Ai 1 2 New

'1 Artificial Intelligence (MU-Sam.
7-IT)
Table of Contents
1.13 Environments Types and PEAS

Properties of Agent ...................... .............................. 1-24
1.13.1 Environments Types ............................ ......................1 _24
- - - . •introduction to lntelllgent Systems and 1.13.2 PEAS Properties of Agent ................................. ........ 1-27
Chapter 1 • 1 1 1-35
~-~~:ln::te::ll~l=gl:e:,_n:_t,:A!g_e:_n=tsi:::~~~_::__::__:·_:_t:o_::__::__::• 1.14 Types of. Agents ........................................................ 1 _29
----
SytlabU• : n1r
SolvlnQ probl 8
1
m
oductlon to Al Al Problems and Al techniques,
· '
s by searching, Problem Formulation. State Space
7
•
·
.
1.14.1
1,.1~.2
Simple Reflex Agents ... .............................................. 1_29
Model-Based Reflex Agents ...................................... 1_31
Goal-Based Agents ...................................................1.32
· tation Structure of Intelligent agents, Types of Agents, 1.1f 3
Represen
· ·r: vironments PEAS representation for an Agent. 1.14.4 Utility-Based.Agents ............................ ......................1-33
Agan1i.n . 1.14.5 · Leaming Agents ,....................................................... 1-34
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence ............................. 1-1
1.1
foundations and Mathematical Treatments ................. 1-1
1.2
Acting Humanly : The Turing Test Approach ............... ~ -1
1.2.t 2-1 to 2-62
1, .2 Thinking Humanly : The Cognitive • Chapter 2 : Search Techniques
2 Modelling Approach ..................................................... 1-2
Syllabus : Uninformed Search: DFS, BFS, Uniform cost search I
1.2.3 Thinking Rationally : Depth Limited Search, Iterative Deepening.
The "Laws of Thoughr Approach ........... :..................... 1-3
Informed Search : Heu~istic functl~ns, 1Hill Cli!f!bing, Simulated
Acting Rationally : The Rational Agent Approach ........ 1-3
1.2.4 Annealing, Best First Search, A*, · )
Categorization of Intelligent Systems........................... 1-4

1.3 Constraint Satisfaction P~rammlng : C~to Arlthmetic, Map
1.4 Components of Al.. ................................... :.................. 1-4 Coloring, N-Oueens. ·· '
1.4.1 ·Computational Intelligence vs. Adv~rsarlal Search : Game Playing, Min•M·ax Search, Alpha Beta
Artificial lntelligence..........:..........................................1:-6
Pruning
1.5 History of Artificial lntelligerice .....................................1-6
2 Measuring Perfdnnance of Problem·,
1.6 Applications of Artificial lntelligence ................:•............ 1•7.- ·1 Solving Algorithm / Agent ...........................
.. ~- 1 ...e(..............2-1
1.7 Sub Areas / Domains of Artificial lntelligeoce ..............1,0 2.,2·.
V
Node Representation in Search •Tree ·.........................:2-1 ·
1.8 Current T~nds in Artificial Intelligence ........1.............. . 1-9
~
Uninformed
. Search , , ·
· .........................
-,, .J ' 22··
1.9 Problem Solving with Artificial Intelligence ................. 1-10 2.3 . Depth Frrst Search (DFS) . . ....... :................_.. •
24
1.9. t . Al Problems........................................:
1,9.1(A) Classic Artificial Intelligence .
1
.. ..................... :
rn ·
2'4.1
Co~cept.. ......................... :::::::::::~;::::::::::: ....., ... .......... 2-2~ ~
Implementation .. . .................... 2-2 .
Se~ch Problems .......................................................1~10 2:4.2 . · Algorithm •••••••••••••• •••••••••••••• ,,~,,,~;! .- f"'p I
. ........................ 2-3
1.10 Soivi~g .~roblems by Searching ............ · · -. 2.4.3,
Perfo ······················~---··:....................::...................
. -, ,. 2-3'.·
.
1.10,1 Problem Formulation . ..................... 1-12 244
· · Well-D~fin~ • ................................................. 1-12 · · B rmance Evaluatiorr-
· ....................... ,:.... : · . 224·
1 10 2
.. Problems and Solutions 2.5 readth First Search (BFS) .................. '... ,.:: ...~..........
1.10.3 Example of 8-Puzzle Proble.m ................. :.....1-13 Concept ....................2-4
1.10.4 · .. 2.5.1 ••••••• • • •• • •• • • ••••• ••• ••••• •.• • ••• •••••• • • • •:, ,: ,,,,
\ Example of Missionari~ ................................. 1-13 Proces ,
J I
·...................2-5
S...................... . .. . L, , .,
and Cannibals Problem 2:5.2 Implementation ."''1 -r. •11• .. : .. . : ........................... 2-5
. 1.10.s . ExampleofRealr . ............................................. 1-14 2:5.3· Algorithm ......................_. ..................................... 2-5
1.10.6 . . ime Problems .. ' -.
1.11 Artificial Intelligence Techniques ................................ 1-14 . 2.5.4
Performanoo E~~;~·~~~~ . .. .......................... 2-5
Intelligent Agents ................:.............. 1-15 2.5.5 (J·1 . ......................... ............. :....... 2-5
1.11 .1 What is .......................................... 2
1.11.2 an Agent? ............. 1-19 .6 Co"' orm Cost Search • (UCS) ........................................ 2-5
De!iriiUons of A .. ..................................... 1-19 2-.6.1 ncept.. ........ .............................................................. 2-5
1.11.3· gent...
11 Intelligent Agent.. .. .............................................. 1-20•. 2.6.2 Implementation............................................................ 2-6
· 1.3(A) Struct · ..................... ...... .. Algorithm ................ ·..............................
·
1.12 R . ure of Intelligent Agents ...... .. .................. 1-21 2.6.3 .
......................2-6
ational Agent ............................... 1-22 2.6.4 Performance
. Evaluation .............................. ................2-6
....... ..........
.......................,........ 1-23 2.7 Depth limited Search (DLS).............................. .......... 2•6
2.7.1 Concept .......................................................................2 -6
I if Artlflclal lntelll ence (MU-S
: -- :~ ~ = ~ ~ ~e~m~.7~-l~T)~ - - - - - ~ - - - - - - -- - - -~ ~ ~
;2.7.2 Process
2 Table•of "·
VQlll&tt
2.7.3 lmplementatl~............................................................ 2-7 2.14.4 Performance Measures for Best First search.......... ,(I
27 ............................................................2-7 2.14.5 Greedy Best Ftrst Search................................. ·•<·<? -
c-.. . . . . . . . . . . .:. . . . ..
2.14.6 properties of Greedy Best-first Search.......... .......·· <'<?
· ·4 Algorithm............. ........................................................2-7
2·7·5 Patudo Code...............................................................2-7 2.15 A• Search ......................................................::::::::•..·<·~-
2·7·6
2.8 Perfonnanoe Evaluation
. .. ............................................, ~ 2.15.1 ....<,<0 !:,t
2.8.1
Iterative Deepening CFS (IOOFS) ...............................2-8
Concept
2.15.2 lmplementatlon................................................. ~ ~·
.... "..•<-~
...............................................:.......................2-8 2.15.3 Algorithm (A•)................................................ P
282 Procaaa ............<,~
. . .....................,.................................................2-9 2.15.4 Behavtour of A• Algorithm...................................... < In
2·8·3 lmplementation............................................................ •9
2 2.15.5 Admissibility of A•................................................... : :<: C
2.8.4 Algorlthm ..............................:.................................... 2-10 2.15.6 Monotonlclty ..............................................................2~ s.·
2.8.5 Pseudo Code.............................................................2-10 2.15.7 properties of A• ......................................................... <-33 3.
2.8.6 Performance Evaluation ............................................2•10 2.15.8 example: 8 puzzle Problem using A• Algorithro .......<-33 3_
2.9 ' Bldlractlonal Search ...........:......................................2•10 2.15.9 Caparison amonQ Best First Search, 3
Conctpt..................................................................... • A• search and Greedy Best First Search ..................·<·:J6 3·
2.9.1 10
2 constraint Satisfaction Problem................................2,3e ·
2.16
2.9.2 Proceas ..................................................................... 2-11 2 16 1 Examples of CSPs ............,................................ ~ 3.
2.9.3 lmplementatton ..........................................................2-11 2·16·2 ....... <
Varieties of CSPs............................................... ~-36 ·3.
2.9.4 Performance Evaluation ............................................2-11 · .s·3 Varieties of Constraints ......... .................................... ,-31
~ 3
2•1 • · . ......·<·37
Proa of Bidirectional Search ......................................2-11
2.9.5 • •4
216 Backtracking in CSPs................................................ < ~-31 3
2.9.6 Cons of Bidirectional Search .....................................2-12 2.16.5 Improving Backtracking Efficiency................ · 2

Comparing Different Techniques ...............................2-12 _ . ............. -381 3
2.10
2.10.1 Difference between Unidirectional 2.17 Crypto-Arithmetic Problem ............................. :.......... 2-41. :i
· and Bidirectional Search............................................ 2-12 2.17.~ N-Oueen Problem .....:'.: ............................................2-43 3
2.10.2 Difference between BFS and OFS ............................. 2-13 2.18 Adversarial Search .................................................... 2~
2.11 tntormedSearchTechniques.....................................2-14 2.18.1 EnvtronmentTypes ...................................................2-45
2.12 Heuristic Function...................................................... 2-14 · 2.18.2 Al Game· Features................................... ·...............2-45
.2.12.1 Example of 8-PIIZZle Problem ..................:................2-15 · 2.18.2(A) Zero Sum Game .......................................................2-45
2. t2.2 Example of Block World Problem ..............................2-16 2.18.2(8) Non-Zero Sum Game ...............................................2-46
2.12.3 . Properties of Good Heuristic Function ........................ 2-17 2.18.2{C) Positive Sum Game ............... ,..................................2-46 :
2.13 Local Search Algorithms and 2.18.2(0) Negative Sum Game ............ :....................................2-46 :
Optimization Problems .........................,....................2-18 .
219 ReIevant Aspects of Al Game ...................................
. 2-46 .
2.13.1 .-Hill C_limbing .. ;.................................................:......... 2-18 2.20 Game Playing.............................................· .............. 2-47 .
- 2.13.1(A) Simple HIii Climbing ...............................................:.. 2-19 2.20•1 Type of Game Strategies........................................... 2-47 .
.
2.13.1 (B) Steepest Ascent HIii Climbing .................................2-19 2.20.2 Type of Games ............:...................... :......................2-48 '
2.13.1(C) Limitations of Hill Climbing ........................................2-20 . 2.20.2(A) Chess .......................................................................2-49
.
2.13.1 (D) Solutions on Problems ·1n H·11
1 c,· 1m
• bing ......................2-22 ,. . 2.20.2(8) Checkers ...................................................................2·50
~
2.13.2 Simulated Annealing ..................................................2-22 2.20.3 What is Game Tree? ........................................ .'........ 2·50
2.13.2(A) Comparing Simulated Annealing 2.21 MiniMax Algorithm .......................................·........:.....2-52
with Hill Climbing ......... :.............................................2-23
2.21 .1 Minimax Algorithm ..........:....................;.....................2·52
_2.1~.3 Local Beam Search .......................................'............2• 23 Properties of Minimax Algorithm ................................2-55
2.21.2
2.14 First Search .......................................................2•26
. Best _
2.22 Alpha Beta Pruning ...................................................2-55
2.14.1 Concept..................... ,.. ~ ........................................... 2-26
2.22. 1 . Example of a-13 Pruning .............................................2-58
2.14.2 ·lmplementation ............... ;...........:..............................2·26
2.22.2 Properties of a-!3........................................................2-61
2.14.3 Algorithm : Best First Search ..................................... 2•27
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'1 Artificial Intelligence (MU-Sam.

1.13 Environments Types and PEAS

Categorization of Intelligent Systems........................... 1-4

2.9.6 Cons of Bidirectional Search .....................................2-12 2.16.5 Improving Backtracking Efficiency................ · 2

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