Professional Documents
Culture Documents
developed at
Chabot Space & Science Center
Oakland, California
Ancient Eyes Looked to the Skies 2
Sunwatchers of the Southwest
Table of Contents
Ancient Eyes Looked to the Skies ...................................................................................... 4
Overview......................................................................................................................... 4
What is Archaeoastronomy? ........................................................................................... 4
Why Chaco Canyon? ...................................................................................................... 5
Why Archaeoastronomy?................................................................................................ 5
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................... 6
Activity 1: Schoolyard Medicine Wheel............................................................................ 7
Building the Wheel ......................................................................................................... 8
Activity 2: Classroom Solar Calendar ............................................................................. 11
Observing and Recording Patterns of Light and Shadow............................................. 12
Creating a Classroom Calendar .................................................................................... 13
Extra Credit................................................................................................................... 13
Sample Page of Observation Notebook ........................................................................ 14
Activity 3: Birthday Sunbeam ......................................................................................... 15
Tracking the Sun Shadow ............................................................................................. 16
Leaving a Time Capsule ............................................................................................... 17
Background ................................................................................................................... 17
Activity 4: Tetherball Gnomon........................................................................................ 18
Observing With the Gnomon ........................................................................................ 19
Additional Activities..................................................................................................... 20
Activity 5: Horizon Calendar........................................................................................... 21
Creating Your Horizon Calendar .................................................................................. 22
Part 1: Select your observing site............................................................................. 22
Part 2: Draw a detailed map of your observing site................................................. 22
Part 3: Draw your horizon calendar ......................................................................... 22
Part 4: Observing ..................................................................................................... 23
Aftermath ...................................................................................................................... 23
Background ................................................................................................................... 24
Horizon Calendar Template.......................................................................................... 25
Activity 6: Dome of the Sky ............................................................................................ 26
Building the model........................................................................................................ 27
What is Archaeoastronomy?
A Brief Introduction to Archaeoastronomy
By Clive Ruggles
http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/cfaar_as.html
The study of the astronomical practices, celestial lore, mythologies, religions and world-
views of all ancient cultures we call archaeoastronomy. We like to describe
archaeoastronomy, in essence, as the "anthropology of astronomy", to distinguish it from
the "history of astronomy".
You may already know that many of the great monuments and ceremonial constructions
of early civilizations were astronomically aligned. The accurate cardinal orientation of
the Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt or the Venus alignment of the magnificent Maya
Palace of the Governor at Uxmal in Yucatan are outstanding examples. We learn much
about the development of science and cosmological thought from the study of both the
ancient astronomies and surviving indigenous traditions around the world.
With its roots in the Stonehenge discoveries of the 1960s, archaeoastronomy and
ethnoastronomy (the study of contemporary native astronomies) have blossomed into
active interdisciplinary fields that are providing new perspectives for the history of our
species' interaction with the cosmos.
One hallmark of the new research is active cooperation between professionals and
amateurs from many backgrounds and cultures. The benefit of this cooperation has been
that archaeoastronomy has expanded to include the interrelated interests in ancient and
native calendar systems, concepts of time and space, mathematics, counting systems and
geometry, surveying and navigational techniques as well as geomancy and the origins of
urban planning. We feel the excitement of the synergy that results when the new
syntheses are more than the sum of their parts.
Our subject is essentially a study of the Anthropology of Astronomy and world-views
and the role of astronomy and astronomers in their cultures.
Why Archaeoastronomy?
Astronomy was arguably the first “science.” People throughout time and across cultures
have carefully observed the sky, noticed the patterns of the sun, moon, and stars; and
used this knowledge to survive. Understanding the cycles of the Sun allowed people to
know when to plant, harvest, or move to a different location. It enabled them to know
that a “sunny day in February” was NOT truly spring. They were able to time their
rituals, celebrations, and other important life events. If they were traveling from one
place to another, this knowledge helped them find their way. Today, most of us have lost
this personal connection with the cosmos. Learning about ancient peoples, including
their scientific understandings, and learning to carefully observe the sky as they did
promotes student learning. Students learn to appreciate people from a different time and
place, and they have opportunities to make personal connections with the sky. They
benefit from engaging in long-term, on-going investigations. Collecting data first hand,
finding patterns in that data, and reaching generalizations and conclusions is authentic
science. Additionally, the subject of archaeoastronomy enables a rich blending of
astronomy, anthropology/archaeology, mathematics, art and literature.
Acknowledgements
This curriculum was developed at Chabot Space & Science Center by Benjamin Burress
and Linda Block, with participation by Stephen Ramos, Ruth Pagliorani (U.C. Berkeley
Space Sciences Lab), and Deborah Scherrer (Stanford Solar Center).
1. At noon, at least three students come out to the Medicine Wheel with the string and
the chalk. Untie the chalk, separating it from the string.
2. One student is the Observer. The Observer stands on the edge of the circle on just the
right spot so that the Sun is directly above the marked center of the wheel. It may
help to draw an imaginary vertical line with a hand from the Sun straight down to the
center of the wheel. If the center of the wheel is not directly below the Sun, the
Observer moves along the circle to a position where it is.
3. Another student is the String Stretcher. The String Stretcher gives one end of a piece
of string, which is equal in length to the diameter of the wheel, to the Observer, then
takes the other end across the wheel and stretches the string tight.
4. The String Stretcher moves the string until it crosses directly through the center of the
wheel, then stands in that position on the wheel.
5. A third student is the Line Drawer. The Line Drawer takes a piece of sidewalk chalk
and draws a straight line across the wheel—from the Observer to the center and then
to the String Stretcher—following the line of the stretched string.
6. The Line Drawer draws a smaller circle around the Observer’s feet and labels this
position “Observer of Noon Sun.” The Line Drawer draws a smaller circle around the
String Stretcher’s feet and labels this spot “Noon Sun.”
7. This completes one “spoke” of the Medicine Wheel: the spoke showing the direction
of the Sun at noon.
Question: What direction (north, south, east, west, northeast, southwest, etc.) do you
think this spoke points to?
Marking the Sunrise/Sunset Directions:
If it were possible for students to come and mark the directions of sunrise or sunset, they
would do it in the same way as the noontime Sun direction, forming more spokes. Don’t
forget to label them!
Question: What direction(s) do you think the sunrise or sunset spokes point to?
More Spokes to Mark:
If students can’t come back to the school at sunrise/sunset, other spokes can be added
anyway. Here are some suggestions:
Equinox sunrise and sunset: Around the Fall and Spring Equinoxes (September 22nd
and March 21st), the Sun rises directly east and sets directly west. You can mark these
two directions by either using a magnetic compass or by drawing a spoke across the
center of the wheel that is perpendicular to the line that was drawn for the Noon Sun.
Draw and label these spokes.
North Star: The North Star, named Polaris, is located near the “North Celestial Pole,”
and never moves from its position; it’s always directly northward. Mark the direction of
Polaris by making a spoke on the wheel that is exactly opposite the spoke you made for
Noon Sun. Label it “North Star.” (The correct way to do this, of course, is to come out
at night, find Polaris, and draw the spoke by sighting, as was done for Noon Sun.)
Moon: Depending on where the Moon is, spokes pointing in the direction of the rising or
setting Moon can be added. When you make a spoke for a moonrise or moonset, be sure
to label it clearly and include the time and date.
Star Risings or Settings: If students can come back at night (or better yet, if the class,
lead by the teacher, can hold a “star party” around the Medicine Wheel), then spokes can
be added for the risings and/or settings of bright stars that can be identified near the
horizon. Make spokes for the risings and/or settings of some bright stars—or as close to
rising and setting as possible. Label each spoke with the name of the star and include the
date and time. Some suggested stars (which someone will have to research in order to
find and identify) are: Aldebaran, in Taurus; Spica, in Virgo; Vega, in Lyra; Altair, in
Aquila; Betelgeuse, in Orion; Antares, in Scorpio; Arcturas, in Bootes; Sirius, in Canis
Major (brightest star in the sky).
Questions:
What do you think is the purpose of a medicine wheel?
In what ways can the Medicine Wheel be used to tell directions?
Can the medicine wheel be used to tell the time of year? How?
If you were to create a more permanent medicine wheel, how would you build it,
what would you build it from, how big would you make it, where would you put it?
Extra Credit
Find a spot in your bedroom or other room in your house where sunlight comes through
the window, and do this activity. You can draw or photograph the patterns.
Description of Pattern: At exactly 4:00 o’clock in the afternoon on January 3rd, the
shadow made by the top of the window near the northwest corner of the classroom
exactly cuts the dial of the wall clock in half. I noticed this pattern because the
straight line made by the shadow goes exactly through the center of the clock where
the clock hands also cross.
Drawing of Pattern:
Shadow
Questions:
1. Does the position of the daily Sun dot change or stay the same from day to day?
2. If it does move, which way does it go? How far does it move each day?
3. Over the weeks and months, does a shape or pattern appear? What is the shape or
pattern?
4. Can you explain any changes you see? If you see a pattern, can you explain that
pattern?
Background
You might expect that at a given time of the day, the Sun will always return to the same
spot in the sky, and so any sunbeams or shadows would be in the same spot every day at
that time.
The height in the sky that the Sun reaches at a given time of the day changes with the
season: in the summer, the Sun is higher at a given time than in winter. This means that
at a given time of the day, the Sun’s position changes from day to day.
11. Draw another straight line that is perpendicular to the north-south line. Question:
Which directions does this line run? Label the ends of this line with the directions
they point.
Questions:
Do you believe that this activity has really shown you the directions of north, south,
east, and west? If not, why?
If so, explain why you think this.
Why would it be important for an ancient culture to know these directions?
Additional Activities
Make a Solar Clock: When your day’s observations are done, try this, look at the times
that each drawing was made and try to estimate the whole hour times of the day (9
o’clock, 10 o’clock, 11 o’clock, etc.) between your shadow mark times (“interpolate”—
guess the times between measurements). Mark and label the whole hour times as best
you can. You’ve just made a sundial clock.
Guess the Shadow Positions: Looking at the line you have drawn connecting the
shadow positions, use another color of chalk and try to extend that line to before and after
the times that you observed (“extrapolate”—or guess the shadow tip positions outside of
your measurements). These new lines are your best guess of where the shadow tip will
fall at times earlier and later in the day. Come back the next day, early in the morning
and then later in the afternoon, and check to see if your guess was right.
Shortest Shadow: At what time of day was the gnomon’s shadow at it’s shortest? Is this
a special time of day? What direction does the shadow point at this time? Measure the
length of the gnomon’s shadow when it was shortest, and write down that length, the time
it was that shortest length, and the date. Keep this sheet of paper safe, and come back on
different days throughout the school year at the time you recorded (shortest shadow) and
measure the shadow’s length again. Keep a log of dates and shadow lengths.
Questions:
Over the year, do you notice any difference in the length of the gnomon’s shortest
shadow? How does it change?
When during your observing time was it shortest? Longest?
Part 4: Observing
1. Once per week on the same day, go out just before sunset, sit at your observing spot,
and wait for the Sun to set.
2. When half of the Sun’s disk has set, observe its location on the horizon and mark the
spot on your horizon calendar. Use a pencil, in case you need to make an adjustment.
For each sunset mark, try drawing the actual disk of the Sun (or the half of it above
the horizon) on your horizon, paying greatest attention to where each edge of the Sun
touches the horizon.
3. Record the exact time and date of that sunset on the horizon calendar.
Aftermath
When you have finished all of your observations, you will have a horizon calendar with
marked positions for the Sun on all the dates you observed.
1. For each pair of sunset positions, figure out how many days there were between them.
2. On the horizontal reference line on your horizon calendar, make small tic marks
dividing the line between two sunsets with the number of days between them. Do this
for each pair of sunset marks.
Questions:
Did the sunset position move at a steady speed for the entire time you were making
observations? If not, what do you notice about its motion?
Can you figure out from your horizon calendar where the Sun will set on any of the
following dates: September 22 (Autumn Equinox); December 21 (Winter Solstice);
March 21 (Spring Equinox); June 21 (Summer Solstice)? Mark the expected sunset
position for any or all of these days.
How did the time of sunset behave? If it changed from week to week, by how much
and in what direction (earlier, later)?
Do you think someone else could use your work—your site map, horizon calendar,
and sunset observations—to tell the time of year (at least during the period of time
you have observed for)?
Background
The point on the horizon where the Sun sets (and rises) changes in a cycle that repeats
yearly. At summer solstice, the horizon point of sunset is at its farthest position north,
and at winter solstice the farthest point south is reached. At the equinoxes, the Sun sets
directly west of the observer. The time of sunset also changes, with the Sun setting
relatively late in the summer, early in the winter, and at 6:00 PM (standard time) on the
equinoxes.
What helped the astronomers in the American southwest was the fact of the desert
landscape: there were many vantage points from which an observer could see a distant
horizon whose features don’t change much even over thousands of years. The more
distant the actual geographic features of the horizon, the less error in the Sun’s rising or
setting position was made. How do you think that accurate horizon-calendar
observations would be for an observer who lives in a heavily wooded area, or perhaps on
a small island with no distant horizon features other than the ocean?
3. Once you have set up the model, make sure you don’t move it until you are finished
making measurements!
Making Measurements
1. Place the tip of a dry erase marker near (but not yet touching) the surface of the dome
so that the shadow of the marker’s tip falls exactly at the intersection of the lines on
the cardboard base.
2. Make a small dot on the dome at that spot. This dot represents the position of the Sun
in the sky in your model, as if you were standing at the intersection of the lines on the
base.
3. Repeat the steps above every 15 minutes over at least two hours.
Aftermath
When you’re finished, the positions marked by the dots represent the Sun’s position in
the sky over the time you made your observations.
1. Imagine a tiny “you” standing at the intersection of lines on the base, looking up at
the dome of the sky.
Question: Do the positions for the Sun that you marked make sense? Do they
represent the changing position of the Sun in the sky as you actually observe it?
2. Draw a line through the dots you made—connect the dots. This line represents the
path the Sun appeared to move during the time that you were observing. By drawing
a line between two measurements to represent the Sun’s path, you are “interpolating”
(“inter” like “inside of,” or “in-between”).
3. Using a different colored dry erase marker, draw a line extending the Sun’s path to
the rest of the day, before and after the times of your measurements. By extending
this line to times of the day outside of your plotted Sun track, you are “extrapolating”
(“extra” like “outside,” or “external”). Try to extrapolate the Sun’s path all the way
to the horizon.
Questions:
What are the times of day when your Sun track intersects the horizon?
Where on your model’s horizon are these two points? Describe these positions by
telling where the points were with respect to north, south, east, and west.
What is the highest point in the sky the Sun reached during the day? Can you measure
or describe how high up this was?
At the time the Sun was highest in the sky, what direction (north, east, south, west, or
between) was the Sun?
Stonehenge
http://williamcalvin.com/bk6/bk6ch2.htm
A discussion of some astronomy as it relates to Stonehenge.
http://www.tivas.org.uk/stonehenge/stone_ast.html
Stonehenge archaeoastronomy.
Astroarchaeology
http://www.astroarchaeology.org/context/history.html
the U.K. way of arranging the discipline.
North America
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/northamerica/index.shtml
A museum based site on prehistoric North American people.
Chaco Culture
http://www.solsticeproject.org/celeseas.htm
The website from the people who first studied the Fejada Butte sun dagger.
http://www.ratical.org/southwest/images/
This site has some good general images of various Chacoan sites and subjects.
http://www.colorado.edu/Conferences/chaco/open.htm
A website developed to report a conference held about Chaco Culture and research held
in 1996. The “Chaco Canyon Tour” is especially helpful.
Other Websites
NSTA—Astronomy With a Stick: http://www.nsta.org/awsday
Center for Archaeoastronomy: http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/
National Park Service--Chaco Canyon: http://www.nps.gov/chcu/
Ancient Astronomy: http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~shaver/ancient.htm
The Anasazi: http://www.desertusa.com/ind1/du_peo_ana.html