i s g i v e n by E l i a d e i n "Methodo-

l o g i c a l Remarks on the Study o f R e l i g i o u s Symbolism," 1

"where he accepts it-as

the e s s e n t i a l methodology f o r the h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s . In t h a t article,

t o the u s u a l h i s t o r i a n ' s demand t h a t the phenomenon be examined w i t h i n i t s

h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g , he adds the s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t any possible variants of the

phenomenon must a l s o be examined. His example, a study o f the Cosmic T r e e ,

shows the proposed method:

S u f f i c e : i t t o say t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o understand
the meaning o f the Cosmic Tree by c o n s i d e r i n g o n l y one or
some o f i t s v a r i a n t s . I t i s o n l y by the a n a l y s i s o f a
 218

c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f examples t h a t the s t r u c t u r e o f a

symbol can be c o m p l e t e l y d e c i p h e r e d . Moreover, one can
understand t h e meaning o f a c e r t a i n t y p e o f Cosmic T r e e o n l y
a f t e r h a v i n g s t u d i e d t h e most important types and v a r i e t i e s .
Only a f t e r an e l u c i d a t i o n o f the s p e c i f i c meanings o f t h e
Cosmic Tree i n Mesopotamia o r i n a n c i e n t I n d i a can one under-
stand the symbolism o f Y g g d r a s i l or the Cosmic Trees o f
C e n t r a l A s i a and o f S i b e r i a . In the s c i e n c e o f r e l i g i o n s ,
as elsewhere, comparisons are made i n o r d e r t o f i n d b o t h
p a r a l l e l s and d i s t i n c t i o n s .

But t h e r e i s s t i l l more. Only a f t e r t a k i n g account o f

a l l the v a r i a n t s do the d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e i r meanings f a l l
into r e l i e f . I t i s because t h e symbol o f the Indonesian
Cosmic Tree does not c o i n c i d e w i t h t h a t o f the A l t a i c Cosmic
Tree t h a t the f i r s t r e v e a l s a l l i t s importance f o r t h e s c i e n c e
of r e l i g i o n . Thus t h e q u e s t i o n i s posed: I s t h e r e , . i n e i t h e r
i n s t a n c e , some i n n o v a t i o n , o b s c u r a t i o n o f meaning, o r a l o s s
o f the o r i g i n a l meaning? S i n c e we know what the Cosmic Tree
means i n Mesopotamia, i n I n d i a , or i n S i b e r i a , the q u e s t i o n
a r i s e s : Because o f what r e l i g i o - h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o r
by what i n t e r i o r r e a s o n , does t h e same 'symbol i n I n d o n e s i a
r e v e a l a d i f f e r e n t meaning? (p. 9*0.

T h i s t y p e o f study i s based upon t h e r e s u l t s o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s by

specialists. As E l i a d e s a y s , t h e . t a s k o f t h e h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s i s ,

To i n f o r m h i m s e l f o f t h e p r o g r e s s made by the s p e c i a l i s t s : '

i n each o f t h e s e a r e a s . One i s a h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s not
by v i r t u e o f m a s t e r i n g a c e r t a i n number o f p h i l o l o g i e s , but
because one i s a b l e t o i n t e g r a t e r e l i g i o u s d a t a i n t o a g e n e r a l
perspective. The h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s does not act as a
p h i l o l o g i s t , but as a hermeneutist (p. 9l).

While t h i s i s an a t t r a c t i v e p r o c e d u r e , i t i s p o s s i b l e o n l y when the

s p e c i a l i s t s have a c t u a l l y made p r o g r e s s and when t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been

s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t h a t t h e r e s u l t s may be compared. This i s a reasonable

e x p e c t a t i o n when s t u d y i n g a simple symbol l i k e the Cosmic T r e e , but the d a t a

on the t r i k a y a ( i . e . , the d o c t r i n e from each t e x t ) are a l r e a d y the r e s u l t of

complex and s e l e c t i v e s t u d i e s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o compare the c o n c l u s i o n s - o f

any two o f the s c h o l a r s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned.

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Therefore, the g e n e r a l i s t who s t u d i e s the t r i k a y a must a l s o be the

s p e c i a l i s t who himself s e l e c t s , t r a n s l a t e s , and arranges e a c h , ' i n o r d e r t o

obtain comparable d a t a f o r a meaningful h i s t o r y . The e f f o r t necessary f o r

such a p r o j e c t r e n d e r s the h i s t o r i c a l approach i m p r a c t i c a b l e at t h i s time.

The a l t e r n a t e s t r a t e g y i s t o d e r i v e an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the doctrine

from the d a t a i n the Mahayanasamgraha, and then t o determine i f t h i s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i e s t o the doctrine i n the o t h e r t e x t s .

Although t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must be made without the guidance o f a

f u l l h i s t o r y , such guidance i s l e s s important f o r the study o f a sophis-

t i c a t e d d o c t r i n e than i t would be f o r the study o f l e s s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y

theological ("primitive") material. A great d e a l o f meaning, can be deduced

from the l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f the d o c t r i n e , i . e . , from the way i n which the

mass o f d a t a has been woven i n t o a coherent d o c t r i n e . Furthermore, the

development o f each kaya i s not t o t a l l y unknown. While p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s do

not p r o v i d e the d e t a i l e d d a t a t h a t would be r e q u i r e d t o a p p r e c i a t e the

innovative nature o f the t r i k a y a , they do show the concepts t h a t fed into

each kaya.

Note t h a t a legitimate:, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may be derived from one text only

i f t h i s t e x t i s known t o c o n t a i n the b a s i c or c e n t r a l v e r s i o n o f the doctrine.

The interpretation derived from an i d i o s y n c r a t i c t e x t would not p r e p a r e the

investigator to appreciate other formulations. Fortunately, the choice of

a s u i t a b l e t e x t i s the type o f q u e s t i o n on which the s c h o l a r may trust the

indigenous t h e o l o g i a n ' s judgement. The learned Buddhist b e l i e v e r , a c t i n g as

textual c r i t i c , discusses much the same problems as does the scholar. The

Buddhist t r a d i t i o n s have l o n g f o s t e r e d examinations o f the r e l a t i v e

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importance and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e s a s t r a s . Buddhist t h i n k e r s , other

modern s c h o l a r s and m y s e l f have found t h e Mahayanasamgraha t o he t h e c e n t r a l

text o f the e a r l y Indian Vijnanavada t r a d i t i o n .

Therefore, I s h a l l now develop an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e

d i r e c t l y from t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha w i t h occasional

reference t o t h e e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s h i p and t o o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d i n texts.

A. CRITERIA FOR A MODEL

A s u c c e s s f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a doctrine w i l l describe or

imply i t s major f e a t u r e s i n assertions acceptable t o a modern Western non-

believer. The d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l c o n s i s t o f some type o f analogy o r model.

T h i s analogy need not have been r e c o g n i z e d w i t h i n e i t h e r t h e Buddhist o r

Western t r a d i t i o n s , but must summarize t h e message t h a t an informed Westerner

would r e c e i v e from t h e t e x t .

The model must s a t i s f y two c r i t e r i a : coherence and c l a r i t y . By "coher-

ence" I mean t h a t , i n t h e words o f A. N. Whitehead, "Fundamental i d e a s , i n

terms o f which t h e scheme i s developed, presuppose each o t h e r so t h a t i n i s o -

l a t i o n they are meaningless." T h i s means t h a t , as t h e t e x t c o n t a i n s a unified

t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e r a t h e r than t h r e e d o c t r i n e s o f s e p a r a t e kayas, i t must receive

one explanation r a t h e r than t h r e e l o o s e l y - r e l a t e d e x p l a n a t i o n s o r models.

By " c l a r i t y " I mean p r i m a r i l y t h a t no element o f t h e model can r e q u i r e

the r e a d e r t o be a b e l i e v e r i n o r d e r t o assent t o i t . An e x p l a n a t i o n that

i n v o l v e s any t y p e o f non-shared b e l i e f (not o n l y i n Buddhist dogma) i s

unsatisfactory. T h i s demand again i l l u s t r a t e s t h e inadequacy o f any model

that portrays an e s s e n t i a l Svk a p p e a r i n g i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d and descending

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i n t o the w o r l d , an i d e a which i s a c c e p t a b l e o n l y t o those who believe in'the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a g o d - l i k e b e i n g . I have b e l a b o r e d t h i s p o i n t throughout

the p r e s e n t study because such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are the most tempting e r r o r and

because the model t o be proposed has been shaped by the dynamics o f the search

f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e .

The c l a r i t y c r i t e r i o n i n v o l v e s a second demand: t o a v o i d any element t h a t

requires further explanation o r ~ i s not on the same?logical l e v e l as the r e s t .

That i s , any model t h a t c o n t a i n s a v e i l e d t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f i s u n a c c e p t a b l e as

t h i s element would then r e q u i r e another model t o " u n v e i l i t s meaning. The"-

i n t e r p r e t i v e model must be a simple analogy t h a t r e p r e s e n t s the d o c t r i n e i n

s e n s i b l e and generally acceptable terms. As Ian G. Barbour says i n Myths,

Models and Paradigms, "The m e t a p h y s i c i a n takes a ' c o - o r d i n a t i n g analogy' from

some r e l a t i o n s h i p s he judges t o be s p e c i a l l y important and from i t d e r i v e s a

model which can order a d i v e r s i t y o f kinds o f e x p e r i e n c e . . ." (p. 6k).

The demand f o r c l a r i t y e l i m i n a t e s any p o r t r a y a l o f a s a c r e d Buddha (which

would r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) v i s - a - v i s a s e c u l a r or p r o f a n e aspirant.

I t a l s o e l i m i n a t e s E l i a d e ' s p l a u s i b l e model o f a t h r e e - t i e r e d u n i v e r s e i n ••"..:'

which the s a c r i l i t y o f the h i g h e r regions i s communicated t o the lower v i a the

d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f the w o r l d a x i s . In t h i s c a s e , c l a r i t y i s e q u i v a l e n t to the

avoidance o f normative o n t o l o g i c a l elements i n an e x p l a n a t i o n o f non-ontolog^-

i c a l Buddhist dogma. As B a i r d ^ has shown, such elements are i n h e r e n t in

E l i a d e ' s model.

B. ELEMENTS OF THE MODEL

The model must p o r t r a y two classes of f a c t s :

(a) The fundamental n a t u r e o f the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n or p r o c e s s . T h i s must be

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d e c i d e d "before the i n d i v i d u a l elements can he r e p r e s e n t e d ,

(h) I n d i v i d u a l elements mentioned i n the d o c t r i n e , i . e . , each kaya, each t y p e

of a s p i r a n t , the f i e l d s i n which t h e y i n t e r a c t , and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s

between them.

We have seen t h a t Asanga has c o n s t r u c t e d h i s V i j n a n a v a d a around the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r a t h e r than the n a t u r e , o f e x p e r i e n c e . His u n i f y i n g concept

is " a w a r e n e s s " — i n d i c a t e d " by terms based upon V j n a , e.g., p r a j n a , j n a n a ,

v i j n a n a , n i r v i k a l p a j nana, y i f r i a p t i , e t c . T h e r e f o r e , the b e s t analogy f o r some

sub-doctrine (such as the t r i k a y a ) would appear t o be an e p i s t e m i c model. As

the t r i k a y a can be seen as an e p i s t e m i c encounter between a s p i r a n t and Buddha

w i t h i n a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n , and t h e s e can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e o f the

s u b j e c t - o b j e c t - f i e l d t r i a d , I suggest t h a t such an encounter form the b a s i c

model f o r the t r i k a y a . T h i s model w i l l e x h i b i t coherence ( i t i s meaningless

to speak o f an o b j e c t l e s s s u b j e c t ) and c l a r i t y (none o f the t h r e e terms r e f e r s

to a n y t h i n g m y s t e r i o u s or hidden b e h i n d the s i t u a t i o n p o r t r a y e d ) .

T h i s i s not a c l a i m t h a t Asanga's d o c t r i n e does (or does not) really

r e f e r t o such an encounter between Buddha and a s p i r a n t . As Asanga does not

admit t h a t e i t h e r o f them e x i s t s , such a c l a i m would be n o n s e n s i c a l . This i s

an analogy. I w i l l argue below t h a t the most u s e f u l answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f

. the r e a l n a t u r e o f the t r i k a y a i s t h a t i t i s a pure s t r u c t u r e . While the

e p i s t e m i c encounter i s o n l y one p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s structure, i t

is the most s u i t a b l e one f o r s t u d y i n g the c o n t e n t i o n s embodied i n the • ...

Mahayanasamgraha. ,

T h e ' i n d i v i d u a l - , elements r e q u i r e . l i t t l e " immediate d i s c u s s i o n . The main

• or:es are the Svk, Nk, Sbk, the S r a v a k a and B o d h i s a t t v a , p l u s the common w o r l d

of m i s e r y and the j o y - f i l l e d B u d d h a f i e l d . These f a l l i n t o r e l a t e d s e t s : the

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Sravaka and Nk i n h a b i t t h e common w o r l d , w h i l e t h e B o d h i s a t t v a and Sbk i n h a b i t

the Buddhafield. Each i n c l u d e s t h e a s p i r a n t (as Sravaka o r B o d h i s a t t v a ) who

p e r c e i v e s t h e Buddha (as Nk or Sbk) w i t h i n a f i e l d (common w o r l d o r Buddha-

field). The Svk, which appears t o be a s p e c i a l c a s e , can be i g n o r e d f o r t h e

moment.

The s e t s a r e r e l a t e d i n a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d manner. They a r e l o c a t e d

a l o n g a l i n e a r continuum o f "awareness" (jnana) d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r V I I I . It

s t r e t c h e s from t h e p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l who

i s not y e t a Sravaka, through t h e fundamental and subsequent non-conceptual

awarenesses. The common w o r l d c o n t a i n i n g t h e Sravaka-Nk i s l o c a t e d i n t h e

fundamental non-conceptual awareness r e g i o n o f t h e continuum, w h i l e t h e

B u d d h a f i e l d c o n t a i n i n g t h e B o d h i s a t t v a - S b k i s l o c a t e d a t t h e subsequent non-

c o n c e p t u a l awareness r e g i o n .

COMMON WORLD BUDDHAFIELD

SRAVAKA BODHISATTVA

NK SBK

PREPARATORY FUNDAMENTAL SUBSEQUENT

NON-CONCEPTUAL NON-CONCE PTUAL NON-CONCEPTUAL
AWARENESS AWARENESS AWARENESS

Figure 1
 22k

Note t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e between s i t u a t i o n s a l o n g the continuum of

awareness i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e measured i n degrees o f non-conceptual

awareness, not n e c e s s a r i l y temporal d i s t a n c e . As Asanga views temporal

d i s t i n c t i o n s as c o n v e n t i o n a l ( v i j n a p t i , 1 1 : 2 ) , the model need illustrate

temporal c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n l y when t h e y correspond t o soteriological

development.

C. STRUCTURALISM?

Another b r i e f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f methodology i s n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e we can

proceed t o develop the model. I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i g n o r e the similarities

between" F i g u r e 1 and those models developed by contemporary Structuralists-

T h i s r e a l i z a t i o n i s encouraging because, as s t r u c t u r a l i s m i s a p o p u l a r

t r e n d , we may expect t o f i n d u s e f u l s u g g e s t i o n s i n i t s immense l i t e r a t u r e .

However, t h e l a b e l i s a p p l i e d t o a b e w i l d e r i n g d i v e r s i t y o f method-

o l o g i e s i n l i n g u i s t i c s , mathematics, a n t h r o p o l o g y , p s y c h o l o g y and sociology.

P r a c t i c a l a i d can be expected o n l y from someone who deals either with

s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n s (improbable) o r w i t h s t r u c t u r e s s u f f i c i e n t l y abstract

t h a t t h e y may be used f o r such a r a d i c a l hermeneutic. The i n t e r e s t s o f the

l i n g u i s t s and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s are much too narrow, and o t h e r s ( e . g . ,

P i a g e t ) are more h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e movement than p r a c t i t i o n e r s . Fortunately,

the work o f one s c h o l a r i s a p p l i c a b l e and accessible.

In t h i s study, " S t r u c t u r a l i s m " w i l l d e s i g n a t e the methodology o f

Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s . Not o n l y has he s t u d i e d s t r u c t u r e s u n d e r l y i n g a

broad range o f p r a c t i c e s and b e l i e f s , but h i s models are v e r y s i m i l a r t o

ours.
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This s i m i l a r i t y can he seen by comparing F i g u r e 1 with h i s . c r i t e r i a f o r

a s t r u c t u r a l model.- I n : S t r u c t u r a l Anthropology he says: -

The q u e s t i o n t h e n becomes t h a t o f a s c e r t a i n i n g what

k i n d o f model deserves t h e name " s t r u c t u r e . " T h i s i s not
an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n , but one which belongs t o t h e
methodology o f s c i e n c e i n g e n e r a l . Keeping t h i s i n mind,
we can say t h a t a s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s o f a model meeting
with s e v e r a l requirements.

F i r s t , the structure exhibits the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

a system. I t i s made up o f s e v e r a l elements, none o f which
can undergo a change without e f f e c t i n g changes i n a l l t h e
other elements.

Second, f o r any g i v e n model t h e r e should be a p o s s i -

b i l i t y of ordering a series o f transformations r e s u l t i n g i n
a group o f models o f t h e same t y p e .

T h i r d , t h e above p r o p e r t i e s make i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t
how t h e model w i l l r e a c t i f one or more o f i t s elements a r e
submitted t o c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

f • F i n a l l y , t h e model should be c o n s t i t u t e d so as t o make

immediately i n t e l l i g i b l e a l l t h e observed f a c t s (.pp. 279-280).

A l l o f t h e s e a r e s a t i s f i e d by t h e model o f F i g u r e 1.

• I must s t r e s s t h a t t h i s study f o l l o w s h i s methodology i n a v e r y loose

manner. I am not o b l i g e d t o defend any o r a l l o f h i s o p i n i o n s on r e l a t e d o r

unrelated matters. The S t r u c t u r a l i s t approach i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e n a t u r e o f

our d a t a , and i t i s o n l y common sense t o accept guidance from o t h e r s who have

f a c e d s i m i l a r problems.

A r e a l o b j e c t i o n must be f o r e s t a l l e d . Structuralism i s often said

( e s p e c i a l l y by l i n g u i s t s ) 'to d e a l o n l y w i t h i m p l i c i t ( i n the jargon, "uncon-

scious") patterns i n myth, s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , e t c . The s t r u c t u r a l i s t ' s task

o f exposing p a t t e r n s n o r m a l l y obscured by c o n s c i o u s d o c t r i n e i s seen as a

v a r i e t y o f Kantian a n a l y s i s . 6
I f t h i s were s t r i c t l y t r u e , an attempt t o e l u c i -

date Asanga's e x p l i c i t dogmas c o u l d not be S t r u c t u r a l i s m . However, such an

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u n d e r s t a n d i n g g r o s s l y o v e r s i m p l i f i e s the method. In S t r u c t u r a l Anthropology

Levi-Strauss says:

A s t r u c t u r a l model may he c o n s c i o u s or unconscious without

t h i s d i f f e r e n c e a f f e c t i n g i t s nature. I t can o n l y he s a i d
t h a t when the s t r u c t u r e o f a c e r t a i n type o f phenomena does
not l i e at a great depth, i t i s more l i k e l y t h a t some k i n d
o f model, s t a n d i n g as a screen t o h i d e i t , w i l l e x i s t i n the
c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . For c o n s c i o u s models, which are
u s u a l l y known as "norms," are by d e f i n i t i o n v e r y poor ones,
s i n c e t h e y are not i n t e n d e d t o e x p l a i n the phenomena hut t o
p e r p e t u a t e them. T h e r e f o r e , s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s i s c o n f r o n t e d
w i t h a s t r a n g e paradox, w e l l known t o the l i n g u i s t , t h a t i s :
the more ohvious s t r u c t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s , the more d i f f i c u l t
i t becomes t o r e a c h i t because o f the i n a c c u r a t e c o n s c i o u s
models l y i n g across the path which l e a d s t o i t .

From the p o i n t of view o f the degree o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h two kinds o f s i t u a t i o n s .
He may have t o c o n s t r u c t a model from phenomena the s y s t e m a t i c
c h a r a c t e r o f which has evoked no awareness on the p a r t o f
the c u l t u r e ; t h i s i s the k i n d o f s i m p l e r s i t u a t i o n r e f e r r e d
t o by Boas as p r o v i d i n g the e a s i e s t ground f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
research. Or e l s e t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t w i l l be d e a l i n g on t h e
one hand w i t h raw phenomena and on the o t h e r w i t h the models
a l r e a d y c o n s t r u c t e d by the c u l t u r e t o i n t e r p r e t the former.
Though i t i s l i k e l y t h a t , f o r the reasons s t a t e d above, t h e s e
models w i l l prove u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , i t i s by no means- n e c e s s a r y
t h a t t h i s should always be the case. As a matter o f f a c t ,
many " p r i m i t i v e " c u l t u r e s have b u i l t models o f t h e i r marriage
r e g u l a t i o n s which are much more t o the p o i n t than models
b u i l t by p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . Thus one cannot d i s -
pense w i t h s t u d y i n g a c u l t u r e ' s "home-made" models f o r two
r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e s e models might prove t o be a c c u r a t e o r ,
at l e a s t , t o p r o v i d e some i n s i g h t i n t o the s t r u c t u r e o f the
phenomena; a f t e r a l l , each c u l t u r e has i t s own t h e o r e t i c i a n s
whose c o n t r i b u t i o n s deserve the same a t t e n t i o n as t h a t which
the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t g i v e s t o c o l l e a g u e s . And, second, even
i f the models are b i a s e d or erroneous, the v e r y b i a s and t y p e
o f e r r o r are a p a r t o f the f a c t s under study and p r o b a b l y
rank among the most s i g n i f i c a n t ones. But even when t a k i n g
i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e s e c u l t u r a l l y produced models, t h e
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t does not f o r g e t — as he has sometimes been
accused o f d o i n g — t h a t the c u l t u r a l norms, are not o f
themselves s t r u c t u r e s . R a t h e r , t h e y f u r n i s h an important
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o an understanding'.of the s t r u c t u r e s , e i t h e r
as f a c t u a l documents or as t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s s i m i l a r
t o t h o s e o f the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t h i m s e l f (pp. 281-282).
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By t h e s e standards the p r e s e n t study i s c e r t a i n l y S t r u c t u r a l i s t r e s e a r c h .

Asanga p r e s e n t s the raw phenomena (the agreed-upon f a c t s about Buddhahood)

t o g e t h e r w i t h a home-made model (the t r i k a y a ) . I suggest t h a t the t r i k a y a be

r e g a r d e d as an i m p l i c i t s t r u c t u r e u n d e r l y i n g the d o c t r i n e s about Buddhahood.

In the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , f o l l o w i n g Asanga's c a t e g o r i e s wherever p o s s i b l e ,

his d e r i v a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a was examined. In t h i s s e c t i o n i t w i l l be

c a r r i e d one stage deeper t o a r r i v e at a s t r u c t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a b s t r a c t t o

be c r e d i b l e t o those o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e o f b e l i e v e r s .

In the course o f t h i s d e r i v a t i o n , L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s models w i l l p r o v i d e

s u g g e s t i o n s on how p a r t i c u l a r problems may be s o l v e d . At no time w i l l a

s o l u t i o n be adopted simply because he has chosen a s i m i l a r one.

D. DEVELOPING THE MODEL

L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s s t r u c t u r a l models e x h i b i t two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that suggest

approaches t o d e v e l o p i n g our own model. The most n o t a b l e f e a t u r e s are t h e

s e t s o f s t r u c t u r e s t h a t can be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o one another a c c o r d i n g t o

certain rules. That i s , the same s t r u c t u r a l elements are p r e s e n t i n each

s t r u c t u r e o f the set a l t h o u g h t h e y may take d i f f e r e n t names, forms, e t c .

These are d e f i n i t e l y not the same " t h i n g s " a p p e a r i n g i n d i f f e r e n t ways. The

Structuralist f o c u s s e s on the p a t t e r n s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between them and so

g a i n s the a b i l i t y t o speak o f one t h i n g t u r n i n g i n t o another without becoming

e n t a n g l e d i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f essence. I t i s t h i s a b i l i t y t h a t recommends

the S t r u c t u r a l i s t method f o r the study o f Buddhist m a t e r i a l . We can speak o f

the Nk and Sbk as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f one another without b e i n g f o r c e d t o e x p l a i n

how t h i s can o c c u r . I s h a l l r e f e r t o each s i t u a t i o n , such as t h e Sravaka-Nk

i n t h e common w o r l d or the B o d h i s a t t v a - S b k i n the B u d d h a f i e l d , as a " s t r u c t u r e , "

 228

to t h e movement whereby one changes i n t o the o t h e r as a " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , " and

to t h e complete set o f s t r u c t u r e s as a "model."

The second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a S t r u c t u r a l i s t model i s i t s tendency t o

7
c o n t a i n p a i r s o f b i n a r y o p p o s i t e s mediated by an i n t e r v e n i n g term. . These

i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s are o r g a n i z e d i n t o f u l l models which d i s p l a y a similar

symmetry.

With t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n mind, the asymmetry o f F i g u r e 1, caused

by t h e p e c u l i a r protuberance of p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness, suggests

t h a t the model may be i n c o m p l e t e . The most obvious p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e

Svk (which was set a s i d e ) i s the m i s s i n g complement t o the p r e p a r a t o r y non-

c o n c e p t u a l awareness, and may be p l a c e d t o the r i g h t o f the Sbk t o b a l a n c e the

p r e p a r a t o r y awareness at the l e f t . As one o f the b a s i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the

Svk has been "awareness" (jHana), t h i s must be i t s l a b e l on the b a s e l i n e .

However, Asahga g i v e s no reason t o r e g a r d i t as the terminus o f the continuum

of non-conceptual awareness. Both the Svk and i t s awareness seem t o be

d i s c o n n e c t e d from the B u d d h a f i e l d . T h i s d i s c o n t i n u i t y w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by a

heavy broken l i n e .

Although t h i s i s t h e o n l y l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n f o r t h e Svk, i t s jnana i s

c l e a r l y not t h e m i s s i n g complement t o t h e p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness.

The l a t t e r i s p a r t o f the continuum, the former i s not. Furthermore, a t r u e

8

complement f o r the Svk i s a v a i l a b l e as the P r t h a g j a n a or w o r l d l i n g dominated

by n e s c i e n c e (avidya) or c o n c e p t u a l awareness ( v i j n a n a ) . Although he i s not

mentioned i n the t e x t , the t h e o r y o f the Prthagjana, and the i n t e n t i o n o f t h e

Mahayana t o o f f e r s a l v a t i o n t o a l l , i s c l e a r . He w i l l be l o c a t e d t o the f a r

left o f the diagram, p a s t the S r a v a k a - N k . .His segment o f the b a s e l i n e can be

d e s i g n a t e d "conceptual.awareness,"• "vijnana."• T h i s p o s i t i o n does n o t imply

 229

t h a t he i s t h e lower terminus o f t h e awareness continuum. While h i s v i j n a n a

may appear t o he t h e l o g i c a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e d e v e l o p i n g non-conceptual

awareness, t h e t e x t does n o t s t a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u i t y between t h e two.

T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be taken up l a t e r .

The a d d i t i o n o f t h e s e two s i t u a t i o n s has not removed t h e asymmetry

a r i s i n g from t h e p r e p a r a t o r y n o n - c o n c e p t u a l awareness. I t i s now c l e a r t h a t

t h i s awareness must p e r t a i n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d i n g between t h e s t a t e s o f

P r t h a g j a n a and Sravaka, i . e . , one who has heard but not developed t h e Buddhist

message. As Asanga g i v e s no simple l a b e l f o r such an i n d i v i d u a l , I w i l l call

him t h e "Neophyte."

These a d d i t i o n s g i v e t h e model i n F i g u r e 2.

PRTHAGJANA NEOPHYTE SRAVAKA BODHISATTVA SVK

NK SBK

vijnana PREPARATORY FUNDAMENTAL SUBSEQUENT

NON-CONCEPTUAL NON-CONCEPTUAL NON-CONCEPTUAL jnana
avidya AWARENESS AWARENESS AWARENESS

Figure 2
 More d e t a i l can be added. Asanga i d e n t i f i e s t h e Buddha, a s p i r a n t ,

environment and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n each s i t u a t i o n . They can be p o r t r a y e d in

a f i e l d c e n t e r e d upon whichever f i g u r e i s f e l t , by the a s p i r a n t , t o be the

most important. The o t h e r one can be p i c t u r e d at a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from the

c e n t e r , r e p r e s e n t i n g the d i s t a n c e remaining between the a s p i r a n t and Buddha-

hood .

F i r s t , the P r t h a g j a n a occupies the c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and no Buddha i s

present. The Neophyte's s i t u a t i o n i s not d e s c r i b e d . The Sravaka o c c u p i e s the

c e n t e r o f h i s w o r l d , where he i s approached by the Nk. The Sbk, occupying the

c e n t e r o f the B u d d h a f i e l d , i s approached more c l o s e l y by the a s p i r a n t as

Bodhisattva. Asanga i s ambiguous about whether the l o n e Svk i s a s p i r a n t or

Buddha. However, the p a t t e r n a c r o s s the model suggests t h a t t h e Svk is a

f u s i o n of both. The Buddha i s absent from the Prthagjana's world, i s c l o s e r

t o the Sravaka, and still c l o s e r t o the B o d h i s a t t v a i n the B u d d h a f i e l d . It i s

reasonable t o assume t h a t the two merge i n the f i n a l situation.

Note t h a t , i n t h i s diagram, t h e t r a n s i t i o n from the w o r l d of the Sravaka-

Nk t o t h e B u d d h a f i e l d i s the abrupt turn-about t h a t Asahga c a l l s " r e o r i e n t a -

tion." I suggest t h a t we r e g a r d t h e model as symmetrical about t h i s p o i n t .

I f i t i s , then t h e Buddhaland must be e q u i v a l e n t t o the s i t u a t i o n s o f Sravaka-

Nk and Neophyte, and w i l l c o n t a i n a l l phases o f the a s p i r a n t ' s i n t e r a c t i o n

w i t h the Sbk.

These a d d i t i o n s g i v e the model shown i n F i g u r e 3-

 231

NK
z
o
5
PRTHAGJANA NEOPHYTE SBK
SRAVAKA
u
z SVK
BODHISATTVA
O

vijoana PREPARATORY FUNDAMENTAL I SUBSEQUENT

NON-CONCEPTUAL NON—CONCEPTUALj NON-CONCEPTUAL jnana
avidya | AWARENESS AWARENESS AWARENESS

Figure 3

At t h i s p o i n t each s i t u a t i o n o f t h e emerging p o r t r a i t may be examined i n

more d e t a i l .

1. THE PRTHAGJANA

The Prthagjana (pure w o r l d l i n g ) , untouched by t h e Buddhist message, i s

d i s c u s s e d i n t h e Abhidharma l i t e r a t u r e . H i s p e r c e p t i o n s a r e dominated by

nescience; they are conceptual ( v i j f i a n a ) , molded by t h e g e n e r a l schemata o f

interpretation ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f space and t i m e , see II:2-11) as w e l l as

more i d i o s y n c r a t i c p r e j u d i c e s . T h e r e f o r e , he e x p e r i e n c e s h i s " s e l f " as an

o b j e c t surrounded by o t h e r o b j e c t s — b o t h s e l f and o t h e r generated by h i s

r e i f y i n g p e r c e p t i o n s — a c l o s e d and f r u s t r a t i n g w o r l d i n which experience

cannot l e a d t o i n s i g h t o r improvement.
 232

As t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s an added l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y , i t need not he an"

i n h a b i t e d , or e v e n - h a b i t a b l e , c a t e g o r y . Asanga may n o t - h a v e - b e l i e v e d that'any

b e i n g c o u l d remain untouched by t h e Buddhist message. T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be a

key t o l a t e r developments o f the•-model. •.

2. THE NEOPHYTE

The d i s c o n t i n u i t y between P r t h a g j a n a and t h e r e s t o f t h e diagram marks

the p r e c i s e p o i n t a t which t h e Buddhist message i s addressed t o the Prthagjana.

Buddhahood, o r non-conceptual awareness, develops from, t h e i m p r e s s i o n l e f t by

t h i s seminal message ( s r u t a v a s a n a b i j a ) . The message c o n s i s t s o f t h e i d e a s

c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t e x t , i n c l u d i n g t h e moral r u l e s , t h e p r e s c r i b e d m e d i t a t i o n ,

and t h e appearance o f t h e Nk w i t h i t s t h i r t y - t w o and e i g h t y marks. Attending

to i t i n v o l v e s l i v i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e code, p e r f o r m i n g the meditation i n

o r d e r t o develop t h e non-conceptual awareness, and a w a i t i n g a Buddha who has

a specific appearance.

The gradual t r a n s i t i o n t o the world i n which t h e Nk has appeared appears

in t h e model as movement a l o n g t h e continuum.

3. THE NIRMANAKAYA-SRAVAKA ENCOUNTER

As t h e p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness d e v e l o p s , t h e Neophyte's

s i t u a t i o n becomes t h a t o f t h e Sravaka or novice Bodhisattva. While t h e

aspirant s t i l l o c c u p i e s t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n , a Nk, b e a r i n g the. marks•of a

Buddha, has e n t e r e d t h e f i e l d . He proceeds through t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Buddha

activities. H i s v i s i b l e presence seems t o be n e c e s s a r y f o r the Sravaka's

m a t u r a t i o n , b u t Asanga p l a c e s no s t r e s s on p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , except f o r
 233

the f a c t t h a t the Nk d i s c i p l i n e s or teaches the Sravaka through pain.

The q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the Nk t o the o t h e r kayas can now he

raised. Sufficient emphasis has been p l a c e d on the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a "real"

Buddha b e h i n d the Nk t o make the advantages o f a S t r u c t u r a l i s t model obvious.

In such a model each s i t u a t i o n may be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o another without gaining

o r l o s i n g elements, i . e . , "For a g i v e n model t h e r e s h o u l d be a p o s s i b i l i t y of

o r d e r i n g a s e r i e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ^ r e s u l t i n g in.a" group o f models o f the same

type."

I f t h i s i s a p p l i c a b l e , t h e Nk would be a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f some element

present, i n d i f f e r e n t forms, i n both the p r e c e d i n g (Neophyte) and f o l l o w i n g

(Bodhisattva-Sbk) s i t u a t i o n s . ' " T h i s seems'to be the case as t h e Nk and Sbk may

be r e g a r d e d as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f one another, as may the Neophyte, the

Sravaka and the B o d h i s a t t v a . But s u r e l y t h e r e i s no form of the Buddha

present i n the Neophyte's s i t u a t i o n ? I suggest t h a t the Buddha i s f u l l y

present i n the form o f the message or d o c t r i n e (dharma) i n t e r n a l i z e d by the

aspirant. When he moves t o the Sravaka-Nk s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e i s no need t o

p o s i t an e x t e r n a l Buddha i n a d d i t i o n t o the d e v e l o p i n g message. The marks and

a c t s o f the Nk are s u p p l i e d from the memorized d e s c r i p t i o n s . The presence of

the Buddha, i . e . , the f a c t t h a t he i s r e c o g n i z e d , comes from the a s p i r a n t ' s

p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness developed through meditation.

T h i s s o l u t i o n , which r e q u i r e s no new or mysterious terms, e x p l a i n s t h e

p u z z l i n g f a c t t h a t the Nk facilitates the Sravaka's maturation into a Bodhisat-

tva by the p a i n o f the p a r l n i r v a n a . I f the Sravaka. i s a Neophyte who has gained

b o t h knowledge o f Buddhahood and an openness o f p e r c e p t i o n , he w i l l perceive

the Buddha image a s he would any o t h e r : he w i l l see i t a p p e a r i n g , remaining

and d i s a p p e a r i n g . The disappearance will cause p a i n a s would t h a t o f any other

 23h

valued object. But t h e Sravaka w i l l b e n e f i t from t h i s p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e by

^ A g

a d o p t i n g t h e Mahayana p r a c t i c e s , which w i l l a l l o w him t o share t h e Buddha's

company i n a B u d d h a f i e l d .

Another way o f a p p l y i n g t h i s s o l u t i o n i s t o r e g a r d t h e Buddha, as - a

s i n g u l a r " a c t i v e " type o f o b j e c t . Attachment t o t h e Buddha p a i n s t h e a s p i r a n t ,

as does attachment t o any t r a n s i t o r y o b j e c t . However, t h e Buddha i s not a

passive object. S i n c e a l l aspects o f i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p a i n f u l

ones, have been r e o r i e n t e d i n t o m a s t e r i e s , t h e Buddha can p l a y an a c t i v e role

in the aspirant's perception. The p a i n a r i s i n g from i t s disappearance i s not

grounded s o l e l y i n t h e Sravaka's mentation, but i s a s t i m u l u s whose l o c u s i s

the i n t e r p l a y between Buddha and Sravaka.

k. REORIENTATION

The Sravaka develops h i s b a s i c non-conceptual awareness i n t h e presence

of t h e Nk b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e Sbk's B u d d h a f i e l d . The e n t r y t o t h e B u d d h a f i e l d

i s t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n by which domination o f t h e a s p i r a n t by p e r c e p t i o n s i s

r e p l a c e d by a mastery o f them. That i s , the q u i e t i s t i c fundamental non-con-

c e p t u a l awareness which can c i r c u l a t e f r e e l y throughout the world.

5. THE SAMBHOGAKAYA-BODHISATTVA ENCOUNTER

T h i s i s a mirror-image o f t h e Nk-Sravaka encounter. The Buddha has moved

to t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and has changed from a p l a i n ( i n the iconographic

sense o f l a c k i n g j e w e l s , g o l d , r o b e s , e t c . ) mahapurusa form, t o one which

varies..,according t o t h e a s p i r a t i o n o f - t h e o b s e r v e r but which, tends toward t h a t

of a b e j e w e l l e d Sambhoga-Buddha.
 235

The a s p i r a n t who was formerly a Sravaka ( s u r e l y t o he p i c t u r e d as a p i o u s

monk) has now heen t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a B o d h i s a t t v a and has exchanged p l a c e s

w i t h t h e Buddha. I n s t e a d o f s i t t i n g at the c e n t e r a w a i t i n g the Nk, he

approaches t h e Sbk who.is s e a t e d at t h e c e n t e r . The d i s t a n c e between t h e two

has decreased.

The n a t u r e o f the f i e l d - h a s a l s o a l t e r e d . The . p a i n ^ - f i l l e d w o r l d of

common o b j e c t s has changed i n t o a B u d d h a f i e l d o f p l e a s u r e - y i e l d i n g j e w e l s .

Most i m p o r t a n t , t h e t e a c h i n g i s now v i a p l e a s u r e r a t h e r than p a i n . Using

the Buddhist pratityasamutpada scheme, we might say. t h a t the Nk teaches by

means o f o l d age-death w h i l e t h e Sbk, r e p r e s e n t e d by a c h i l d , young man or

Sambhoga Buddha, teaches by means o f b i r t h and l i f e . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,

t h e j o y "matures" the B o d h i s a t t v a by a i d i n g the development o f non-conceptual

awareness.

6. THE SVABHAVIKAKAYA

The Svk appears as the a n t i t h e s i s o f the P r t h a g j a n a . The former i s pure

Buddhahood; the l a t t e r i s untouched by Buddhahood.. The former i s pure aware-

ness ( j n a n a ) ; t h e l a t t e r i s c o n c e p t u a l awareness ( v i j n a n a ) . They l i e at

o p p o s i t e ends o f t h e model but n e i t h e r i s a d i r e c t c o n t i n u a t i o n of the central

situations.

The d i s c o n t i n u i t y between Svk and t h e B u d d h a f i e l d i s a key t o f u r t h e r

development o f t h e model. A r e v e a l i n g approach i s the c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the Svk

in each-of its three a s p e c t s • ( r e s u l t , awareness, and support for sovereignty).

As " r e s u l t " i t i s the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a l i f e based upon an acceptance of

the dharma and attendant p r a c t i c e s . The i n i t i a l t a s t e o f the dharma l e a d s t o

an encounter w i t h t h e Nk, t o a c l o s e r encounter w i t h t h e Sbk, and t o e v e n t u a l

 i d e n t i t y w i t h the Svk. Thus, i t appears t o he t h e l o g i c a l terminus o f a

"result" continuum.

As "support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y " and "awareness," the Svk cannot be seen as

a transformation of the c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s . In the f i r s t c a s e , the d i s c o n -

t i n u i t y i s obvious. A support f o r a c t i o n s must be more than the e v e n t u a l

r e s u l t o f those a c t i o n s . I t must s t a n d beneath o r b e h i n d t h a t which i t

supports. In t h e second c a s e , the t e x t o u t l i n e s a p r o c e s s by which the

p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness develops i n t o t h e Sravaka's fundamental"

n o n - c o n c e p t u a l awareness and f i n a l l y i n t o t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s subsequent non-

c o n c e p t u a l awareness. Asafiga mentions no "super-subsequent" non-conceptual

awareness t h a t c o u l d p e r t a i n t o the Svk o r be e x p e r i e n c e d s e p a r a t e l y . He

merely matches "awareness" (jnana) and Svk.

7. THE FULL MODEL

The model o f F i g u r e 3, w i t h P r t h a g j a n a at-.one'end and Svk at the o t h e r , '

i s ambiguous. In some ways, i t seems t o be a map o f p e r s o n a l p r o g r e s s toward

enlightenment. In o t h e r s , a t r u n c a t e d v e r s i o n o f such a map (i.e., Neophyte-

S r a v a k a - B o d h i s a t t v a ) appears t o be caught between t h e two end terms, which

are d i s c o n n e c t e d from t h e f a c t s o f p e r s o n a l development.

I suggest t h a t t h i s ambiguity a r i s e s from the s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f two basic

i d e a s on the same a x i s . The first i s the i d e a o f a continuum of developing

Buddhahood r u n n i n g from Neophyte, through Sravaka t o B o d h i s a t t v a . The second

i s t h a t o f t h e g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e as an encounter

between P r t h a g j a n a and B u d d h a — a n encounter which t a k e s t h e form o f t h e t h r e e

central situations. These are c l o s e l y r e l a t e d but s e p a r a b l e .

As b o t h i d e a s share the c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s , t h e y may be b e t t e r displayed

 237

"by t u r n i n g the Prthagjana-Svk a x i s at r i g h t angles t o the continuum. This

y i e l d s a two-dimensional diagram i n which the former t e r m i n a l p o i n t s w i l l he

on the v e r t i c a l a x i s and the t h r e e c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s w i l l he on the h o r i z o n t a l

axis. As development i s c u s t o m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i s i n g , t h e Svk w i l l he

at t h e t o p o f t h e diagram and t h e P r t h a g j a n a at the bottom. The central

s i t u a t i o n s may be l e f t i n the same o r d e r as i n F i g u r e 3 . T h i s g i v e s the model

o f F i g u r e k. I t w i l l be used throughout the remainder o f t h i s study.

The model now has two dimensions which, w h i l e they are on the same

l o g i c a l p l a n e and share the same c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s , appear t o p o r t r a y q u i t e

different approaches t o t h e d a t a . These d i f f e r e n c e s can be understood by

c o n s i d e r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the upper and lower terms t o t h e central

situations.

The first q u e s t i o n i s t h a t o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the P r t h a g j a n a t o the

r e s t o f the model. In p a r t i c u l a r , how a b s o l u t e i s the d i s c o n t i n u i t y ? Can the

Prthagjana ever become a Sravaka o r a B o d h i s a t t v a ? Most B u d d h i s t s or scholars

would p r o b a b l y r e p l y i n the a f f i r m a t i v e . However, the Mahayanasamgraha

c o n t a i n s no statement t o t h a t e f f e c t . The v e r y term " P r t h a g j a n a " i s not found;

the t e x t d e s c r i b e s o n l y the development o f the Neophyte who has already heard

the dharma.

Support f o r t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s an empty c a t e g o r y also

comes from a p r e v i o u s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g . We have noted t h a t t h e diagram o f

F i g u r e 3 c o n t a i n s f o u r s i t u a t i o n s : those o f the Neophyte, the Sravaka, t h e

B o d h i s a t t v a and the Svk. Each o f t h e s e c o n t a i n s an element t h a t may be

regarded as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the a s p i r a n t , and an element t h a t may be

regarded as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Buddha. The f a c t t h a t the Svk situation

c o n t a i n s o n l y one element was e x p l a i n e d by assuming t h a t the Svk i s the f u s i o n

 jnana
4

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 239

of a s p i r a n t and Buddha. The f i r s t s i t u a t i o n contains only the aspirant, the

second and t h i r d both c o n t a i n a s p i r a n t and Buddha, and t h e f o u r t h c o n t a i n s t h e

Svk, which may he e i t h e r a s p i r a n t o r Buddha.

However, t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s a p a r t from t h e Neophyte. While t h e Neophyte

encounters t h e Buddha i n t h e form o f the Buddhist dharma, t h e P r t h a g j a n a l a c k s

even t h a t c o n t a c t . T h e r e f o r e , h i s s i t u a t i o n cannot he a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e

o t h e r s , and thus cannot he one o f t h e s e t composing a S t r u c t u r a l i s t model.

Furthermore, i f t h e Buddha develops from t h e dharma, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o

understand how t h e u t t e r l y c l o s e d i n d i v i d u a l , who has not h e a r d t h e message,

c o u l d hear o r develop i t . Asanga g i v e s no h i n t o f another term t h a t c o u l d

become t h e message.

The f i n a l p i e c e o f evidence t h a t t h e P r t h a g j a n a cannot be another

h a b i t a b l e c a t e g o r y i s t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e V i j n a n a v a d a l i t e r a t u r e , where he

i s known as an a g o t r a k a (one b e l o n g i n g t o no " f a m i l y " o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s ) , o r

an;.icchantika (one who i s ' " c u t • off." from t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f enlightenment)'.

A l t h o u g h t h e s e are not d i s c u s s e d i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha, t h e r e l a t e d litera-

t u r e ^ shows t h a t the V i j n a n a v a d i n s abandoned the p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a c l a s s

1

of individuals.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l dimensions 'represent a l t e r n a t e

ways o f r e g a r d i n g the Buddhology and must be e x p l a i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y . I propose

t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s o f the model be r e g a r d e d as a d i a l e c t i c a l relationship

between two p o l a r o p p o s i t e s , r a t h e r t h a n as a continuum of related situations.

The d i a l e c t i c a l t e n s i o n between them g i v e s r i s e t o the m e d i a t i n g situations

p o r t r a y e d on the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . That i s , "Man" and "Buddha" are t h e a b s t r a c t

terms whose i n t e r a c t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o the e x i s t e n t i a l encounters p o r t r a y e d on

the h o r i z o n t a l - a x i s . •
 The most v a l u a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s model i s i t s openness t o a

variety of applications. While i t shows t h e p o s s i b l e p a t t e r n s of interaction,

it does not s p e c i f y t h e " t r u e " n a t u r e o f any element ( a s p i r a n t , Buddha, o r

environment) and does not l i m i t t h e fundamental nature o f t h e p r o c e s s .

Although epistemic terms were adopted as a h e u r i s t i c analogy, t h e y do not

imply t h a t t h e t r i k a y a i s r e a l l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n .

The importance o f t h e openness i s apparent when we c o n s i d e r , f o r example,

t h a t o n l y t h e most n a i v e reading o f Asanga's account o f t h e a s p i r a n t ' s

encounter w i t h Nk_ and Sbk would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e a r e n e c e s s a r i l y "historical

meetings w i t h t h e Buddha, e i t h e r i n p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y (as Nk), o r a f t e r t h e

termination o f same (as Sbk i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ) . Not o n l y do Buddha-figures

appear i n m e d i t a t i o n and v i s i o n s , but P r t h a g j a n a and Svk can a l s o be r e g a r d e d

as t h e l o g i c a l p o l e s i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f an i n d i v i d u a l l i f e , mind, moment

of perception, o r even l i n e a g e . While i t i s s e n s e l e s s to attribute extra-

t e x t u a l i d e a s t o Asanga, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a l i z e t h a t he has sketched an

o u t l i n e that can accept a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and i s capable o f

o r g a n i z i n g new i d e a s . I suggest t h a t t h i s t h e o r y has proven so e n d u r i n g

because i t e l u c i d a t e s one o f t h e major unconscious .structures - i n h e r e n t i n

the Buddhist view o f r e a l i t y .

8. THE MODEL APPLIED

I w i l l now reopen d i s c u s s i o n o f s e v e r a l o f t h e most important questions

encountered i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha. With guidance from F i g u r e h, we can

improve and expand t h e former t e n t a t i v e answers.

 2^1

a. R e o r i e n t a t i o n and S o t e r i o l o g i c a l Progress

The t e x t d e s c r i b e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s open t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l . Although

those a r e mapped more c l e a r l y than a r e o t h e r t o p i c s , and we have examined t h e

r e l e v a n t passages, an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model o f F i g u r e h t o t h e d a t a r e v e a l s

an important concept.

In F i g u r e 3, t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r o g r e s s was r e p r e s e n t e d as a motion a l o n g

a continuum on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . I t began w i t h t h e Neophyte, who i s both

enmeshed i n t h e w o r l d and has some knowledge o f t h e Buddhist dharma. He'.must'

choose whether t o d i s r e g a r d t h e message o r b e g i n t o develop it. Although

Asanga has not s t r e s s e d t h e element o f c h o i c e , he c e r t a i n l y does not b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e Buddha can f o r c e anyone t o become e n l i g h t e n e d .

When t h e Neophyte chooses t o advance, he develops p r e p a r a t o r y non-

c o n c e p t u a l awareness and becomes a Sravaka. He encounters a Nk, b e g i n s t o

develop subsequent non-conceptual awareness, and moves i n t o t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ,

but does not c o n t i n u e t o some f i n a l r e a l m c e n t e r e d on t h e Svk.

The p o i n t o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s ambiguous i n t h i s model. While i t appears

t o be an abrupt a l t e r a t i o n , chapter IX d e s c r i b e s a g r a d u a l p r o c e s s involving

Neophyte, Sravaka, and B o d h i s a t t v a ( l X : l - 2 ) . T h i s i s another ambiguity arising

from t h e attempt t o r e p r e s e n t two i d e a s on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . In developing

the one-dimensional diagram o f F i g u r e 3, r e o r i e n t a t i o n was p l a c e d as a f i x e d

p o i n t between t h e common w o r l d o f Sravaka-Nk and t h e B u d d h a f i e l d o f t h e

Bodhisattva-Sbk. The shortcomings o f t h i s diagram can be exposed by a t t e m p t i n g

t o t r a c e t h e a s p i r a n t ' s development. T h i s must be r e p r e s e n t e d by a p o i n t

moving from l e f t t o r i g h t . However, as t h i s p o i n t passes through t h e p o s i t i o n

o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n , we s h o u l d expect i t t o r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n , never r e a c h i n g t h e

Buddhafield. The e n t i r e t h e o r y demands t h a t i t does r e a c h t h e extreme r i g h t

 2h2

o f t h e diagram "before moving back toward a new a s p i r a n t . F i g u r e 3 cannot

portray this.

In t h e two-dimensional model o f F i g u r e h, t h e problem has been s o l v e d by

moving s o t e r i o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s t o t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s . The a s p i r a n t ascends

from P r t h a g j a n a t o Svk, but does so by means o f t h e p r o c e s s e s i l l u s t r a t e d on

the h o r i z o n t a l axis. He then reaches back t o h e l p o t h e r s t h r o u g h t h i s same

process. The i n t e r p l a y o f t h e a s p i r a n t ' s l e f t - r i g h t motion and t h e Buddha's

r i g h t - l e f t motion c o n s t i t u t e s t h e dynamics o f t h e model.

The ambiguity i n r e o r i e n t a t i o n was caused by t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s concept

belongs t o t h e v e r t i c a l r a t h e r than t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis. I t appears i n t h e

l a t t e r o n l y because i t a l s o marks t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e two axes.

Thus, when t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s was e l i m i n a t e d , i t s o n l y r e m a i n i n g p o i n t was t h e

single point o f i n t e r s e c t i o n with the h o r i z o n t a l axis. I f only the v e r t i c a l

a x i s i s examined, r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d by a p o i n t midway between Svk and

Prthagjana. As t h e o n l y r e p r e s e n t e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e h o r i z o n t a l axis,

i t w i l l s t a n d f o r t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s p o r t r a y e d on t h a t axis. That i s ,

reorientation occurs throughout t h e s i t u a t i o n s o f Neophyte, Sravaka and

Bodhisattva.

I believe t h a t " t h i s i s one o f t h e most u s e f u l i n s i g h t s a r i s i n g from t h e

new model. I t j u s t i f i e s regarding the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s as a s i n g l e , coherent

p o r t r a i t o f t h e encounter between man and Buddha. This p o r t r a i t i s s u f f i -

c i e n t l y general that i t can r e c o n c i l e diverse i d e a s about t h e achievement o f

enlightenment. I t i s e s p e c i a l l y p r o m i s i n g as a framework w i t h i n which t o

reconcile statements found i n t h e "sudden v e r s u s g r a d u a l " polemic regarding

the a c q u i s i t i o n o f enlightenment.
 21+3

b. Svabhavikakaya, Dharmakaya, and Support f o r t h e Rupakayas

The d i s t i n c t i o n between Svk and Dk was e x p l o r e d i n the p r e c e d i n g study

o f the Manayanasaihgraha. The more important question o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

e i t h e r o f them t o the Nk and Sbk was not answered. In the p r e s e n t section, I

w i l l review the concepts o f Dk and Svk i n terms o f t h e new model, and will

show t h a t t h i s model can account f o r Asahga's concept o f the supportive

r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Svk and c e n t r a l kayas.

We have found t h a t Asahga uses Svk and Dk t o d e s c r i b e Buddhahood at

d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of g e n e r a l i t y . Svk i s v e r y g e n e r a l , w h i l e Dk i s detailed.

He uses Svk and Dk i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y when r e i f y i n g h i s s u b j e c t ' t o "a Buddha."

The c h o i c e o f Svk u s u a l l y s t r e s s e s t h e f i r s t aspect o f t h e t r i k a y a , . the fact

o f Buddhahood, r a t h e r than e i t h e r o f the specific appearances. In o r d e r t o

d i s c o v e r f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s , the p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n s h i p

of the Svk t o the c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s must be re-examined.

I have argued t h a t Svk as " r e s u l t " i s a l o g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e

c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s , b u t , as "awareness" and "support for sovereignty," i s

simply t h e l o g i c a l p o l e o f a d i a l e c t i c . That i s , depending upon whether we

are d i s c u s s i n g i n d i v i d u a l p r o g r e s s or o v e r a l l p a t t e r n , the Svk may appear as a

r e s u l t as w e l l as a g o a l . The l a t t e r i d e a has been d i s c u s s e d . As "result,"

the Svk must be added t o the set o f h a b i t a b l e s i t u a t i o n s : the Neophyte's

dharma; the- Nk,. the Sbk.,-' and now, t h e Svk. "The a r e a occupied'.by t h e s e ' f o u r

i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e b o l d l i n e i n - F i g u r e 5.. . ' ,,- ' '

I suggest t h a t t h i s a r e a corresponds t o the Dharmakaya. That i s , i t i s

p o r t r a y e d as an i n c l u s i v e c a t e g o r y t h a t c o n t a i n s the. Svk. as one element. The

v a l u e o f t h i s p o r t r a y a l w i l l be shown below.

I t i s tempting t o c r e a t e a p e r f e c t l y symmetrical model by assuming t h a t

Figure 5
the Dk i s b a l a n c e d by a complementary a r e a ( i n c l u d i n g P r t h a g j a n a , Neophyte,

Sravaka and B o d h i s a t t v a ) r e p r e s e n t i n g " S e n t i e n t B e i n g , " t h e l o g i c a l opposite

of the Dk. However, the t e n o r o f Asanga's r e a s o n i n g throughout the t e x t

suggests t h a t he b e l i e v e s i n e v e n t u a l s a l v a t i o n f o r a l l , and t h a t those who

have reached Buddhahood do not r e v e r s e t h e i r p r o g r e s s . Both i d e a s q u i c k l y

became e x p l i c i t dogma w i t h i n t h e V i j n a n a v a d a tradition. T h i s b e l i e f might

t r a n s l a t e i n t o some asymmetry i n the model. We must a v o i d e l i m i n a t i n g such a

p o s s i b i l i t y by imposing an a r b i t r a r y symmetry not supported by d o c t r i n e .

T h i s p o i n t c o u l d be s e t t l e d o n l y by f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o the relation

between i c c h a n t i k a and s a t t v a i n the I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a literature.

The c e n t r a l unanswered q u e s t i o n o f t h i s study i s : How does t h e Svk or Dk

support the Nk and Sbk? The above d e p i c t i o n o f the d i s t i n c t i o n between Svk

and Dk shows the Dk s u p p o r t i n g the c e n t r a l two kayas as the g e n e r a l category

t h a t c o n t a i n s them. T h i s simple i n t e r p r e t a t i o n appears t o e x p l a i n a l l

r e l e v a n t passages o f the text.

The q u e s t i o n o f how the Svk supports the Nk and Sbk may be approached

from s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . F i r s t , , - i t . has been s i m p l i f i e d by the argument t h a t

t h e Svk cannot be a f u l l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the Nk and Sbk a s , o f the three

concepts t h a t d e f i n e i t , o n l y " r e s u l t " shows i t t o be continuous w i t h the Nk

and Sbk. When i t i s regarded as "awareness" or "support for sovereignty," i t

i s not a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f them. T h e r e f o r e , o n l y the former must be explained.

We have n o t e d s e v e r a l times t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s from t h e f a c t t h a t

the Svk seems t o r e s i d e at the f a r r i g h t o f t h e diagram when r e g a r d e d as

" r e s u l t " but o c c u p i e s t h e t o p i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s . An a c c e p t a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n

s h o u l d encompass b o t h .

I suggest t h a t the key t o such an e x p l a n a t i o n i s the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the

 2k6

Svk, as r e s u l t , i s e q u i v a l e n t t o the aggregate o f a l l kayas on the horizontal

a x i s : the dharma, Nk, and Shk. The Svk t a k e s a l l o f t h e s e forms hut has no

existence apart from them.

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n agrees w i t h t h a t suggested p r e v i o u s l y f o r t h e concept

"reorientation." I f r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s the p o i n t • o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f the axes,

then the aspirant w i l l encounter and acquire a l l o f the kayas as he ascends

the v e r t i c a l a x i s . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f the Nk and Shk w i l l t h e n he equivalent

t o the attainment o f the Svk.

This s e c t i o n o f the study has concentrated on t h e elements i n the rela-

t i o n s h i p between P r t h a g j a n a and Svk, w h i l e i g n o r i n g the feeling-tone of that

relationship. The model can a l s o d i s p l a y the feeling-tone and, i n doing so,

d i s p l a y another aspect o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between S v k j Nk, and Sbk.

We have seen t h a t the Nk i n f l i c t s p a i n upon, and the Svk affords pleasure

to, the aspirant. We have a l s o n o t e d the symmetry by which the Prthagjana

stands i n a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the Sravaka and Bodhisattva as t h e Svk

stands t o the Nk. and Sbk. I f an e x p l a n a t i o n can be found f o r the r e l a t i o n s h i p

of the Prthagjana t o the former two, i t I s r e a s o n a b l e t o examine t h e possi-

bility that i t s converse w i l l h e l p us u n d e r s t a n d t h e way i n which the Svk can

support b o t h the p a i n f u l and the p l e a s a n t a c t i o n s o f Nk_ and Sbk. Such an

explanation does exist,.'.and i t s i n v e r s i o n does appear t o be useful.

The relevant d o c t r i n e i s that of the "three p o i s o n s " ' — t h e i d e a that

1 1
the

P r t h a g j a n a i s dominated by a t r i a d of emotional r e a c t i o n - p a t t e r n s : an egocen-

tric nescience (avidya) or c o n f u s i o n (moha), a subsequent self-aggrandisement

through attachment (raga) t o t h i n g s b e l i e v e d t o be desirable objects for

consumption, and an o t h e r - d e p r e c i a t i o n t h r o u g h avoidance (dvesa) o f things

seen as i n h e r e n t l y p a i n f u l or h a r m f u l .
 T h i s d o c t r i n e shows t h e same p a t t e r n as t h a t d i s p l a y e d hy t h e lower

p o r t i o n o f F i g u r e k. The P r t h a g j a n a i s t h e model o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l dominated

by a v i d y a . The Neophyte, dominated by a v i d y a , r e i f i e s t h e Buddha, o f whom he

has heard, i n t o an e x t e r n a l g o d l i k e " o t h e r " t h a t may be t h e o c c a s i o n f o r e i t h e r

p a i n f u l abandonment (by t h e Nk) o r p l e a s a n t presence (.of t h e Sbk). Thus, t h e

d o c t r i n e o f t h e t h r e e poisons p r o v i d e s t h e p a t t e r n o f support between t h e

P r t h a g j a n a and t h e Sravaka and B o d h i s a t t v a .

An inversion', o f t h i s d o c t r i n e can be a p p l i e d t o t h e upper p o r t i o n o f t h e

model. J u s t as t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s dominated by nescience,, the Svk i s , o r i s

dominated by, i t s o p p o s i t e , "awareness" ( j n a n a ) . J u s t as t h e a s p i r a n t (as

Sravaka) i s p a i n e d by t h e l o s s o f t h e Nk, so t h e S v k — a s N k — e x h i b i t s funda-

mental non-conceptual awareness, t h e t o t a l absence o f p a i n f u l involvement

(VIII:lU). J u s t as t h e a s p i r a n t (as B o d h i s a t t v a ) experiences pleasure i n the

presence o f a Sbk i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , t h e S v k — a s S b k — e x h i b i t s a subsequent

non-conceptual awareness t h a t can c i r c u l a t e in'.the w o r l d w i t h o u t b e i n g soiled.

That i s , t h e B o d h i s a t t v a goes t o a c l o s e d s i t u a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g t h e Buddha,

w h i l e t h e Sbk expands t h i s s i t u a t i o n t o encompass t h e w o r l d .

E. FINAL COMMENTS

In t h i s c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r , I have exposed t h e s t r u c t u r e u n d e r l y i n g t h e

t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha, and demonstrated t h a t an a b s t r a c t

model o f i t can e l u c i d a t e and harmonize t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e Buddhology.

The study i s . complete.

The next stage i n a c o n t i n u i n g study w i l l be an examination o f the

a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e model t o r e l a t e d t e x t s . Appendix B l i s t s those t o be

examined first.
 2k8 •

Figure 6
 2h9

The immediate t e s t o f t h i s model would he an attempt t o d e s c r i b e t h e

a l t e r n a t e Buddhology w i t h i n t h i s same t e x t (.11:33), t h e twenty-one gunas o f

t h e Buddha (see above, pp. 8 7 - 9 0 ) . As Asanga has quoted 11:33 from t h e

Samdhinirmocanasutra and kept i t s e p a r a t e , i t should be understood by means o f

the commentaries t o t h a t t e x t (see below, Appendix B) r a t h e r than through

those t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha. Such a t e s t i s t o o complex t o undertake w i t h i n

the present study.

In a d d i t i o n t o d i s p l a y i n g t h e fundamental V i j n a n a v a d a i d e a s about Buddha-

hood, t h i s model can a l s o serve as a framework w i t h i n which t h e r e l a t i o n o f

any B u d d h o l o g i c a l i d e a t o any o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d a dogma may be e x p l o r e d . While

a systematic treatment o f t h e many p o s s i b l e combinations i s i m p r a c t i c a b l e , t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model t o any problem w i l l u s u a l l y be o b v i o u s . I shall

examine one, v e r y s u p e r f i c i a l l y , t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h i s

method.

We have seen t h a t Asanga r e f e r s t o t h e r e o r i e n t e d a l a y a v i j n a n a as b o t h

M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness (X:5•5» see above, pp. 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 ) , and as Dharmakaya

( X : 7 . 1 ; see above, pp. 125-126). T h i s was e x p l a i n e d by t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t ,

when Asanga needed-.a-value-free term t o d e s i g n a t e t h e b a s i s o f p e r c e p t i o n , he

used t h e former; when he needed a v a l u e - l a d e n term f o r t h e c o n t a i n e r o f

tendencies t o b i a s e d p e r c e p t i o n , he used t h e l a t t e r . T h i s i s not a t o t a l l y

s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n , as t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e two concerns i s merely

implicit. When we r e f l e c t t h a t t h e y cannot be two ways o f speaking o f the

same t h i n g ( t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a i s not a " t h i n g " ) , t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n seems even

less satisfactory.

The S t r u c t u r a l i s t model p r o v i d e s a framework t h a t can encompass b o t h

ideas. The two e x p l a n a t i o n s c o n t a i n t h r e e terms: a l a y a v i j n a n a , Dharmakaya,

 and " M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness." Our model does not c o n t a i n an e x p l i c i t term f o r

the a l a y a v i j n a n a , hut does c o n t a i n terms f o r the o t h e r two. Figure 5 shows

the Dk d i r e c t l y , and e x h i b i t s v a r i o u s types o f "Awareness." The Dk i s

c l e a r e s t : i t i s the category c o n t a i n i n g a l l o f t h e Buddhakayas. Therefore,

the statement t h a t t h e Dk i s a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the a l a y a v i j n a n a suggests t h a t

the l a t t e r i s t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e diagram complementary t o the Dk. That i s ,

it i s the area c o n t a i n i n g the P r t h a g j a n a , Neophyte, Sravaka and Bodhisattva.

T h i s area matches :.the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the a l a y a v i j f i a n a as the c o n t a i n e r f o r (or

-

"composed o f " ) impure t e n d e n c i e s . I t has been p o r t r a y e d and l a b e l l e d i n

F i g u r e 6. Note t h a t i t i s t h e a r e a t h a t was earlier (see above, p. 2^5)

t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g " S e n t i e n t Being."

The r e l a t i o n o f the f i n a l term, " M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness" (adarsajnana),

t o the "Awareness" can be seen i n t h e model. The short d e s c r i p t i o n i n the

text ( X : 5 - 5 U) appears t o i n c l u d e i d e a s t h a t b e l o n g t o both Fundamental and

Subsequent Non-conceptual A w a r e n e s s — i t i s a c c u r a t e , unhampered by time or

space, non-conceptual and enjoys '.the

-
images p e r c e i v e d by the Buddha. That i s ,

it i n c l u d e s the awareness o f b o t h Nk and Sbk. I f so, i t i s c o e x t e n s i v e with

t h e Dk, the category t h a t contains both. With t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , the

problem has been s o l v e d . The a l a y a v i j n a n a and M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness are

complementary, g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s . The former i s the awareness t h a t forms

perceptions a c c o r d i n g t o p r e j u d i c e s ; the l a t t e r a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s the

perceptions. However, t h e e n l i g h t e n e d awareness i s not simply the a b i l i t y t o

see t h i n g s "as t h e y a r e , " but i s t h e a b i l i t y t o mold a s i t u a t i o n f o r the

benefit of a l l . Therefore, i t can a l s o be c a l l e d Dk. The two descriptions

t h a t caused the problem i n t h e s e c t i o n can now be seen as s p e c i a l i n s t a n c e s of

the continuous/discontinuous problem t h a t has been d i s c u s s e d at l e n g t h above.

 251

F i n a l l y , I wish t o note t h a t t h e S t r u c t u r a l i s t model i s a u s e f u l t o o l f o r

comparing t h e r e s u l t s o f Western I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o Buddhist i d e a s . Many o f

t h e s e a r e o f l i m i t e d v a l u e , simply hecause i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o compare them t o

other studies. The wide v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s and approaches i n use makes

the d e r i v a t i o n o f a coherent p o r t r a i t o f any aspect o f Buddhism n e a r l y impos-

sible. The S t r u c t u r a l i s t model p r o v i d e s a framework w i t h i n which r e s u l t s from

these d i v e r s e s t u d i e s may be compared.

For example, w h i l e John Strong's r e c e n t a r t i c l e s on e a r l y d e v o t i o n a l

practices ("Gandhakuti: The Perfumed Chamber o f t h e Buddha"; "The T r a n s f o r m i n g

G i f t s : An A n a l y s i s o f D e v o t i o n a l A c t s o f O f f e r i n g i n Buddhist Avadana L i t e r a -

ture") obviously deal with similar materials, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see them as

d i f f e r e n t approaches t o t h e same t r a d i t i o n . When we a l s o i n c l u d e an a r t i c l e

such as Roy C. Amore's " G i v i n g and Harming: Buddhist Symbols o f Good and E v i l , "

which r e g a r d s s i m i l a r i d e a s as Buddhist E t h i c s t o be approached through

R i c o e u r ' s phenomenology, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e t h a t a common s u b j e c t i s

under study. A broader p i c t u r e t h a t shows t h e p o s i t i o n o f each o f t h e s e i s

necessary. T r a d i t i o n a l Buddhist c o n c e p t s , addressed t o t h e b e l i e v e r , offer

l i t t l e h e l p , as t h e y were developed t o r e c o n c i l e d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n w i t h i n

one t r a d i t i o n , not t o r e c o n c i l e h e r m e n e u t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s from o u t s i d e any

Buddhist tradition.

The model o f F i g u r e k can c o n t a i n a l l t h e s e s t u d i e s as d e t a i l s o f t h e

symbolic l e s s e n i n g o f t h e d i s t a n c e between a s p i r a n t and Buddha i n t h e s i t u a t i o n

of Sravaka-Nk and B o d h i s a t t v a - S b k . As such, t h e y can e a s i l y be r e l a t e d t o

each o t h e r , and t o any o t h e r s t u d i e s o f p r a c t i c e s ( i n v o l v i n g Buddhalands,

s t u p a s , mandalas, w o r s h i p , e t c . ) whereby e a r l y Buddhists attempted t o approach,

their goal.
 252

NOTES

See M i r c e a E l i a d e , " M e t h o d o l o g i c a l Remarks on t h e Study o f R e l i g i o u s

Symbolism," i n M. E l i a d e and J . M. Kitagawa (eds.), History o f Religions:

Essays i n Methodology (Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1959).

2
See above, pp. 139-1^0. F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n , see Ian G. Barbour,
Myths, Models . and Paradigms: A Comparative Study i n S c i e n c e and R e l i g i o n (.New
York: Harper and Row, 197*0-
3
See A l f r e d North Whitehead, P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y : An Essay i n Cosmology,
c o r r e c t e d e d i t i o n , D. R. G r i f f i n and D. W. Sherburne (eds.) (New York: The
F r e e P r e s s , 1978), p. 3.
k
T h i s model appears i n most o f E l i a d e ' s works. The c l e a r e s t statement
i s i n The Sacred and t h e P r o f a n e (New York: Harper and Row, 1 9 6 l ) .

^ See Robert D. B a i r d ' s "Normative Elements i n E l i a d e ' s Phenomenology o f

Symbolism," Union Seminary Q u a r t e r l y Review, 2k, no. k (.1970).

6
P a u l R i c o e u r has developed t h i s characterization. His description of
L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s work and o f t h e l a t t e r ' s response i s d i s c u s s e d i n P h i l i p
P e t t i t , The Concept o f S t r u c t u r a l i s m : A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s ( D u b l i n : G i l l and
M a c m i l l a n , 1975).

7
Models based on p a i r s o f b i n a r y o p p o s i t e s a r e found throughout t h e
mature works o f L e v i - S t r a u s s . They a r e so b a s i c t o h i s approach t h a t t h e r e i s
p r o b a b l y no s i n g l e passage t h a t may be t a k e n as h i s s t a n d a r d e x p l a n a t i o n o f
the.topic. A good c o l l e c t i o n o f s h o r t essays on b i n a r y models i n a r t , mythol-
ogy, s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and v i l l a g e geography, i s found i n Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s ,
S t r u c t u r a l A n t h r o p o l o g y (New York: B a s i c Books, 1963). F o r a thorough d e v e l -
opment o f one b a s i c model i n Amerindian c u l t u r e , see h i s The Raw and t h e
Cooked, and Honey and Ashes.

8
While t h e v a r i o u s e a r l y systems d e f i n e d t h e p r t h a g j a n a i n s l i g h t l y

d i f f e r e n t ways, t h e term always r e f e r s t o t h e deluded i n d i v i d u a l who has not

started ( o r who has b a r e l y s t a r t e d ) on t h e Buddhist p a t h . Vasubandhu, i n

 253

Abhidharmakosa, i i : 9 b-d, quotes the Samyuttanikaya:• " C e l u i a q u i manquent

completement, a quelque degre que ce s o i t , tous ces c i n q i r i d r i y a s , l a f o i ,
e t c . , j e l e d e c l a r e homme du dehors, appartenant a l a c l a s s e des P r t h a g j a n a s . "
And a g a i n , at i i : 20c-d: "Le P r t h a g j a n a e s t appele i g n o r a n t ( b a l a ) p a r c e qu'il
n'a pas v u l e s v e r i t e s . "

9
A l t h o u g h t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f Buddhist p r a c t i c e s i s o b s c u r e , i t i s
c l e a r t h a t p r a c t i c e s and symbols d e r i v e d from the p a r i n i r v a n a and cremation
( e s p e c i a l l y the stupa symbol) have been c e n t r a l t o the d e v o t i o n a l p a t h since
very early times.

^ See Ruegg, Tathagatagarbha, p a r t i c u l a r l y Deuxieme Partie,.-Chap. II.:;

"La t h e o r i e de l ' E v e i l u n i v e r s e l et de 1'ekayana dans l e s commentaires de
1'Abhisamayalamkara," pp. 189-235-

1 1
While t h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r y i s . b a s i c t o Buddhist .thought.,^the.«.elements
are c a l l e d by d i f f e r e n t names ( e . g . , k l e s a , anusaya, and r e l a t e d compounds),
and are l i s t e d as p a r t s o f d i f f e r e n t s e t s i n almost every major t e x t . A
thorough account i s found i n H o b o g i r i n ( s . v . "Bonno," pp. 121-13*+).

Asanga does not e x p l a i n t h i s i d e a i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha, but simply

mentions t h e "snare (or ' e x p l o s i o n ' ) " o f t h e p a s s i o n s ;_. However, i t i s i m p l i c i t
i n t h e - d o c t r i n e o f t h e a l a y a v i j r i a n a ( I : . 29-3*+) and t h e acceptance o f t h e
:

twelve-linked chain of causation.

 APPENDIX A

•BIBLIOGRAPHY.OF SECONDARY SOURCES

 255

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1-29-

Amore, Roy C. " G i v i n g and Harming: Buddhist Symbols o f Good and Evil."

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1979, PP. 93-103.

Anacker, S t e f a n . "Vasubandhu: Three A s p e c t s . A Study o f a Buddhist P h i l o s o -

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Barbour, Ian G. Myths, Models and Paradigms: A Comparative Study i n S c i e n c e

and R e l i g i o n . New York: Harper and Row, 197*+.

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y C h a p p e l l , David W. "Chinese Buddhist I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e Pure Lands." In

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 256

Coomaraswamy, A. Buddha and t h e Gospel o f Buddhism. New York: G. P. Putnam's

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 257

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 APPENDIX B

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES

 263

T h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y c o n t a i n s the most important t e x t s and t r a n s l a t i o n s f o r

a study o f the t r i k a y a concept i n t h e I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a . It includes those
mentioned i n t h e p r e s e n t study and those t h a t would be most u s e f u l f o r an
expanded study.

These are e i t h e r I n d i e language t e x t s t h a t have been p r e s e r v e d i n Tibetan

and/or Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s , or are T i b e t a n or Chinese commentaries.
As indigenous s c h o l a r s i n b o t h c u l t u r e s soon e l a b o r a t e d and m o d i f i e d the
d o c t r i n e , a l l t e x t s t h a t go beyond an a c c u r a t e r e f l e c t i o n o f I n d i a n i d e a s have
been excluded. V e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t e r i a have been employed i n o r d e r to
o b t a i n a r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r f u t u r e work.

With the e x c e p t i o n o f the t h r e e fundamental s u t r a s , the b i b l i o g r a p h y

excludes t e x t s t h a t do not c o n t a i n a coherent t r i k a y a , and does not contain
minor t e x t s or t e x t s c o n t a i n i n g o n l y p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o the t r i k a y a .

The number accompanying t h e t i t l e o f a T i b e t a n work i s i t s number i n t h e

T i b e t a n T r i p i t a k a Research I n s t i t u t e ' s r e p r i n t o f the Peking tripitaka (also
known as the O t a n i number). Those accompanying the t i t l e s o f . C h i n e s e texts
r e f e r t o t h e T a i s h o e d i t i o n o f t h e ' C h i n e s e canon.

The c h i e f s t u d i e s on, and t r a n s l a t i o n s o f , t h e s e t e x t s i n European

languages have been noted. Modern Japanese work, apart from e d i t i o n s o f t e x t s ,
has not been i n c l u d e d .

I. INDIAN TEXTS AND COMMENTARIES

A. SUTRAS

The V i j n a n a v a d a was formulated as an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e new ideas appearing

within the Buddhist t r a d i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n a few Mahayana s u t r a s . Although

a study o f t h e t r i k a y a w i l l be based upon the s a s t r a s , i t must not l o s e s i g h t

o f the contents o f t h e t h r e e extant and accessible sutras. A l t h o u g h they do

not c o n t a i n a f u l l t r i k a y a , they are the u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y from which i t was

derived.
 261+

1. S a A d h i n i r m o c a n a s u t r a

The c e n t r a l and most b a s i c s u t r a o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a t r a d i t i o n . The

t r i k a y a may be t h e o n l y d o c t r i n a l i d e a not developed i n i t . Any study o f t h e

t r a d i t i o n must b e g i n w i t h t h i s t e x t . Sanskrit text lost.

a. Translations:

i. Tibetan

P. 77*+. 'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par ' g r e l - p a theg-pa chen-po'i mdo.

T r a n s l a t o r not r e c o r d e d .

ii. Chinese

-T. 678 ( v o l . 16, pp. 7lWTl8a)'#*t % fflJ** ^ *

by Gunabhadra (*+35—hl+3 A.D.). This i s a p a r t i a l translation
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o chapter IX o f the T i b e t a n . See a l s o T. 679 f o r
anonymous t r a n s l a t i o n o f c h a p t e r X.

—T. 675 ;3JL3F ?}f by B o d h i r u c i (ca. 5 l £ A . D . ) .

All t e n c h a p t e r s complete.

—T. 677 f$. %.'^

Z
l t»y Paramartha ( 5 5 7 - 5 6 9 A.D.).
P a r t i a l ; corresponds t o f i r s t four chapters of Tibetan.
—T. 676 yjjL^ &fL b
y Hsiian-tsang ( c a . 61+7 A.D.).
In f i v e c h a p t e r s ; corresponds t o f u l l t e n c h a p t e r s o f T i b e t a n .

b. Commentaries

i. Sanskrit

Note: While a l l V i j n a n a v a d a s a s t r a s a r e "commentaries" on t h i s sutra,

this l i s t includes only d i r e c t commentaries on t h e t e x t .

— A s a n g a ' s Aryasamdhinirmocanabhasya.

T i b e t a n P. 5U8I: 'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par 1

grel-pa'i

rnam-par bshad-pa.

— ( a u t h o r unknown) Aryasamdhinirmocanasutrasyavyakhyanam.

T i b e t a n P. 581+5: 'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par ' g r e l - p a ' i mdo'i

rnam-par bshad-pa.
 265

— J n a n a g a r b h a ' s Aryasamdhinirmocanasutra a r y a m a i t r e y a k e v a l a p a r i v a r t a

bhasyam.

T i b e t a n P. :5535: 'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par ' g r e l - p a ' i mdo

las 'phags-pa byams-pa'i le'u. n y i t s h e ' i bshad-pa.

ii. Chinese
Lamotte (Samdhinirmocana, p. 11) mentions an Aryagambhirasamdhinirmo-
c ana silt r a t i k a by Yuan-ts-'e (]"^J ). T h i s does not seem t o be i n t h e

T a i s h o , but a t r a n s l a t i o n by Chos-sgrub i s extant i n T i b e t a n :

P. 5517: 'phags-pa dgongs-pa zab-mo nges-par ' g r e l - p a ' i mdo'i
rgya-cher 'grel-pa. T h i s would have been w r i t t e n c a . 683, when Yuen-
tse r e s i d e d a t Ch'ang-an.

c. Western Language Translations

i. E t i e n n e Lamotte. Samdhinirmocanasutra. L o u v a i n : Bureaux de R e c u e i l .

B i b l i o t h e q u e de l ' U n i v e r s i t e , 1935-

T h i s , the sole French t r a n s l a t i o n , i s i n three p a r t s :

—preface

—an e d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t based upon Fonds t i b e t a i n o f t h e B i b l i o .

Nat., No. £ 1 0 .

—a F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n based upon t h e T i b e t a n , Hsiian—tsang's C h i n e s e ,

and Asanga's AVyasamdhinirmocanabhasya.

To t h i s may be added an a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e same y e a r :

E t i e n n e Lamotte, "Les T r o i s C a r a c t e r e s et l e s t r o i s absences de n a t u r e

p r o p r e dans l e Samdhinirmocanasutra, c h a p i t r e V I . " B u l l e t i n de l a

C l a s s e des L e t t r e s e t des S c i e n c e s morales et p o l i t i q u e s . Bruxelles:

Academie Royale de B e l g i q u e , 1935, pp. 289-303.

ii. — A n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e T i b e t a n by B r i a n C u t i l l o and Geshe

Jampel Thardo w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n an E n g l i s h T r a n s l a t i o n S e r i e s o f

Asanga's works (announced i n Buddhist Text I n f o r m a t i o n , The C e n t r e f o r

Advanced S t u d i e s i n World R e l i g i o n s . #2, March 1975).

d. Western Language Studies

T h i s s u t r a has a t t r a c t e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n , as most philosophical

s t u d i e s have f o c u s s e d on t h e voluminous s a s t r a l i t e r a t u r e . A s i d e from

 266

b r i e f passages i n the standard surveys (e.g., W i n t e r n i t z ) , I have been

unable t o f i n d s u b s t a n t i a l m a t e r i a l .

See a l s o B i b l i o g r a p h i e Bouddhique x x v i i i - x x x i (1961), pp. 167-168.

2. Lankavatarasutra

Of the t h r e e s u t r a s , the L a n k a v a t a r a c o n t a i n s the d o c t r i n e n e a r e s t to the

trikaya. Suzuki's study o f the t r i k a y a passages was introduced i n chapter I
o f the p r e s e n t study. The S a n s k r i t t e x t has been published:

N a n j i o Bunyiu ( e d . ) . The Lankavatara Sutra. Kyoto: O t a n i University

Press, 1923 ( r e p r i n t e d 1956 as v o l . 1 o f B i b l i o t h e c a O t a n i e n s i s ) .

a. Translations

i. Tibetan

—P. 775- 'phags-pa l a n g - k a r gshegs-pa t h e g - p a ' i mdo. The translator

i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e g a r d e d as Chos-grub ( / who t r a n s l a t e d from

Chinese t o T i b e t a n d u r i n g the 9th century.

ii. Chinese

—T. 670 4^0 ?°J j|_ *|f ^ i n k f a s c . by Gunabhadra

(ca kk3 A.D.). The. s h o r t e s t and most p o p u l a r v e r s i o n . Probably the

one u s e d by Bodhidharma. I t was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o T i b e t a n by Chos-grub

as: P. 776. 'phags-pa l a n g - k a r gshegs-pa r i n - p o - c h e ' i mdo l a s sangs-

rgyas thams-cad-kyi gsung-gi snying-po zhes-bya-ba'i l e ' u .

—T. 671 X jilQ by B o d h i r u c c i (ca.. 513 A.D.).

—T. 672 ^ C ^ . 7^ 1$ J1]Q "by Siksananda and others ( c a . 700 A.D.).

b. Commentaries

No S a n s k r i t commentaries survive,

i. Chinese

—T. 1790 A. $ 5 ,y
£ % by.-Fa-tsang.. ( c a . 700 A.D.•)'..- T h i s - •

i s a s h o r t , e x p o s i t o r y t r e a t i s e — r e a l l y a commentary on the Siksananda

translation.
The D a i n i h o n zoku zokyo (Great Japanese Supplement t o the Canon).
Kyoto: 1905-1912, f a s c . 25-29 c o n t a i n a t o t a l o f f i f t e e n commentaries
 267

on t h e Lankavatara. These i n c l u d e two from t h e Tang, f o u r from t h e

Sung, and seven from t h e Ming d y n a s t i e s .

c. Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s and S t u d i e s

i. D. T. S u z u k i . Studies i n the Lankavatara Sutra. London: Routledge

& Kegan P a u l , 1930.

ii:' D. T. S u z u k i . The L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a : T r a n s l a t e d f o r t h e F i r s t Time

from t h e O r i g i n a l S a n s k r i t . London: Routledge & Kegan P a u l , 1932.

iii. D. T. S u z u k i . An Index t o t h e L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a . To kyo': Suzuki

v

Research F o u n d a t i o n , I 9 6 5 .

These a r e workmanlike sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e

" s t u d i e s " a r e more l i k e "sermons" on t h e s u t r a . Suzuki e x p l a i n s i t i n
l i g h t o f h i s own b e l i e f i n Mahayana Buddhism.

3. S r i m a l a d e v i s imhanandasutra

A l t h o u g h t h i s e a r l y s u t r a does not c o n t a i n a t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e , i t does

e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t e d n o t i o n o f the tathagatagarhha. S i n c e a modern t r a n s -
l a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e which i n c l u d e s an e x t e n s i v e study o f t h e s u t r a , i t s -
h i s t o r y and t r a n s l a t i o n s , t h i s t e x t s h o u l d be a r e f e r e n c e f o r any study i n
Vijnanavada theory.

a. Translation

i. A l e x Wayman and Hideko Wayman. The L i o n ' s Roar o f Queen S r i m a l a :

A Buddhist S c r i p t u r e on t h e Tathagatagarhha Theory. New York:

Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 197*+.

B. SASTRAS

The s a s t r a s , and s c h o l a r s h i p on them, have been d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s

study. Those l i s t e d below a r e s i m p l y t h e most p r o m i s i n g s o u r c e s f o r a study.

k. Mahayanasutralamkara

T h i s v e r s e summary o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a must be understood through t h e

commentaries. The B u d d h o l o g i c a l passages have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
Mahayanasamgraha.

S a n s k r i t t e x t e d i t e d and t r a n s l a t e d hy S y l v a i n L e v i . Mahayana-Sutra-

lamkara, 2 v o l s . B i b l i o t h e q u e de l ' E c o l e des Hautes Etudes: Sciences Histo-

r i q u e s et P h i l o l o g i q u e s . P a r i s : L i b r a i r e Honore Champion, 1907-1911.

a. Translations

i. Tibetan

—P. 5521, theg-pa chen-po'i mdo-sde'i r g y a n - g y i t s h i g l e ' u r byas-pa.

T r a n s l a t e d by Sakyasimha and d P a l - b r t e g s .

ii. Chinese

—T. 1601+ %J^_ by Prabhakaramitra ( c a . 630-633 A.D.)

b. Commentaries

i. Sanskrit

— S u t r a l a m k a r a - b h a s y a by Vasubhandu. T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n P. 5527-
Apparently no Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n .

— M a h a y a n a - s u t r a l a m k a r a - t i k a by Asvabhava. Tibetan translation:

P. 5530: theg-pa chen-po'i mdo-sde'i r g y a n - g y i rgya-cher bshad-pa.
Apparently no Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n .

—Sutralamkara-vrtti-bhasya by S t h i r a m a t i .

T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n P. 5531; mdo-sde r g y a n - g y i ' g r e l bshad.

Apparently no Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n .

c. Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s

See above, S y l v a i n L e v i .

Giuseppe T u c c i (ed. and t r a n s . ) . Mahayanasutralamkara. Serie

O r i e n t a l e Roma, IX, 1956.

d. Western Language S t u d i e s

G a d j i n M< Nagao. An Index t o t h e Mahayanasutralamkara. Part 1:

Sanskrit-Tibetan-Chinese. Tokyo: Nippon Gakujutsu S h i n k o - k a i , 1958.

P a r t 2: T i b e t a n - S a n s k r i t and C h i n e s e - S a n s k r i t . Tokyo, 1961.

 269

5. Mahayanasamgraha o f Asahga. Sanskrit text lost.

a. Translations

i. Tibetan -T
•' . • -

—P. 5 5 ^ 9 ; theg-pa chen-po bsdus-pa.

ii. Chinese

—T. 1592: j^<%.\% ^ Buddhasanta ( c a . 531 A.D.).

— T . 1593: by Paramartha ( c a . 5 6 U A . D . ) .

— T . 159U: ^ j^fe. b
Y Hsuan-tsang ( c a . 6U8 A.D.).
P u b l i s h e d by S a s a k i Gessho. Kan'yaku S h i h o n - t a i s h o S h o d a i j o r o n .

Tokyo: Nakayama Shobo, 1 9 5 9 .

b. Commentaries

i. Mahayanasamgrahabhasya by Vasubandhu.

T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n , P. 5551^ theg-pa chen-po b s d u s - p a ' i ' g r e l - p a

t r a n s l a t e d by D i p a m k a r a s r i j n a n a and T s h u l - k h r i m s .

Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s : T. 1 5 9 5 by Paramartha C c a . 56U A.D.); T. 1 5 9 6 by

Dharmagupta ( 6 0 5 - 6 l 6 A.D.); T. 1 5 9 7 by Hsiian-tsang ( c a . 6 U 8 - 6 ^ 9 A.D.);

all are t i t l e d j ^ - f e %% ^% .

ii. Mahayanasamgrahopanibandhana by Asvabhava. Sanskrit text lost.

T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n : P. 5 5 5 2 ; theg-pa chen-po bsdus bshad sbyor.

Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n : T. 1 5 9 8 : by Hsuan-tsang.

c. Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n- .

Et ienne Lamotte. L a Somme du grand v e h i c u l e d'Asanga. P u b l i c a t i o n s de

1'Institut O r i e n t a l i s t e de L o u v a i n , no. 8 , 1 9 7 3 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 ^ 9 ) .

Vol. 1 c o n t a i n s an e d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t and a p h o t o - r e p r i n t o f t h e T a i s h o

e d i t i o n o f Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n . V o l . 2 contains the French t r a n s -

lation and commentary.

6. Abhisamayalamkara

T h i s t e x t appears t o be p r a j n a p a r a m i t a but i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a V i j n a n a -
vada s a s t r a . I t c o n t a i n s a B u d d h o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n t h a t promises t o be a good
source f o r d a t a t h a t c o u l d r e l a t e t h e P r a j n a p a r a m i t a u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the Dk
t o t h e one developed i n t h i s study.
 270

F u l l d e t a i l s o f the available texts ( S a n s k r i t and T i b e t a n ) may be found

i n E. Conze. The P r a j n a p a r a m i t a L i t e r a t u r e . The Hague: Mouton and Co., i 9 6 0 .

a. Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s

i. Abhisamalankara-Prajnaparamita-Upadesa-sastra: The Work o f

Bodhisattva Maitreya. E d i t e d and t r a n s l a t e d by Th. S t c h e r b a t s k y
and E. O b e r m i l l e r , 1929. Osnabruck: B i b l i o V e r l a g , 1970.
ii. Edward Conze. Abhisamayalahkara. Rome: S e r i e O r i e n t a l e Roma,
V I , 195U.

7. Ratnagotravibhaga (Uttaratantra.).

Sanskrit t e x t : Ratnagotravibhaga-Mahayanottaratantra attributed to

M a i t r e y a o r t o Saramati. E d i t e d w i t h Vyakha, a t t r i b u t e d t o Asanga, by E. H.
Johnston. Patna: B i h a r Research S o c i e t y , 1950. Z. Nakamura's edition
(Tokyg, 196l) i n c l u d e s both S a n s k r i t t e x t and Chinese translation.

T h i s w i l l be one o f t h e most important t e x t s f o r an expanded study a s ,

l i k e the Srimaladevisutra, i t r e l a t e s t h e t r i k a y a t o t h e concepts o f t a t h a g a -
t a g a r h h a and dharmadhatu. While t h e s e a r e not important i n t h e Mahayana-
samgraha, they became major f e a t u r e s o f t h e I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a .

a. Translations

i. Tibetan

—P. 5525: theg-pa chen-po rgyud-bla-ma'i bstan-bcos.

T r a n s l a t o r : B l o - l d a n shes-rab ( c a . 11th c e n t u r y ) ,
ii. Chinese

by Ratnamati ( c a . 511 A.D.).

— M o d e r n p u b l i c a t i o n s : see above, Z. Nakamura.

b. Commentarie s

i. Sanskrit

—Ratnagotravibhaga vyakya, by Asanga; see above, E. H. Johnston,

ii. Tibetan

—P.5526: theg-pa chen-po r g y u d - b l a - m a i bstan-bcos rnam-par bshad-pa.

1

T r a n s l a t o r : B l o - l d a n shes-rab.
 271

c. Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s

—E. Obermiller, trans. "The Sublime S c i e n c e o f t h e Great V e h i c l e t o

Salvation." Acta O r i e n t a l i a , 9 (1931).

— J . Takasaki. The Ratnagotravibhaga. Rome: S e r i e O r i e n t a l e Roma,

1966.

d. Western Language S t u d i e s

— D . S. Ruegg. L a T h e o r i e du t a t h a g a t a g a r h h a e t du g o t r a . Paris:

E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d'Extreme-Orient, 1969-

— J . Takasaki. "A Study o f Ratnagotravibhaga (Uttaratantra)." Ph.D.

t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Poona, u n p u b l i s h e d .

C. MISCELLANEOUS TRIKAYA TEXTS OF INDIAN ORIGIN

8. A number o f s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e d o c t r i n e , whose o r i g i n a l t i t l e s were

p r o b a b l y K a y a t r a y a s t o t r a o r T r i k a y a s t a v a , e x i s t i n Chinese or Tibetan
translations. Little i s known o f t h e s e t e x t s , but t h e y s h o u l d be i n c o r -
p o r a t e d i n t o any f u r t h e r study.

a. Chinese Texts

—T. 1677: X - ^ ^ 1^ • T h i s appears t o be t h e t e x t t h a t Baron

von S t a e l - H o l s t e i n p u b l i s h e d as Bermerkungen zum T r i k a y a s t a v a ( I z d .

Imp. Ak. Nauk B u l l e t i n : Academie I m p e r i a l e des S c i e n c e s de P e t e r s b u r g ,

Ser. V I , TV pp. 837-8H5, 1911).

-T. 1678: 4^^ \f •

b. T i b e t a n Texts

—P. 9^9: 'phags-pa s k u gsum shes-bya-ba theg-pa chan-po'i mdo

( r e c o n s t r u c t e d as A^rya-kayatraya-nama-mahayana-sutra). One f o l i o .
T h i s t e x t has been r e p r i n t e d i n note 2 t o c h a p t e r 1 o f t h e p r e s e n t study.
- - Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n :

W. W. R o c k h i l l . The L i f e of the Buddha. London: Kegan P a u l ,

Tremh, ' Triibner & Co. L t d . , 1907, pp. 200-202.

 272

—P. 2015: sku gsum-la bstod-pa shes-bya-ba ( r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e Japanese

e d i t o r s as Kayatraya-stotra-nama). W r i t t e n by Nagarjuna and t r a n s l a t e d "
i n t o T i b e t a n by K r s n a p a n d i t a and Tshul-khrims r g y a l - b a .
Only one f o l i o i n l e n g t h .

P a r t o f t h i s t e x t i s t r a n s l a t e d by L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n i n h i s
"Three Bodies o f a Buddha," 1906 (pp. U55-^56).

—P. 2016: sku gsum-la bstod-pa shes-bya-ba'i rnam-par 'grel-pa°

( r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e e d i t o r s as K a y a t r a y a - s t o t r a - n a m a - n i v a r a n a ) .

T h i s i s a commentary t o No. 2015. I t was w r i t t e n by Nagarjuna

and r e v i s e d by Sraddhakaravarman and Rin-chen bzang-po. Eight folios.

—P. 5290: sku gsum-la ' j u g - p a ' i sgo shes-bya-ba'i bstan-bcos (recon-
s t r u c t e d by t h e e d i t o r s as Kayatrayavatara-mukham-nama-sastra).
W r i t t e n by Nagamitra and t r a n s l a t e d by Prajnavarma and Ye-shes sde.
Fifteen folios.

—P. 5291: sku gsum-gyi ' g r e l - p a ( r e c o n s t r u c t e d as K a y a t r a y a - v r t t i ) .

W r i t t e n by Jnanacandra and t r a n s l a t e d by Prajnavarman and Ye-shes sde.

Seventy-two folios.

Texts 5290 and 5291 appear t o c o n t a i n a v e r y thorough d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

developed t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e . However, t h e s e t e x t s have not been e d i t e d o r

studied. Very l i t t l e i s known about t h e i r a u t h o r s . The e d i t i n g and p r e l i m i n a r y

t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e s e t e x t s , t o render them u s e f u l sources o f d a t a , would be a

major u n d e r t a k i n g . I n t h e immediate f u t u r e , a few g e n e r a l i d e a s c o u l d be

o b t a i n e d from them, and, i n t h e l o n g r u n , t h e y may be t h e most important texts;

but t h e y a r e u n l i k e l y t o be a v a i l a b l e as r e l i a b l e sources f o r some t i m e .

c. Sanskrit texts

— R a t n a k a r a s a n t i ' s commentary on t h e Khasamatantra. G. T u c c i has pub-

l i s h e d a v e r y b r i e f p a l m - l e a f manuscript from N e p a l , a l o n g w i t h i t s
T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e sDe-dge and sNar-thang editions of the
bstan-'gyur. G. T u c c i . " R a t n a k a r a s a n t i on A s r a y a - p a r a v r t t i . "
A s i a t i c a , F e s t s c h r i f t F r e i d r i c h W e i l e r , 195*+: 765-767.
This l i t t l e text c o n t a i n s an extremely c l e a r treatment o f t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p o f t h e concept o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e t r i k a y a i n l a t e I n d i a n Buddhist
thought.
 273

II. CHINESE TEXTS AND COMMENTARIES

9• Suvarnaprabhasottamasutra

This i s a popular and w i d e l y - s t u d i e d sutra. Early versions, including

t h e s u r v i v i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t , d i d not mention t h e t r i k a y a . A separate chapter,
which became one o f t h e fundamental statements o f t h e d o c t r i n e i n t h e F a r E a s t ,
appears i n I - T s i n g ' s translation ( l a t e 7th c e n t u r y ) , and i n t h e T i b e t a n t r a n s -
l a t i o n from h i s Chinese by Chos-grub (9th c e n t u r y ) . T h i s chapter was commented
upon by many l a t e r Chinese w r i t e r s .

The Dainihon zoku zokyo (Great Japanese Supplement t o t h e Canon), v o l s .

30-32, c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l commentaries. Hui-chao's l i n e - b y - l i n e commentary
appears t o c o n t a i n t h e most i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e .

U n l i k e most o t h e r t e x t s , t h i s one has been v e r y c a r e f u l l y e d i t e d and

translated. J . Nobel has p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s . The one t h a t would be
the b a s i s f o r any study o f t h e t r i k a y a chapter i s h i s Suvarnaprabhasottama-
sutra. L e i d e n : E. J . B r i l l , 1958- This contains a photo-reprint o f I-Tsing's
Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n (T. 665: -<fsL )» a n
e d i t e d and

t r a n s l i t e r a t e d v e r s i o n o f Chos-grub's t r a n s l a t i o n s , and a German t r a n s l a t i o n .

10. Buddhabhumi s ut r a

While t h e p l a c e o f t h i s s u t r a w i t h i n t h e development o f I n d i a n Buddhism

is s t i l l u n c l e a r , i t a r t i c u l a t e s a Buddhology t h a t i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h a t o f

Asahga. I t should be i n c l u d e d i n any expanded study. The s u t r a , t o g e t h e r

w i t h a commentary (vyakhyana) by Silabhadra,' was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Chinese by

Hsuan-tsang (T. 680: ^ and T. 1530: \% Iflf IjL ), and i n t o

T i b e t a n by

E d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t s o f b o t h , and Japanese t r a n s l a t i o n s and commentary,

a r e found i n : N i s h i o , Kyoo. The Buddhabhumi-sutra and t h e Buddhabhumi-

vyakhyana o f S i l a b h a d r a , 2 v o l s . Nagoya: Hajinkaku P u b l i s h i n g Co., n.d.

11. Ch'eng Wei-Shih Lun

$it_ • T h i s i s a summary o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a . I t was composed

by t h e p i l g r i m Hsuan-tsang and h i s d i s c i p l e K ' u e i - c h i a f t e r t h e former's r e t u r n
 27k

t o China i n t h e mid-seventh century A.D. I t i s arranged as a commentary on

Vasubandhu's T r i m s i k a , and draws most o f i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from Sthiramati

and Dharmapala. I t became t h e fundamental t e x t f o r t h e Sino-Japanese h e i r s

to the Vijnanavada t r a d i t i o n .

While t h i s t e x t i s p r o b a b l y c l o s e r i n s t r u c t u r e t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha
than any o t h e r , and a l s o ends w i t h a Buddhology, i t i s p r o p e r l y t h e b e g i n n i n g
of t h e F a r Eastern t r a d i t i o n s rather than a culmination o f the Indian. The
very f a c t t h a t Hsiian-tsang, t h e t r a n s l a t o r o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha, p r e f e r r e d
t o arrange h i s g e n e r a l e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n around t h e ambiguous verses
o f t h e Trimsika,. r a t h e r than around t h e formeri.text, i n d i c a t e s t h a t he was
developing a Chinese i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e d a f r e s h formulation.

a. Translations

There a r e no T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n s and, o f c o u r s e , no S a n s k r i t text.

b. Commentaries

i. P r i n c i p a l T'ang commentaries:

—T. 1830: }ijL, by K ' u e i - c h i ^ ^ . The major work.

—T. 1831 :*J^ ^ a l s o by K ' u e i - c h i . A condensed manual.

—T. 685: ijjfo ifa by T a o - i j j ^ tf_> •

—T. 686: j | ;g by -ft 0. .

ii. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l l e s s orthodox (to t h e dharmalaksana

t r a d i t i o n ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from f o l l o w e r s o f K ' u e i - c h i ' s r i v a l , the

Korean-born Yuan-ts'e | j ] :JlJ (613-696):

-T. 689: by .

—T. 690: fifr (incomplete) by >||g. .

c. P r i n c i p a l sub-commentaries t o K ' u e i - c h i ' s

—T. 1831: ' f ^ ' l f j f - by K ' u e i - c h i .

—T. 1832 O'^'y^i Y b
|L >tZ ( - T l * ) , second p a t r i a r c h o f t h e s e c t .
d 1

—T. 1833 3f by ^ ]£] .

d. Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s

— Louis de l a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , t r a n s , and ed.; Vijnaptimatratasiddhi:

l a s i d d h i de Hsiian-tsang. Buddhica, tome I . P a r i s : Paul Geuthner,

1928. Index p u b l i s h e d i n Buddhica, tome V I I I , 1948.

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— Wei T a t , t r a n s . Ch'eng Wei-shin Lun. Hong Kong: The Ch'eng Wei-shih

Lun P u b l i c a t i o n Committee, 1973.