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MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module
Institute of Mathematics
MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module
Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines Diliman
iv
No part of this document may be distributed in any way, shape, or form, without prior written
permission from the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
s
Lawrence Fabrero
ic
Alip Oropeza
at
m
Mathematics 21 Reviewers and Editors (2022):
he
Jeanine Concepcion Arias-Ona
at
Jake Avila
M
Jerielle Malonzo
ut
stit
In
UP
Contents
ic s
1.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
at
1.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
m
1.3 Limits Involving Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
he . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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1.3.2 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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1.3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
of
1.4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
s
In
1.5.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.5.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.6 Trigonometric Functions: Limits and Continuity;
The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.6.2 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7 New Classes of Functions: Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.1 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.7.3 Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.7.4 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.7.5 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
v
vi CONTENTS
ic s
2.3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
at
2.3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
m
2.3.3 Derivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
he . . . . . 103
2.3.4 Derivative of f (x)g(x) , where f (x) > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
at
2.3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
M
s
3.3 Local Linear Approximation, Differentials, and Marginals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
ic
3.3.1 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
at
3.3.2 Local Linear Approximation and Approximating ∆y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
m
he
3.3.3 Marginals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
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3.3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
M
0 ∞
3.4.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
e
ut
ic s
at
m
he
at
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of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 1
s
using a descriptive, graphical, and numerical approach. We then develop computational methods
ic
at
in evaluating limits of algebraic expressions.
m
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
he
at
• interpret the limit of a function through graphs and tables of values
M
of
• compute the limit of polynomial and rational functions using limit theorems
e
ut
(
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x − 1, x 6= 1
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) = 4 h(x) =
x−1 0, x=1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
−1 −1 −1
In this subsection, we use graphs of functions in order to develop an intuitive notion of the basic
concept of limits. We make a distinction between the value of a function at a real number a and
1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
the function’s behavior for values very near a. A function f may be undefined at a, but it can be
described by studying the values of f when x is very close to a, but not equal to a. To illustrate
our point, let us consider the following functions:
Illustration 1.1.1.
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003
In the tables above, we evaluated f at values of x very close to 1. Observe that as the values
of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 2. If we continue
s
replacing x with values even closer to 1, the value of f (x) will get even closer to 2.
ic
at
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)(x − 1)
m
2. Let g(x) = = . Note that g(x) is undefined at x = 1. Observe
x−1 x−1 he
though that if x 6= 1, then g(x) = 3x − 1 = f (x). Thus, g is identical to f except only at
at
x = 1. Hence, as in the first item, if x assumes values going closer and closer to 1 but not
M
(
3x − 1, x 6= 1
3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,
e
ut
0, x=1
tit
h(x) goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer to 1. (See Figure 1.1.1 for a
comparison of f , g and h.)
s
In
UP
In each of the above examples, we saw that as x got closer and closer to a certain number a, the
value of the function approached a particular number. This does not always happen, but in the
case that it does, the number to which the function value gets closer and closer is what we will call
the limit of the function as x approaches a.
Let f be a function defined on some open interval I containing a, except possibly at a. We say
R
that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, where L ∈ , denoted
lim f (x) = L,
x→a
if we can make f (x) as close to L as we like by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not
necessarily equal to a).
Remark 1.1.2. Alternatively, lim f (x) = L if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as x
x→a
assumes values going closer and closer to a but not reaching a.
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 3
Example 1.1.3. Since the value of 3x − 1 goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer
to 1 as shown in Illustration 1.1.1, we now write
lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1
Remark 1.1.4. Note that in finding the limit of f (x) as x tends to a, we only need to consider
values of x that are very close to a but not exactly a. This means that the limit may exist even if
f (a) is undefined.
3x2 − 4x + 1
Example 1.1.5. In Illustration 1.1.1, we see that g(x) = is undefined at x = 1.
x−1
However, since x only approaches 1 and is not equal to 1, we conclude that x − 1 6= 0. Hence,
(3x − 1)(x − 1)
lim g(x) = lim = lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1
Remark 1.1.6. If lim f (x) and f (a) both exist, their values may not be equal. In other words, it
s
x→a
ic
is possible that f (a) 6= lim f (x).
x→a
at
m
Example 1.1.7. Recall that ( he
3x − 1, x 6= 1
h(x) =
at
0, x=1
M
x→1
e
Remark 1.1.8. If f (x) does not approach a real number as x tends to a, then we say that the
ut
1, x≥0
H(x) =
0, x<0
This function is called the Heaviside step function. The graph of the function is given below:
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
From the graph, we see that there is no particular value to which H(x) approaches as x approaches
0. We cannot say that the limit is 0 because if x approaches 0 through values greater than 0,
the value of H(x) approaches 1. In the same way, we cannot say that the limit is 1 because if x
approaches 0 through values less than 0, the value of H(x) approaches 0. In this case, lim H(x)
x→0
does not exist.
4 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Theorem 1.1.10. Let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined on some open interval containing a,
except possibly at a.
2. If c ∈ R, then x→a
lim c = c.
3. lim x = a
x→a
ic s
(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L1 ± L2
at
x→a
m
(b) lim [cf (x)] = cL1
x→a he
at
(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
x→a
M
f (x) L1
of
(d) lim = , provided that g(x) 6= 0 on some open interval containing a, except
x→a g(x) L2
e
possibly at a, and L2 6= 0.
ut
N.
tit
Solution.
From the theorem above,
(x − 3)(x2 − 2)
Example 1.1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 5
Solution.
First, note that
lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.
x→1 x→1 x→1
Using the theorem,
ic s
√
at
2x + 5
Example 1.1.13. Evaluate: lim
m
x→2 1 − 3x
he
Solution.
at
First, note that
M
Also,
e
ut
√ √ q
√
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x→2 x→2 9 3
UP
lim = = = =− .
x→2 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x −5 5
x→2 x→2
Solution.
Using Theorem 1.1.14,
4
1 − 5x
Example 1.1.16. Evaluate lim .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4
Solution. 4
1−5x
Let f (x) = 1+3x 2 +x4 . Note that 1 ∈ dom f . By Theorem 1.1.14,
4 4
1 − 5x 1 − 5(1) 1
lim = = .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4 1 + 3(1)2 + 4(1)4 16
ic s
(where F (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1 and G(x) = x − 1) in Illustration 1.1.1. This is because lim G(x) = 0.
at
x→1
F (x)
m
Now, observe that lim F (x) = 0 = lim G(x). We call the limit lim hean indeterminate form.
x→1 x→1 x→1 G(x)
3x2 − 4x + 1
at
Such limits may or may not exist. Example 1.1.5 showed us that the limit lim exists,
x→1 x−1
M
and is in fact equal to 2. We shall see that limits with indeterminate forms, if they exist, may be
of
f (x) 0
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form of type .
tit
Remark 1.1.17.
f (x)
1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined at x = a, and NOT indeterminate.
g(x)
f (x)
Remember that the term “indeterminate” only applies to the limit lim , and not the
x→a g(x)
f (a)
function value .
g(a)
2. By our intuitive notion of the limit, recall that when computing the limit, we are not concerned
with the function value when x = a.
3. A limit that is indeterminate of type 00 may exist, and to compute the limit, one may use
Solution.
The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches −1 is 0. Thus, this limit in
its current form is indeterminate of type 00 . However, observe that x + 1 is a common factor of
the numerator and the denominator. Thus, we may simplify the function as
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, provided x 6= −1.
x+1 x+1
Therefore, we obtain the limit as follows:
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0
x→−1 x+1 x→−1
x2 − 5x + 6
Example 1.1.19. Evaluate lim .
x→2 x2 − 4
Solution.
x2 − 5x + 6 0
Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type 0 . Using the same technique,
x→2 x2 − 4
x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3) x−3 1
s
lim = lim = lim =− .
ic
x→2 2
x −4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) x→2 x + 2 4
at
m
x2 − 16
Example 1.1.20. Evaluate lim √ . he
x→4 2 − x
at
Solution.
M
x2 − 16
√ is an indeterminate form of type 00 . Observe that in its current form, the
Again, lim
of
x→4 2 − x
numerator and denominator do not have common factors. So we multiply the numerator and
e
√
ut
denominator by 2 + x to get
√ √
tit
x2 − 16 2 + x (x − 4)(x + 4)(2 + x) √
√ · √ = = −(x + 4)(2 + x),
s
2− x 2+ x 4−x
In
x2 − 16 √
lim √ = lim −(x + 4)(2 + x) = −32.
x→4 2 − x x→4
√
x+5−3
Example 1.1.21. Evaluate lim .
x→4 x−4
Solution.
This limit is also an indeterminate form of type ( 00 ). Similar to the previous example,
√ √
x+5−3 x+5+3 (x + 5) − 9
lim ·√ = lim √
x→4 x−4 x+5+3 x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 − 3)
x−4
= lim √
x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 + 3)
1
= lim √
x→4 x+5+3
1
= .
6
8 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1.1.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
0 2 4
Evaluate f (0), f (2), and f (3). Evaluate also lim f (x), lim f (x) and lim f (x).
x→0 x→2 x→3
ic s
B. Evaluate the following limits.
at
m
1. lim x(x − 2)(x + 2) he 3
2z − z 2
x→−1 6. lim
at
z→2 z2 − 4
3x2 + 2x − 1 √
M
2. lim x2 + 3 − 2
x→−1 x3 + 1 7. lim
x2 − 1
of
√ x→−1
t−2−4 √ √
2x − 6 − x
e
3. lim 8. lim
ut
t→18 t − 18 x→2 4 − x2
tit
2s2 − 7s + 3 p3 − 1
4. lim 9. lim √
s
s→3 s2 − 4s + 3 p→1 2p − 1 − 1
In
C. Do as indicated.
1. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = x2 for all x 6= 10 but f (10) = 99.
x→10
x
2. Determine the values of the constants a and b such that lim √ = 1.
x→0 ax + b − 2
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 9
Supplementary Exercises
q3 + q2 − q − 1 x3 − 3x − 2
1. lim 9. lim
q→−1 q2 − 1 x→−1 x3 − x2 − x + 1
2y 2 − 3y + 1 t−1
2. lim 10. lim √
2
6t + 3 − 3t
y→1 y3 − 1 t→1
√
6 + x − x2 4x2 + 5x + 9 − 3
3. lim 2 11. lim
x→−2 x − 4x − 12 x→0 x
√ √ √
2− 7−a 8 − x − 1 − 8x
4. lim 12. lim √ √
a→3 2a2 − 3a − 9 x→−1 3 − x − 6x + 10
x3 − x2 − x + 10 (x + t)3 − x3
5. lim 13. lim
x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2 t→0 t
√ √ 1
4
x4 + 1 − x2 + 1 +1
6. lim 14. lim x2 4
x→0 x2 x→−4 x − 16
s
√
ic
p 1
7+ 3x−3 −1
7. lim lim x+t x
at
15.
x→8 x−8 t→0 t
m
p √
9q 2 − 4 − 17 + 12q he 4 8
8. lim 16. lim + 2
q→−1 q 2 + 3q + 2 x→−2 x + 2 x + 2x
at
bx2 + 15x + b + 15
M
C. For each of the following functions below, use a calculator to evaluate f (x) when
tit
x = ±0.1, ±0.001, ±0.000001. Based on your results, what could the value of lim f (x) be?
x→0
s
In
sin x
1. f (x) =
UP
x
1 − cos x
2. f (x) =
x
tan x
3. f (x) =
x
10 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
• interpret the one-sided limit of a function through graphs and tables of values
s
ic
at
m
Consider the following functions. he
at
Illustration 1.2.1. Let
M
3 − 5x2 , x<1
of
f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
e
ut
If x is less than and very close to 1, then f (x) = 3 − 5x2 . If we let x approach 1 through these
tit
values, then f (x) would approach −2. On the other hand, if we let x approach 1 through values
s
In
greater than 1, then we use f (x) = 4x − 3 and f (x) approaches 1. Similar to Example 1.1.9,
UP
y = 3 − 5x2
y = 4x − 3
1
−1 0 1 2
−1
−2
√
Illustration 1.2.2. Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞). So we can only consider values of
x which are greater than 0 if we want to get the “limit” of f as x goes to 0.
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 11
√
2 f (x) = x
0 1 2 3 4
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (c, a). We say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a from the left is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
s
less than a.
ic
at
m
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). We say that the
he
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right is L, denoted
at
lim f (x) = L
M
x→a+
of
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
e
greater than a.
ut
s tit
Remark 1.2.3.
In
“x → a+ ”.
2. We sometimes refer to lim f (x) as the two-sided limit to distinguish it from one-sided limits.
x→a
Recall that this is the Heaviside step function. We easily see that lim H(x) = lim 1 = 1 while
x→0+ x→0+
lim H(x) = lim 0 = 0.
x→0− x→0−
and
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 1.
x→1+ x→1+
Suppose a function f satisfies lim f (x) = 0. We shall distinguish between ways by which f
x→a
approaches 0. For example, for f (x) = 2 − x, notice that lim (2 − x) = 0. As x approaches
x→2
2 from the left, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through positive values. On the other hand, if x
approaches 2 from the right, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through negative values:
Meanwhile, consider g(x) = (2−x)2 . Similarly, lim (2−x)2 = 0, but this time, regardless of whether
s
x→2
ic
x approaches 2 from the left or right, g(x) passes through positive values as it approaches 0:
at
m
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001he 2.01 2.1
g(x) 0.01 0.0001 0.000001 0 0.000001 0.0001 0.01
at
M
We now state the following definition which will be helpful in our computations later.
of
e
x→a
tit
f (x) → 0+ .
s
In
f (x) → 0− .
p hp √ i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (−3) · (0+ ) = 0−
x→−1+
p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (0− ) · ( 23 )
1−
x→ 2
p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (0+ ) · ( 32 )
1+
x→ 2
Find (a) lim f (x), (b) lim f (x), (c) lim f (x), and (d) lim f (x).
x→−1− x→0− x→0+ x→4+
ic s
at
Solution.
m
To evaluate (a), we need x to be less than −1 but very close to −1, so we use the expression
x2 − x − 2
. Thus,
he
at
x+1
M
(x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim (x − 2) = −3.
of
For (b), we take x to be less than 0 but very close to zero. By the definition of the function, we
tit
x2 − x − 2
should take f (x) = for such values of x. Hence, lim f (x) = −2.
s
In
x+1 x→0−
√
UP
Some limits can be calculated by finding the one-sided limits first. In fact, we have the following
result:
Theorem 1.2.10. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L = lim f (x).
x→a x→a− x→a+
√ √
Example 1.2.11. From Example 1.2.7, since lim 2 − x = 0 and lim 2 − x does not exist,
√ x→2− x→2+
lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2
Example 1.2.12. If H(x) is the Heaviside step function, then lim H(x) does not exist (see Example
x→0
1.2.4).
14 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Solution.
Observe that f is defined differently when x < 4 and when x > 4, so we consider one-sided limits.
Since
√
lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 0,
x→4− x→4−
and
lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0,
x→4+ x→4+
t+4
Example 1.2.14. Let g(t) = . Evaluate lim g(t).
s
|t + 4|
ic
t→−4
at
Solution.
m
Recall that he
t + 4, if t ≥ −4
at
|t + 4| = .
M
Therefore,
t+4
e
and
t+4
s
In
Example 1.2.15. Evaluate: lim [[x]], where [[x]] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
x→−2
Solution.
..
.
−3, −3 ≤ x < −2
Note that [[x]] = −2, −2 ≤ x < −1.
−1, −1 ≤ x < 0
..
.
Thus, lim [[x]] = lim (−3) = −3, while lim [[x]] = lim (−2) = −2, so lim [[x]] does not
x→−2− x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2+ x→−2
exist.
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 15
Example 1.2.16. Evaluate: lim s + [[1 − s]]
s→2+
Solution.
..
.
−2, −2 ≤ 1 − s < −1 ⇔ 2 < s ≤ 3
Note that [[1 − s]] = .
−1, −1 ≤ 1 − s < 0 ⇔ 1 < s ≤ 2
..
.
Therefore, lim s + [[1 − s]] = lim (s − 2) = 0.
s→2+ s→2+
[[2x − 1]] − 2x
Example 1.2.17. Evaluate: lim
x→ 21
− 2x + 1
Solution.
..
.
−1, −1 ≤ 2x − 1 < 0 ⇔ 0 ≤ x < 1
s
ic
2
Note that [[2x − 1]] = 1
.
at
0, 0 ≤ 2x − 1 < 1 ⇔ 2 ≤ x < 1
m
..
. he
[[2x − 1]] − 2x −1 − 2x
at
So, lim = lim = −1.
x→ 1
− 2x + 1 x→ 1
− 2x + 1
M
2 2
of
x2 − 2x + 1
Example 1.2.18. Evaluate: lim
x − [[x]]
e
x→1
ut
tit
Solution.
s
We have
In
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
lim = lim = 0,
x − [[x]] x→1− x − 0
UP
x→1−
and
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
lim = lim = lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1+ x − [[x]] x→1+ x − 1 x→1+
x2 − 2x + 1
Therefore, lim = 0.
x→1 x − [[x]]
16 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1.2.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
B. Let 2
x −4
, x < −1
s
2
x + 2x
ic
g(x) = .
at
x+1
√ , x > −1
m
2x + 3 − 1
he
Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)
at
x→−2 x→−1 x→0
M
C. Given
of
kx − 3, x ≤ −1
h(x) = ,
e
x2 + k, x > −1
ut
tit
Supplementary Exercises
1 − 4x2
s
x2 − 9 7. lim
1. lim 1− |2x2 − 3x + 1| + |2x2 − x|
x→3− x+2 x→ 2
|3x + 2| − |x − 2| x2 − 3x + 2
6. lim 12. lim
s
x x→2− [[x]] − x
ic
x→0
at
B. Let
m
2 he
x + 4x + 3
, x ≤ −1
at
x2 − x − 2
M
√x − 1,
x≥1
e
ut
C. Let
UP
|2x − x2 |
x<0
,
x
[[x + 3]] − 6
g(x) = , 0≤x<3.
3 − [[x]]
x2 − 6x + 5
, x≥3
3
x − 19x − 30
D. Let
a − 3x x < −2
f (x) = ax + 3b −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ,
4x + b x>1
where a and b are constants. Find a and b so that lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist.
x→−2 x→1
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 19
In this section, we consider functions that may increase indefinitely either positively or negatively.
We will also be interested in the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases without bound,
or as we shall say, as x approaches positive infinity or negative infinity.
• interpret infinite limits and limits at infinity of a function through graphs and
tables of values
• evaluate infinite limits and limits at infinity of functions (e.g., rational, radical)
s
1.3.1 Infinite Limits
ic
at
m
Let us start with what are called infinite limits.
he
1
at
Illustration 1.3.1. Let f (x) = . Note that f is undefined at x = 0.
x2
M
of
x f (x) x f (x)
e
1 1 −1 1
ut
0.5 4 −0.5 4
tit
Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) become larger and
larger, and that there is no bound to the growth of the values of f (x).
1 1
Figure 1.3.1: Graphs of y = and y = − 2 near x = 0
x2 x
20 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
if the value of f (x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).
Also, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is negative infinity, denoted
if the value of f (x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).
ics
at
Example 1.3.3. In Illustration 1.3.1, we have
m
1 he
lim = +∞,
x→0 x2
at
and
M
1
lim − 2 = −∞.
of
x→0 x
e
ut
Remark 1.3.4. Note that ∞ is not a real number. Thus, if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, we do not
x→a
tit
mean that the limit exists. Though the limit does not exist, through the symbol we are able to
s
3x
UP
Consider f (x) = . Note that lim 3x = 3 while lim (x − 1) = 0. In this case, lim f (x) does
x−1 x→1 x→1 x→1
not exist, but observe that:
Theorem 1.3.5. Let c be a nonzero real number. Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
1. If c > 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 21
f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)
2. If c < 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)
f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)
5x
Example 1.3.6. Consider: g(x) = .
4 − x2
5x −10
• lim = +∞
x→−2− (2 + x)(2 − x) (0− )(4)
5x −10
• lim = −∞
x→−2+ (2 + x)(2 − x) (0+ )(4)
5x 10
ics
• lim = +∞
x→2− (2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0+ )
at
m
5x 10
• lim = −∞ he
x→2+ (2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0− )
at
M
The next theorem involves some properties about infinite limits. In particular, it involves evaluating
limits of sum and/or product of two functions where one function approaches a limit while the other
of
Theorem 1.3.7.
s
In
1. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = ±∞.
x→a x→a x→a
UP
2. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = ∓∞.
x→a x→a x→a
3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
4. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = +∞ and
x→a x→a x→a
lim (g(x) − f (x)) = −∞.
x→a
Solution.
2
Using the above theorem, since lim x2 = 1 and lim = −∞, we have (see Figure 1.3.2)
x→1− x→1− x − 1
2 2
lim x − = +∞.
x→1− x−1
2
Example 1.3.9. Determine lim 2 − 5x + .
x→−2+ (2 + x)3
Solution.
2
Using the above theorem, we get lim 2 = 2, lim 5x = −10 and lim = +∞. Thus,
x→−2+ x→−2+ x→−2+ (2 + x)3
2
lim 2 − 5x + = +∞.
x→−2+ (2 + x)3
ic s
at
The presence of infinite limits motivates this next definition, which pertains to properties of the
m
graph of a function. A more detailed discussion of this definition will be given in a later chapter.
he
at
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if at least one of the following is
M
true:
of
x→a− x→a+
tit
2
Example 1.3.10. From the previous example, since lim x2 − = +∞, the line x = 1 is
x→1− x−1
2
a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = x2 − . (See Figure 1.3.2.)
x−1
Notice that in Theorem 1.3.7, nothing is said about lim [f (x) + g(x)], where lim f (x) = +∞ while
x→a x→a
lim g(x) = −∞. In this case, does the limit exist? If it does, is the limit simply equal to zero? The
x→a
answer is no. In fact, this is another indeterminate form: ∞ − ∞. Moreover, in Theorem 1.3.7,
limits of the form c · ∞ where c 6= 0 were dealt with. When c = 0, the limit is also indeterminate.
1. Suppose lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞. Then lim [f (x) − g(x)] is called an indetermi-
x→a x→a x→a
nate form of type ∞ − ∞.
2. Suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then lim [f (x)g(x)] is called an indeterminate
x→a x→a x→a
form of type 0 · ∞.
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 23
x=1
2
Figure 1.3.2: Graph of y = x2 − with vertical asymptote x = 1
x−1
1 3
Example 1.3.11. Evaluate: lim + 2
x→−1− x + 1 2x + x − 1
ic s
at
Solution.
m
1 3
he
1 3
lim + +
at
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0 − (−3)(0− )
M
of
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞. To compute, we combine the expressions into one:
e
ut
1 3 (2x − 1) + 3
tit
lim + = lim
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1)
s
In
2x + 2 0
= lim
x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0
UP
2
= lim
x→−1 2x − 1
−
2
=−
3
1 t 8
Example 1.3.12. Evaluate: lim −
t→4 4 − t
+ t−1 t+2
Solution.
1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − −
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type 0 · ∞. To compute, we rewrite the expression as a quotient:
24 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1 t 8 1 t(t + 2) − 8(t − 1)
lim − = lim
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2 t→4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2
t − 6t + 8 0
= lim
t→4+ (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2) 0
(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
t→4+ (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ (t − 1)(t + 2)
1
=−
9
We now discuss limits at infinity, that is, the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases
ic s
without bound. Let us consider the following illustration.
at
m
1
Illustration 1.3.13. Let f (x) = . Observe from the tables below that the values of f (x) get
he
x
closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach positive infinity, as seen in the left table.
at
M
Similarly, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach negative
infinity, as seen in the right table.
of
e
ut
tit
x f (x) x f (x)
s
1 1 −1 −1
In
1
f (x) =
x
1
Figure 1.3.3: Graph of y =
x
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 25
Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a, ∞). We say that the limit of f (x)
as x approaches positive infinity is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→+∞
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x increase without bound.
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (−∞, a). We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches negative infinity is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x decrease without bound.
• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
s
x→+∞
ic
at
• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
x→−∞
m
Example 1.3.15. In the previous illustration, lim
he
1
= 0 and lim
1
= 0.
at
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
M
x→±∞
In
x→±∞
1
3. lim =0
x→±∞ xn
4. Let c ∈ R. Suppose x→+∞
lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→+∞
f (x)
lim = 0.
x→+∞ g(x)
Solution.
Note that since we are letting x increase without bound, we have x 6= 0. We may then write
1 1 8
5x4 − x3 − x + 8 = x4 · 5 − − 3 + 4 . By the previous theorem, lim x4 = +∞, while each
x x x x→+∞
1 1 8
of , 3 and 4 approach 0, as x → +∞. Statement 4 of Theorem 1.3.7 then implies that
x x x
4 1 1 8
lim x · 5 − − 3 + 4 = +∞. (+∞)(5 − 0 − 0 + 0)
x→+∞ x x x
Solution.
5 4 15 2 4
lim (3x − x + 2x − 4) = lim x · 3 − + 4 − 5 = −∞ (−∞)(3 − 0 + 0 − 0)
x→−∞ x→−∞ x x x
s
Remark 1.3.20. In general, to find lim f (x) if f is a polynomial function, it suffices to consider
ic
x→±∞
at
the behavior of the leading term of f (x) as x → +∞ (or as x → −∞).
m
1 he
Example 1.3.21. Evaluate: lim
x→−∞ x3 −4
at
M
Solution.
1
Note that lim x3 − 4 = −∞. Thus, lim = 0.
of
x→−∞ x→−∞ x3
−4
e
4
ut
2
Example 1.3.22. Evaluate: lim 3x + 2x −
x
tit
x→+∞
s
In
Solution.
4
Here, since lim (3x2 + 2x) = +∞ and lim = 0, we have
UP
x→+∞ x→+∞ x
2 4
lim 3x + 2x − = +∞.
x→+∞ x
3x − 1
Example 1.3.23. Evaluate: lim .
x→+∞ 9x + 3
Solution.
∞
Note that lim (3x − 1) = +∞ and lim (9x + 3) = +∞. Thus, the limit has the form . Does
x→+∞ x→+∞ ∞
this mean that the limit does not exist? Consider the table of values below.
3x−1
x 9x+3
1 ≈ 0.1666667
10 ≈ 0.311828
100000 ≈ 0.3333311
1000000000 ≈ 0.3333333
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 27
3x − 1
It seems that as x → +∞, the quotient approaches a particular value: 0.3333333. Let us
9x + 3
2
3x − 1 1 3
verify this. Using long division, we can write = − . Therefore,
9x + 3 3 3x + 1
!
2
3x − 1 1 3 1 1
lim = lim − = −0= .
x→+∞ 9x + 3 x→+∞ 3 3x + 1 3 3
So the limit exists, but it is not equal to 0.3333333 as we initially guessed—it is equal to 13 .
From the above example, we see that if both the numerator and denominator have infinite limits,
then the limit of the quotient may exist. In fact, this is another indeterminate form.
f (x)
Suppose lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞. Then lim is called an
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞
indeterminate form of type ∞.
ics
x3 − 2x2 + 3
at
Example 1.3.25. Evaluate: lim
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1
m
Solution. he
x3 − 2x2 + 3 ∞
at
Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type . Since we are letting x
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1 ∞
M
approach +∞, we have x 6= 0. Thus, we may divide both numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x in the denominator which is x4 :
of
1 1 2 3
e
x3 − 2x2 + 3 x4 x − x2 + x4 0
ut
lim · 1 = lim 1 1 1 = 4 =0
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1 x→+∞ 4 − x2 + x3 + x4
tit
x4
√
x2 − 3
s
In
Solution.
∞
This is an indeterminate form of type . To evaluate this, we use the fact that
∞
√ x, if x ≥ 0
x2 = |x| = .
−x, if x < 0
√
Since we are letting x → +∞, we have x > 0 and so, x2 = x. Hence,
√ √ 1
x2 − 3 x 2 − 3 √ x2
lim = lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2 x→+∞ x + 2 √
2 x
√ √1
x2 − 3 x2
= lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2
x
q
1 − x32
= lim
x→+∞ 1 + 2
x
= 1.
28 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
p
Example 1.3.27. Evaluate: lim ( 9x2 − x + 3x)
x→−∞
Solution.
This is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞. We solve it as follows:
√
p
2
p
2
( 9x2 − x − 3x)
lim ( 9x − x + 3x) = lim ( 9x − x + 3x) · √
x→−∞ x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x)
−x ∞
= lim √
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) ∞+∞
√1
−x x2
= lim √ ·
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) √1
x2
1 √
−x −x
= lim √ · since x2 = |x| = −x when x < 0
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) √1
x2
−x
−x
= lim q
x→−∞ 9x2 x 3x
x2
− x2
− −x
ic s
1
= lim q
at
x→−∞
9 − x1 + 3
m
=
1 he
at
6
M
x→+∞ x→−∞
s tit
In
(A more detailed discussion of the previous definition will be given in a later section.)
UP
3 3x−1
y= x2 −9 y= 9x+3
1
x
y= 3
√
y= 9x2 − x + 3x
1
y= 6
Figure 1.3.4: The graphs of some functions with their respective horizontal asymptotes
1.3.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
ic s
Evaluate the following limits.
at
m
2 he [[x]] − 1
1. lim 6. lim
1− 1 − 3x [[x]] − x
at
x→ 3 x→2+
M
2x3 − 6x + 5
1 1
7. lim
of
4z 3 + 5
ut
8. lim
x−2 z→+∞ 1 − 2z + 3z 2
tit
3. lim √
x→2− 2 − 4x − x2 3 − x2
s
In
9. lim √
4 1 1
x→+∞ 4x2 + 1 + x2
UP
4. lim − −
x→−2− (x + 2)2 (2 − x) (x + 2)2 x
p
10. lim w + w2 + 2w
w→+∞
x x−2 p
5. lim + 2 11. lim w + w 2 + 2w
x→−2− x + 2 x +x−2 w→−∞
Supplementary Exercises
2x3 − 5x2
2 1 7s
1. lim 4. lim + +
x→1− x2 − 1 s→−1 s2 − 1 s2 + 3s + 2 s3 + 8
4 − x2 1 1
2. lim 5. lim 1− √
x→2+ 4 − 4x + x2 t→0+ t 2t + 1
2−y [[s]] − 1
3. lim 6. lim
y→4 y 2 − 8y + 16 s→−1 [[s]] + 1
30 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
√
x − [[x]]2
2
2x + x2 − 1
7. lim 12. lim
x→1+ x2 − 1 x→+∞ x+3
3 √
8. lim
x→−∞ x2 −3 1+ x6 + x2 + 1
13. lim
x→−∞ 2x3 + 3
9. lim (3x4 − 3x2 + x + 4)
x→−∞
p
3y 2 − 5y + 2 14. lim t2 − 3 + t
10. lim t→−∞
y→−∞ 6y 3 − 2y 2 − 1
y 2 + 3y − 8 p
11. lim 15. lim y 2 + 3y − y
y→∞ 2 − 5y − 3y 2 y→+∞
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 31
s
x→a
ic
the values of the function f get closer and closer to L as we allow the values of x to get closer and
at
closer to a. We will make this informal notion of ”closer and closer” mathematically precise.
m
Let us consider the next illustration. he
at
M
Illustration 1.4.1. Consider the function f (x) = 2x − 1. Note that lim f (x) = 1.
x→1
of
In general, for any positive number ε, suppose we want to find a range of values for x so that
|f (x) − 1| < ε
32 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
2 f (x) = 2x − 1
1+ε
(
ε
1
ε
1−ε
)
|{z}|{z}
δ δ
( )
1 2
1−δ 1+δ
0
means that f (x) is very, very close to 1. This happens if we choose x such that
s
ic
ε
0 < |x − 1| < ,
at
2
m
that is, if x is chosen to be very, very close to 1. he
at
The illustration above summarizes to the following problem:
M
ε
tit
Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a. The limit
UP
of f (x) as x approaches a is L, written lim f (x) = L, if and only if for every ε > 0 (no matter how
x→a
small) there exists a δ > 0 such that
This definition formalizes our intuitive notion of a limit: that lim f (x) = L if f (x) can be made as
x→a
close as possible to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a). Recall that:
That is, the absolute value inequalities represent open intervals “centered” at L and at a. The
formal definition then says this: for any open interval Iy centered at L, there is a corresponding
open interval Jx “centered” at a such that whenever x is in Jx (but x 6= a), f (x) is guaranteed to
be in Iy . Because this can be done for any open interval Iy , the interval Iy can be chosen to be as
short as we like.
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 33
Solution.
The solution is composed of two parts: the first part is to systematically guess what δ would be
sufficient, and the second part is to verify whether the guessed δ works.
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
Note that |(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
ic s
at
or
m
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ,
he then |x − 1| < ε/3.
at
ε
M
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/3.
e
ε
|(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
s
3
In
That is,
UP
lim (3x + 2) = 5.
x→1
Solution.
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a given positive number. We want to find a number δ such
that
Note that |(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
or
ic s
at
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,
m
lim (5x + 6) = −4. he
x→−2
at
M
of
Solution.
tit
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
s
In
UP
Note that |(4 − 3x) − 4| = | − 3x| = 3|x|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
or
lim (4 − 3x) = 4.
x→0
Remark 1.4.5. The value of δ is not unique. Note that if a given δ works such that
0 < |x − a| < δ0 .
s
if 0 < |x − a| < δ0 ≤ δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
ic
at
m
Example 1.4.6. Prove that lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
x→−2
he
at
M
Solution.
of
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
e
ut
Note that |(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
UP
Since we are just getting the limit of the function for values of x very close to −2, it is safe
to assume that
0 < |x + 2| < 1.
Thus,
Summarizing, if |x + 2| < 1, one way to ensure that |(x2 − 1) − 3| < is to ensure that
|x + 2| < ε/5. Thus, if |x + 2| is less than both 1 and ε/5, then we arrive at the desired
conclusion. This suggests that we may take δ to be the smaller of the two numbers, written
δ = min{1, ε/5}1 .
1
By δ = min{1, ε/5}, we mean that if 1 ≤ ε/5, δ may be chosen to be 1, and when ε/5 < 1, δ may be taken to
be ε/5.
36 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, ε/5}.
If 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2| < 5δ ≤ 5 = ε.
5
That is,
lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
x→−2
Remark 1.4.7. If lim f (x) = L, observe that in one way or another, the expression |x − a| can
x→a
be factored (but it may not be easy to do so!) from the expression |f (x) − L|. This means that if
s
0 < |x − a| < δ, then
ic
at
|f (x) − L| = |x − a||g(x)| < δ|g(x)|
m
for some function g(x). In this case, if g(x) is a nonzero constant, say g(x) = c, then δ = ε/|c|. If
he
g(x) is an expression in x, we shall find an upper bound for |g(x)| by restricting values of x to a
at
certain interval about a.
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 37
1.4.3 Exercises
Supplementary Exercises
B. Use the definition of the limit of a function to prove that lim f (x) = −6 if
x→− 34
2
16x − 9 ,
x 6= − 34
f (x) = 4x + 3 .
2, x= − 34
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
38 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
s
• redefine functions with removable discontinuities
ic
at
• describe the continuity of a function on an interval
m
he
• evaluate limits and determine continuity of composite functions
at
• interpret the Intermediate Value Theorem using graphs and real-life situations
M
of
e
ut
1.5.1 Continuity
tit
Continuity at a Point
A function f is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions are all satisfied:
(i) f is defined at x = a
Example 1.5.1. Let f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2. Let us examine the continuity of f at x = 1. First of all,
f (1) = 0. Moreover, lim f (x) = 0. Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1
x2 − x − 2
Example 1.5.2. Let f (x) = . Since f is not defined at x = 2, f is discontinuous at
x−2
R
x = 2. However, since f (x) = x + 1 for x 6= 2, it is continuous at every other a ∈ \ {2}.
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 39
Remark 1.5.3. In general, if f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is any element in the
domain of f , then f is continuous at x = a.
x2 − x − 2
lim g(x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2
ic s
2
x − x − 2 , x 6= 2
at
h(x) = x−2 .
m
3, x=2he
at
For this function, we have h(2) = 3 = lim h(x). Therefore, h(x) is continuous at x = 2.
M
x→2
of
e
3x2 − 4x + 1
ut
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) =
x−1
tit
3 3
s
In
2 2
1 1
UP
0 1 2 0 1 2 3
−1 −1
3
1
h(x) = 2
x
1
Heaviside function H
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1 1
−2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 −1
Figure 1.5.1: The figures above show graphs of various functions. The function whose graph appears
R
on the upper left is continuous at all a ∈ , while the other three graphs are those of functions
that are discontinuous at some a ∈ . R
40 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1. If lim f (x) exists but either f (a) is undefined or f (a) 6= lim f (x), then we say that f has a
x→a x→a
removable discontinuity at x = a.
2. If lim f (x) does not exist, then we say that f has an essential discontinuity at x = a.
x→a
Moreover,
(a) if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal, then f is said to have a jump
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity at x = a.
(b) if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, or lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, then f is said to have an infinite
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity.
ic s
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x2 − 4x + 1
at
• For g(x) = , g(1) is undefined but lim = 2, so g has a removable
x−1 x−1
m
x→1
discontinuity at x = 1. he
1
at
• Take h(x) = . Then h is undefined at x = 0, while lim h(x) = −∞ and lim h(x) = +∞.
x
M
x→0− x→0+
Thus, h has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = 0.
of
• Finally, for the Heaviside function H, we have H(0) = 1, lim H(x) = 0, and lim H(x) = 1.
e
x→0− x→0+
ut
Remark 1.5.7. The discontinuity in statement 1 of the above definition is called removable,
s
In
because the discontinuity can be “removed” by redefining the value of f at a so that f (a) = lim f (x),
x→a
UP
resulting in a function that is now continuous at x = a. On the other hand, it is not possible to do
this for essential discontinuities.
Example 1.5.8. The function g in Example 1.5.4 has a removable discontinuity at x = 2, since
g(2) = 0 while lim g(x) = 3. However, if we redefine g at x = 2 such that g(2) = 3, then the
x→2
resulting function would be continuous at x = 2.
Solution.
• x = 1:
1−2
(i) f (1) = =1
2−5+2
(ii) lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 4(1) − 3 = 1
x→1− x→1−
x−2 1−2
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = =1
x→1+ x→1− 2x2 − 5x + 2 2−5+2
Thus, lim f (x) = 1 = f (1). Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1
• x = 2:
x−2
Note that f (x) = for values of x close enough to 2.
2x2 − 5x + 2
ic s
at
Hence, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.
m
Remark 1.5.10. In general, the discontinuities of a given function f may occur at points where
he
f is undefined or, for the case of piecewise functions, at the endpoints of intervals. Such points are
at
aptly called the possible points of discontinuity of f .
M
of
also continuous at x = a:
tit
1. f + g f
s
g
2. f − g
UP
3. f g 5. cf
Similar to limits, we define continuity from the left and continuity from the right.
√
Example 1.5.12. The function f defined by f (x) = 2 − x is continuous from the left at x = 2
but not from the right at x = 2 (since f is undefined for x > 2).
42 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Example 1.5.13. Let g(x) = [[x]] be the greatest integer function. Then g is continuous from the
right at x = 1, but not continuous from the left at x = 1. In general, if n is any integer, then g is
continuous from the right at x = n, but not continuous from the left at x = n (recall the graph of
g(x) = [[x]]).
Continuity on an Interval
We can also consider continuity of functions on intervals. Being continuous on an interval means
that the graph of a function has no “gaps” or “holes” on that interval.
A function f is said to be continuous
ic s
at
5. on [a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b] and on [a, b).
m
6. on (a, ∞) if f is continuous at all x > a. he
at
7. on [a, ∞) if f is continuous on (a, ∞) and from the right of a.
M
Remark 1.5.14.
UP
5. The greatest integer function f (x) = [[x]] is continuous on [n, n + 1), where n is any integer.
The following theorem allows us to get the limit of a composition of functions provided that certain
conditions are satisfied.
Theorem 1.5.15. If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). In other
x→a x→a
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 43
x−2
Example 1.5.16. Evaluate: lim
x→2 x2 − 4
Solution.
Since the absolute value function is continuous everywhere, we can apply the previous theorem:
x−2 x−2 1 1
lim = lim 2 = − =
x→2 x2 − 4 x→2 x − 4 4 4
ic s
Solution.
at
1 1
Since lim 3x2 = and the greatest integer function is continuous at x = , we have
m
x→
1 3 he 3
3
at
1
M
lim 3x2 =
= 0.
1
x→ 3 3
of
e
ut
tit
f (g(x)) is continuous at x = a.
In
√
UP
Solution.
√
Note that if a > 0, the square root function f (x) = x is continuous at x = a. Moreover,
√
g(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous everywhere. By the previous theorem, h(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous
at all a satisfying a2 − 1 > 0, or for all a in (−∞, −1) or (1, ∞). It is left to the reader to verify
that h is continuous from the left at x = −1 and from the right at x = 1. Therefore, the intervals
at which h is continuous are (−∞, −1] and [1, ∞).
x−2
, x ≤ −1
2x + 6
f (x) =
2x2 + x − 6
, x > −1
|2x − 3|
Solution.
The function f is undefined at x = −3 and at x = 32 , and its definition splits at x = −1. Thus, f
R
is continuous at each x ∈ , except possibly at x = −3, −1 and 32 . Moreover, note that
(
3
2x − 3, 2x − 3 ≥ 0 ⇔x≥ 2
|2x − 3| = 3
.
−(2x − 3), 2x − 3 < 0 ⇔x< 2
• x = −3:
s
• x = −1:
ic
at
−1 − 2 3
m
(i) f (−1) = =−
2(−1) + 6 4 he
x−2 3
at
(ii) lim f (x) = lim =−
x→−1− x→−1− 2x + 6 4
M
• x = 23 :
s
In
3
(i) f is undefined
UP
2
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim −(x + 2) = −
3−
x→ 2
3−
x→ 2
|2x − 3| x→
3 − −(2x − 3) x→
3 − 2
2 2
Solution.
Note that between 0 and 2, x − 1 is an integer when x = 1. Thus, the definition of the function
R
splits at x = 0, 1 and 2. Moreover, g is defined at all x ∈ . Thus, g is continuous everywhere
except possibly at 0, 1 and 2.
• x = 0:
Thus, g is continuous at x = 0.
• x = 1:
s
(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1
ic
x→1− x→1− x→1−
at
(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
m
x→1+ x→1+ x→0+
he
Thus, g has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 1.
at
• x = 2:
M
of
Theorem 1.5.22 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). Let f be continuous on a closed in-
terval [a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b). For every k between f (a) and f (b), there exists c in (a, b) such
that f (c) = k.
Geometrically, IVT states that if f is continuous on [a, b], then the graph of y = f (x) intersects
any horizontal line y = k between y = f (a) and y = f (b).
Remark 1.5.23.
1. The continuity of the function on [a, b] in IVT is required. In general, the theorem is not true
for functions that are discontinuous on [a, b].
46 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
f (b)
k (c, f (c))
a c b
f (a)
ic s
1. Verify that the Intermediate Value Theorem holds for f in the interval [1, 3].
at
1
m
2. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to justify why there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = ,
he 3
and find the value of c.
at
M
Solution.
of
1. Since dom f is R \ {0} and f is continuous at every number in its domain, f is continuous on
e
2
ut
[1, 3]. Moreover, f (1) = 0 and f (3) = , so f (1) 6= f (3). Thus, IVT holds for f in [1, 3].
3
tit
2
s
In
2. IVT guarantees that for every k between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = k.
3
1 2 1
UP
Since is between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = . We solve for c:
3 3 3
1
f (c) =
3
c−1 1
=
c 3
3c − 3 = c
2c = 3
3
c =
2
3
Thus, the desired c in the interval (1, 3) is c = .
2
Remark 1.5.25. Note that in using IVT (or any theorem), one must first verify that the theorem
holds before stating the conclusion of the theorem. For instance, in IVT, we must first show that the
function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and that k is between f (a) and f (b) where f (a) 6= f (b)
before we can conclude that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = k.
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 47
The Intermediate Value Theorem can also be used to locate roots of equations, as illustrated in the
next example.
3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
Solution.
Let f (x) = 3x4 −4x2 +5x−1. We wish to find c ∈ (0, 1) such that c is a root of the equation f (x) = 0
(that is, f (c) = 0). We check if IVT applies for f in (0, 1) with k = 0. Note that f is a polynomial
function so f is continuous on [0, 1]. Moreover, we have f (0) = −1 and f (1) = 3 − 4 + 5 − 1 = 3.
Hence, k = 0 is between f (0) and f (1). Therefore, the assumptions of IVT are satisfied, and we can
conclude that there exists c in (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0, that is, the equation 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
has at least one root c between 0 and 1.
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
48 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1.5.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
1
, if x < 3
1. f (x) = x
2 , if 3 ≤ x
9−x
|x + 3|, if x ≤ 0
2. f (x) = [[2x]] , if 0 < x < 1
x2 − 5x
, if x ≥ 1
x−5
3x + 3
s
, if x < 1
ic
x3√+ 1
at
3. f (x) = 2 + 2 − x, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
m
x2 − 6,
if x > 2 he
at
x + 2a, if x < −2
M
B. Find all values of a and b such that h(x) = 3ax + b, if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 is continuous every-
of
3x − 2b, if x > 1
where.
e
ut
cos x
In
2. The graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x − 3 intersects the x-axis at least once between 3 and 4.
Supplementary Exercises
|x + 6|, if x ≤ −1
1. f (x) = x2− 6x + 9
, if x > −1
x2 − 3x
x2 + 2x
, if x < 0
x+2
2. f (x) = |x − 1| + 1, if 0 ≤ x < 2
x2 − 2, if x ≥ 2
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 49
2
x −x−2
, if x < 0
√x − 1
3. f (x) = 4 − x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
2
x − 5x + 4, if x > 4
2
x −x−2
, if x < −1
x+2
4. f (x) = [[x]] + 1, if − 1 ≤ x < 1
|x + 2|, if x ≥ 1
2
x − 3x + 2
, if x < 0
x−1
5. f (x) = [[x]] + [[−x]] , if 0 ≤ x < 2
x2 − 5, if x ≥ 2
x, if x ≤ 0
3, if 0 < x ≤ 1
B. Is the function g(x) = 2 continuous on [1, 4]? [0, 4)? (−∞, 0)?
3 − x , if 1 < x ≤ 4
s
x − 3, if x > 4
ic
at
(
x + 2, if x ≤ m
m
C. Find all values of m such that g(x) = is continuous everywhere.
he x2 , if x > m
at
D. Use IVT to prove the following.
M
ic s
at
m
1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem he
We begin with an important theorem that is helpful in computing limits involving trigonometric
at
functions. In fact, this theorem is used in the proofs of other theorems in this section.
M
of
Theorem 1.6.1 (Squeeze Theorem). Let f (x), g(x) and h(x) be defined on some open interval
e
ut
for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim f (x) and lim h(x) exist and are both equal to L ∈ R, then x→a
lim g(x) =
UP
x→a x→a
L.
The Squeeze Theorem, sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem, states that if g(x) is “squeezed”
between f (x) and h(x) near a, and if f and h have the same limit at a, then g must have the same
limit at a.
2 1
Example 1.6.3. Evaluate: lim x cos
x→0 x
Solution.
1
Note that we cannot distribute the limit over the product since lim cos does not exist. How-
x→0 x
ever, we do know that for all real numbers x 6= 0,
1
−1 ≤ cos ≤ 1.
x
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM51
y = h(x)
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
s
ic
2 2 1
−x ≤ x cos ≤ x2 .
at
x
m
Since he
lim (−x2 ) = lim x2 = 0,
at
x→0 x→0
M
2 1
lim x cos = 0.
e
x→0 x
ut
s tit
sin x
In
Solution.
Note that lim sin x does not exist, while lim x = +∞. We will show, however, that the limit
x→+∞ x→+∞
of the quotient exists. Observe that whenever x > 0:
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤
x x x
1 1 sin x
Now, lim − = 0 = lim . Thus, by Squeeze Theorem, lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
52 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
2 [[x]] + 1
Example 1.6.5. Evaluate: lim
x→−∞ x
Solution.
Note that lim [[x]] + 1 = −∞, while lim x = −∞. Observe that whenever x < 0:
x→−∞ x→−∞
x−1 ≤ [[x]] x≤
2x − 2 ≤ 2 [[x]] 2x≤
2x − 1 ≤ 2 [[x]] + 1 ≤
2x + 1
2x − 1 2 [[x]] + 1
2x + 1
≥ ≥
x x x
! !
2 − x1 2+ 1
2x − 1 2x + 1 x
Since lim = lim = 2, and lim = lim = 2, we
x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1 x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1
2 [[x]] + 1
get lim = 2 by Squeeze Theorem.
x→−∞ x
We now present the following special trigonometric limits.
ics
at
Theorem 1.6.6.
m
1. lim
sin x
=1 x→0
he
3. lim sin x = 0
at
x→0 x
M
1 − cos x
2. lim =0 4. lim cos x = 1
x→0 x x→0
of
e
ut
sin(4x)
tit
Solution.
UP
First of all, note that the argument of sine is 4x, while the denominator is simply x. To compute
the limit, we multiply both the numerator and denominator by 4. We have
sin(4x) 4 4 sin(4x)
lim · = lim .
x→0 x 4 x→0 4x
sin(4x)
Note that x → 0 if and only if 4x → 0. Applying the theorem, we have lim = 1, and so,
x→0 4x
4 sin(4x)
lim = 4.
x→0 4x
Remark 1.6.8.
x
1. lim =1
x→0 sin x
x 1 1
This is because lim = lim = = 1.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x 1
x
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM53
x
2. lim 6= 0
x→0 1 − cos x
x 1 1
Similar to the previous item, lim = lim = 6= 0.
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x 0
x
x2
Example 1.6.9. Evaluate: lim
x→0 sin(3x2 )
Solution.
x2 3x2
3 1 1 1
lim · = lim · = (1) =
x→0 sin(3x2 ) 3 x→0 3 sin(3x2 ) 3 3
sin(x2 − 1)
Example 1.6.10. Evaluate: lim
x→−1 x+1
Solution.
sin(x2 − 1) x − 1 sin(x2 − 1)
ic s
lim · = lim · (x − 1) = 1(−2) = −2
x→−1 x+1 x − 1 x→−1 x2 − 1
at
m
tan x he
Example 1.6.11. Evaluate: lim
x→0 x
at
M
Solution.
of
tan x sin x 1
lim = lim · = 1(1) = 1
cos x
e
x→0 x x→0 x
ut
tit
sin(3x)
Example 1.6.12. Evaluate: lim
s
x→0 sin(5x)
In
UP
Solution.
sin(3x) 3x 5 3 sin(3x) 5x 3 3
lim · · = lim · · = (1)(1) =
x→0 sin(5x) 3x 5 x→0 5 3x sin(5x) 5 5
tan(3x)
Example 1.6.13. Evaluate: lim
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x)
Solution.
tan(3x) tan(3x)
lim = lim
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x) x→0+ sin2 (2x)
sin(3x) 3 2 x
= lim · · ·
x→0+ cos(3x) sin2 (2x) 3 2 x
3 sin(3x) 2x 1
= lim · · ·
x→0+ 2 3x sin(2x)
cos(3x) sin(2x)
3 1
= +∞ (1)(1)
2 (1)(0+ )
54 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1 − cos x
Example 1.6.14. Evaluate: lim
x→0 x2
Solution.
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1
Note that lim = lim · , and whether one takes the limit as x → 0− or as
x→0 x2 x→0 x x
x → 0+ , the form is 0 · ∞. We therefore wish to rewrite the function such that the resulting limit
is not indeterminate. The trick is to multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 + cos x:
s
= (1)2
ic
2
at
1
m
= .
2 he
at
M
The next theorem, which is a consequence of the Squeeze Theorem, deals with the continuity of
e
trigonometric functions.
ut
tit
Theorem 1.6.15.
s
In
x→a x→a
Remark 1.6.16. By the previous theorem, we can conclude that if f is a trigonometric function
and a ∈ dom f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
This conclusion can also be seen by looking at the graphs of the trigonometric functions below.
1. limπ tan x
x→ 4
Solution.
π
limπ tan x = tan = 1.
x→ 4 4
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM55
ic s
at
m
he
Figure 1.6.2: Graphs of trigonometric functions
at
M
1 − cos x
2. lim
of
x→π x
e
ut
Solution.
tit
s
x→π
3. lim sin x2 − 1
x→1
Solution.
Since the sine function is continuous everywhere and lim (x2 − 1) = 0, we have
x→1
lim sin x2 − 1 = sin lim (x2 − 1) = sin 0 = 0.
x→1 x→1
1
4. lim cos
x→+∞ x
Solution.
1
Since the cosine function is continuous everywhere and lim = 0, we have
x→+∞ x
1 1
lim cos = cos lim = cos 0 = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
56 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1 − cos x
5. lim tan
x→0 x
Solution.
1 − cos x
Since lim = 0 and the tangent function is continuous at x = 0, we have
x→0 x
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
lim tan = tan lim = tan 0 = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
6. lim cot x
x→π +
Solution.
If f (x) = cot x, then π ∈
/ dom f , so we cannot use the preceding remark to compute this limit.
cos x
However, we may use the identity cot x = . Since sin x → 0− as x → π + , we have
sin x
cos x −1
lim cot x = lim = +∞.
x→π + sin x 0−
s
x→π +
ic
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM57
1.6.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
sin(x2 + x − 2) 3y − sin(4y)
1. lim 7. lim
x→1 x−1 y→0 y
sin 3x x2 − 3 sin x
2. lim 8. lim
x→0 sin 4x
x
x→0 x
3. lim tan3 (3x)
x→0+ tan x
9. lim
1 − cos 5x + tan 3x x→0 3x3
4. lim
sin 2x
x→0 − 1
x tan 5x 10. lim x 1 − cos
5. lim
x→−∞ x
x→0 sin2 2x
sin(sin t)
6. lim 2x cos(2x) csc(4x) 11. lim
x→0 t→0 t
ic s
B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
at
m
sin x + 3 cos x
1
1. lim x sin he 2. lim
x→0+ x2 x→+∞ x
at
M
x+2
|x2 + 5x + 6| , if x < 0
e
ut
f (x) = x csc x
, if 0 < x ≤ π
tit
2
x + π, if x > π
s
In
Supplementary Exercises
UP
C. Given: 2
x −x−2
, if x ≤ 0
x2 − 1
f (x) = sin 4x
, if 0 < x ≤ 1
2 2x
x + 3x − 1, if x > 1
Discuss the continuity of f at x = −1, 0, and 1. Classify each discontinuity as jump essential,
infinite essential, or removable.
D. Miscellaneous Problems.
ic s
x→5
at
|g(x) − 8| < 3(x − 5)2 ,
R \ {5}. m
for all x ∈
he
at
3. Prove that lim f (x) = 0 if and only if lim |f (x)| = 0.
M
x→0 x→0
4. Let f and g be functions such that |f (x)| ≤ 2 and lim |g(x)| = 0. Use the Squeeze
of
x→a
Theorem to verify that lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
e
x→a
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 59
After, we introduce new types of functions, the hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic func-
tions, and examine their properties and graphs. Our goal is to investigate the limits and continuity
of all aforementioned functions.
• define and identify the properties of the inverse circular functions, the hyperbolic
ic s
functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions
at
• familiarize themselves with the graphs of the inverse circular functions, the hyper-
m
he
bolic functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions
at
• apply theorems on limits and continuity to exponential, logarithmic, inverse
M
Let us revisit the definition of inverse functions and their properties. This will prepare us in our
study of the exponential and logarithmic functions in the next subsection,
UP
g = f −1 or f = g −1 .
Example 1.7.1. The functions f (x) = −2x + 4 and g(x) = − 12 x + 2 are inverse functions of each
other. Indeed,
We note that not every function has an inverse. We define a class of functions that always possesses
an inverse.
A function f is a one-to-one function if for all x1 , x2 ∈ dom f with x1 6= x2 , f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
Remark 1.7.2. (Horizontal Line Test) A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
We present the following important theorem that will guarantee the existence of an inverse.
Example 1.7.4. The function g(x) = x2 is not one-to-one. Indeed, g(1) = g(−1) = 1, so it violates
the definition of a one-to-one function. Further, the horizontal line y = 1 intersects the graph of g
in two points. Based on the theorem above, g has no inverse function.
s
1. We have y = f (x) if and only if x = f −1 (y).
ic
at
2. The domains and range of f and f −1 are related. Indeed,
m
he
dom f −1 = ran f and ran f −1 = dom f .
at
M
5. To find the inverse function f −1 , we write y = f (x) and then solve for x in terms of y to obtain
UP
Solution.
4x − 1
Following the remark above, we write y = . We then solve for x in terms of y. We get
2x + 3
3y + 1 3x + 1
f −1 (y) = x = . Hence, f −1 (x) = .
4 − 2y 4 − 2x
Exponential functions can be classified into two types: those with base greater than 1, and those
with base between 0 and 1. The fundamental distinction between the two classes is that if a > 1,
then p < q implies ap < aq ; whereas if 0 < a < 1, then p < q implies ap > aq . The graphs of these
functions are found in Figure 1.7.1. Note that exponential functions are continuous everywhere.
It is good to remember the graphs of these functions as they serve as visual aids in remembering
their properties, such as their behavior as x → +∞ or as x → −∞, and where the functions are
increasing or decreasing.
f (x) = ax
f (x) = ax 0<a<1
(0, 1) a>1
(0, 1)
ic s
at
Remark 1.7.7. Let f (x) = ax with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:
x→−∞
x→+∞ x→−∞
tit
Because the exponential function with base a is one-to-one, it has an inverse function, called the
s
In
Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The logarithmic function with base a, denoted by loga , is the inverse
function of the exponential function with base a; that is,
Hence, the logarithm of x to the base a is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x.
Following the inverse relationship of exponentials and logarithms, we have loga (ax ) = x for all
R
x ∈ and aloga x = x for all x > 0.
As with exponential functions, logarithmic functions can be classified into those with base greater
than 1 and those with base between 0 and 1. The graphs of these functions are given in Figure 1.7.2.
Again, note the continuity of these functions on their domains.
Remark 1.7.8. Let f (x) = loga x with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
3. If a > 1, then f is increasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = +∞ and lim loga x = −∞.
x→+∞ x→0+
4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = −∞ and lim loga x = +∞.
x→+∞ x→0+
s
Table 1.7.1 gives additional properties of exponentials and logarithms.
ic
at
R R
m
a, b > 0, r, s ∈ a, b, m, n > 0, a, b 6= 1, c ∈
a0 = 1, a1 = a
he
loga 1 = 0
at
ar as = ar+s loga a = 1
M
ar
= ar−s loga mn = loga m + loga n
as
of
m
(ar )s = ars loga = loga m − loga n
n
e
ut
(ab)x = ax bx log c
a m = c loga m
a x ax
tit
1
= x loga = − loga m
b b m
s
In
−r 1 logb m 1
a = r loga m = =
a logb a logm a
UP
Solution.
By the laws of exponents, we have
Solution.
Using laws of exponents, we get
272x (33 )2x (3)6x 2 2
= = = 36x−(8−2x ) = 32x +6x−8 .
(9x+2 )2−x (32 )(2+x)(2−x) (3)2(4−x2 )
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 63
Example 1.7.11. Find the exact value of log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20.
Solution.
Because of the laws of logarithms, we have
6 (6)(20)
log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20 = log2 + log2 20 = log2 = log2 8 = 3.
15 15
Example 1.7.12. Solve for x: 32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 2.
Solution.
Because of the properties of logarithms, inverse functions, and laws of exponents, we have
2
32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 3log3 2 − 32 · 3x = 4 − 9 · 3x .
s
4 − 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 3x = ⇐⇒ x = log3 .
ic
9 9
at
2x + 3x
m
Example 1.7.13. Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ 6x he
at
Solution.
M
x x
2x + 3x 2x 3x
1 1
e
In the next chapter, we will compute the derivative of logarithmic functions. In doing so, the
1
existence of lim (1 + h) h is crucial. This limit exists, but advanced concepts beyond the scope
UP
h→0
of this course are needed to establish this fact rigorously. Instead, we estimate its value to a few
1
decimal places by computing (1 + h) h for values of h very near 0. The limit shall be called Euler’s
number and denoted by e.
1 1
h (1 + h) h h (1 + h) h
0.5 2.25 -0.5 4
0.1 2.593742460 -0.1 2.867971991
0.01 2.704813829 -0.01 2.731999026
0.0001 2.718145927 -0.0001 2.718417728
0.00000001 2.718281815 -0.00000001 2.718281842
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0+ e− 0− e+
1
Euler’s number e is defined as e = lim (1 + h) h .
h→0
64 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Remark 1.7.14. The number e is irrational, and to the first 15 decimal places,
e = 2.718281828459045 . . . .
1. ln ex = x for all x ∈ R. x
4. ax = eln a = ex ln a = (ex )ln a for all x ∈ R.
2. eln x = x for all x > 0.
logb x ln x
3. ln e = 1. 5. loga x = = for all x > 0.
logb a ln a
Items 4 and 5 in the previous remark show that any exponential or logarithmic function can
ics
be expressed in terms of the natural exponential function or the natural logarithmic function,
at
respectively.
m
1 he
Example 1.7.16. Determine the domain of f (x) = .
1 − ex
at
M
Solution.
of
For the function to be defined, the denominator should not be zero. Now, the denominator is zero
exactly when ex = 1, that is, x = ln 1 = 0. Hence, dom f = \ {0}. R
e
ut
Solution.
UP
Solution.
Applying the laws of logarithms, we have
ln 5 + 2 ln 3 = ln 5 + ln 32 = ln(5)(32 ) = ln 45.
Solution.
x+1
We have ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = ln . Thus,
x−2
2e2 + 1
x+1 x+1
ln =2 ⇐⇒ = e2 ⇐⇒ x + 1 = e2 x − 2e2 ⇐⇒ x= .
x−2 x−2 e2 − 1
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 65
e−x − 2
Example 1.7.20. Evaluate lim .
x→−∞ e−x + 2
Solution.
Recall that since e > 1 we have lim ex = 0. Thus, we have
x→−∞
ic s
y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y, y ∈ − π2 , π2 .
at
m
2. The inverse cosine function, denoted cos−1 , is defined as follows:
he
at
y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y, y ∈ [0, π] .
M
of
π π
y = tan−1 x if and only if x = tan y, y ∈ − , .
2 2
s tit
√ ! √ !
−1 3 3
1. sin 3. tan−1 −
2 3
√ √
2. sec−1 − 2 4. csc−1 − 2
Solution. √ !
3 π
√ ! 3. tan−1 − =−
3 π 3 6
1. sin−1 =
2 3
√ 5π √ 3π
2. sec−1 − 2 = 4. csc−1 − 2 = −
4 4
9π
Example 1.7.22. 1. Evaluate: sin−1 sin .
7
ic s
Solution.
at
9π 2π 2π
m
sin−1 sin = sin−1 sin − =− .
7 7 7 he
at
−1 1
2. Evaluate: sin cos .
M
4
of
Solution.
e
1 1
ut
Let k = cos−1 . Then, cos k = where k ∈ ran cos−1 = [0, π] . We may now rewrite the
4 4
tit
given as
s
−1 1
In
sin2 k = 1 − cos2 k,
and so r √
p 1 15
sin k = 1 − cos2 k = 1− = ,
16 4
since sin k ≥ 0 for k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,
√
−1 1 15
sin cos = .
4 4
" √ !#
3
3. Evaluate: sec sin−1 .
5
Solution.
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 67
√ ! √
−1 3 3 h π πi
Let k = sin . Then, sin k = where k ∈ ran sin−1 = − , . We may now
5 5 2 2
rewrite the given as
" √ !#
−1 3
sec sin = sec k.
5
√
3
Before solving for sec k, observe that sin k = ≥ 0 indicates that k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,
h π πi h πi 5
k∈ − , ∩ [0, π] = 0, .
2 2 2
Now, solving for sec k, we have that
sec2 k = 1 + tan2 k,
so that
v
√
s
s
r
2 2
u 2
sin k sin k 3/5 5
ic
p u
sec k = 1+ tan2 k = 1+ = 1+ = t1 + √ =√ ,
at
1 − sin2 k
2
cos2 k 1− 3/5 22
m
h πi
since sec k > 0 for k ∈ 0, . Thus,
he
at
2
M
" √ !#
−1 3 5
sec sin =√ .
of
5 22
e
ut
The graphs of the inverse circular functions defined above are shown in Figure 1.7.3. From these
tit
graphs, one can predict the behavior of each inverse circular function and deduce some limit state-
s
Example 1.7.23.
1. From the graph of tan−1 x, we can infer the following statements involving limits at infinity:
π π
lim tan−1 x = and lim tan−1 x = − .
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2
Similarly, we infer the following from the graphs of sec−1 x and csc−1 x:
π 3π
lim sec−1 x = , lim sec−1 x = ,
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2
3π
y= 2
π
(1, 2
)
π
y= 2
π
(1, 2
)
(−1, π)
f (x) = cos−1 x y=π f (x) = csc−1 x
(−1, − π2 )
f (x) = cot−1 x
y = −π
(1, 0)
s
Figure 1.7.3: Graphs of inverse circular functions
ic
at
m
1
2. Evaluate: lim π. he
x→ +∞
tan−1 x −
2
at
M
Solution.
π π
of
Note that as x → +∞, tan−1 x approaches from values less than . Thus,
2 2
e
ut
1 1
tit
lim −1 π = −∞ .
x→ +∞ tan x− 2 0−
s
In
x→ −∞
Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Now,
x→ −∞
−1 x −1 x
lim tan (e ) = tan lim e
x→ −∞ x→ −∞
= tan−1 (0) = 0.
Passing the limit to the inner function is permissible in this situation due to the continuity of
tan−1 x at x = 0.
involving these new functions will look very much like those involving their corresponding circular
analogues.
ex − e−x
sinh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
2. The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted cosh, is defined by
ex + e−x
cosh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
3. The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted tanh, is defined by
ex − e−x
s
tanh x = ,
ic
ex + e−x
at
for any x ∈ R.
m
he
4. The hyperbolic cotangent function, denoted coth, is defined by
at
ex + e−x
M
coth x = ,
ex − e−x
of
for any x 6= 0.
e
ut
2
In
sech x = ,
ex + e−x
UP
for any x ∈ R.
6. The hyperbolic cosecant function, denoted csch, is defined by
2
csch x = ,
ex − e−x
for any x 6= 0.
Example 1.7.24.
e0 − e−0 1−1
1. sinh 0 = = =0
2 2
1
eln 2 + e− ln 2 eln 2 + eln 2 2+ 1
2 5
2. cosh(ln 2) = = = =
2 2 2 4
70 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
y=1
f (x) = coth x
f (x) = csch x
y=1
y = −1
ic s
Figure 1.7.4: Graphs of hyperbolic functions
at
m
eln 25 − e− ln 25
he
eln 25 − eln(1/25) 25 − 1
25 624 312
3. tanh(2 ln 5) = tanh(ln 25) = = = = = .
at
eln 25 +e − ln 25 e ln 25 +eln( 1/25)
25 + 1 626 313
25
M
of
Theorem 1.7.25.
tit
1 1 1
s
12
Example 1.7.26. If tanh x = , find the values of the other hyperbolic functions of x.
13
Solution.
13
s
We readily have coth x = . Now, since sech x > 0 for all x, using the identities above we obtain
ic
12
at
s 2
m
p
2 12 5
sech x = 1 − tanh x = 1 − he = .
13 13
at
13
M
12 13 12
e
13 5 5
tit
5
Finally, we get csch x = .
s
12
In
UP
In the same way that points with coordinates (cos t, sin t) are on the unit circle, the points with
coordinates (cosh t, sinh t) are on the unit hyperbola, which has equation x2 − y 2 = 1. In particular,
they are on the right “branch” of the hyperbola. Those on the other branch have coordinates
(− cosh t, sinh t). See Figure 1.7.5.
(cos t, sin t)
(cosh t, sinh t)
x2 − y 2 = 1
x2 + y 2 = 1
As mentioned earlier, hyperbolic functions have several applications, such as understanding the
behavior of hanging cables, electric current, and waves. A telephone or electrical wire suspended
between fixed ends at the same height forms a curve described by a function involving the hyperbolic
cosine function. We clarify that the graph of y = a cosh[b(x − c)] + d is not a parabola, but is
a catenary, from the Latin word catena for chain. In fact, it can be shown that a catenary
always outgrows a parabola having the same vertex and opening in the same direction. Hyperbolic
functions are also used in describing current flow in electrical wires. Similarly, the hyperbolic
tangent function is used in models describing the velocity of (idealized) ocean waves.
ic s
Now, we may define an inverse function for each hyperbolic function. The graphs of the inverse
at
hyperbolic functions, obtained by reflecting about the line y = x the graphs of the corresponding
m
hyperbolic functions, are given in Figure 1.7.6. he
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
f (x) = tanh−1 x
f (x) = sech−1 x
s
In
f (x) = sinh−1 x
UP
x = −1 x=1 (1, 0)
f (x) = csch−1 x
(1, 0) x = −1 x=1
Since the hyperbolic functions are constructed using exponential functions, we expect that their
inverses can be written in terms of logarithms. In fact, the following hold.
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 73
Theorem 1.7.27.
√
R
1. sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 for all x ∈
√
2. cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 for all x ∈ [1, +∞)
−1 1+x 1
3. tanh x = ln
for all x ∈ (−1, 1)
1−x 2
−1 1 x+1
4. coth x = ln for all x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞)
2 x−1
√ !
−1 1 + 1 − x2
5. sech x = ln for all x ∈ (0, 1)
x
√ !
6. csch −1
x = ln
1
x
+
1 + x2
|x|
for all x ∈ R\{0}
ic s
√
at
Example 1.7.28. Prove that sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1).
x=
2
of
2xey = e2y − 1
0 = (ey )2 − 2x (ey ) − 1
e
ut
p
2x ± (−2x)2 − 4(1)(−1)
tit
y
e =
2
s
In
p
y 2
e =x± x +1
UP
p p
ey = x + x2 + 1, since ey > 0, whereas x − x2 + 1 < 0 .
√
Finally, taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields y = ln x + x2 + 1 .
1. cosh−1 1 3. sinh−1 1
−1 5 −1 3
2. coth 4. sech
4 5
Solution.
√
1. cosh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 − 12 = ln 1 = 0
! !
5 9
+1
−1 5 1 4 1 4 1
2. coth = ln 5 = ln 1 = ln 9 = ln 3
4 2 4 −1 2 4
2
74 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
√ √
3. sinh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 + 12 = ln 1 + 2
q
3 2
! !
1 + 1− 1+ 4 9
3 5
4. sech−1 = ln 3
= ln 3
5
= ln 5
3 = ln 3
5 5 5 5
Example 1.7.30.
−1
2. Evaluate: lim ecoth x
.
x→ −∞
Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Furthermore, ex is continuous on R. Thus,
x→ −∞
s
we have:
ic
at
coth−1 x
lim coth−1 x
ex→ −∞
m
lim e =
x→ −∞ he
= e0
at
= 1.
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 75
1.7.6 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
lim ln(7x3 − x2 )
A. 1. lim 3e1/x + 2sin x 10.
x→+∞
x→0+
4 −x2 +1
2. lim ex 11. lim cot−1 (ln x)
x→−∞ x→0+
4x 2x −2x
3. lim e −e + 2e 12. lim cos−1 (x − 1)
x→+∞
x→+∞
e6x + 2e−2x − 8e −3x
4. lim
sec−1 x
x→−∞
−1
2ex − 1 13. lim sin
5. lim x→+∞ π
x→+∞ ex + 2
lim csc−1 e x + x2
5x 14.
6. lim x x→−∞
x→+∞ 3 + 4x
4x + 2 x 15. lim sec−1 (1/x)
7. lim x x→0−
s
x→−∞ 8 − 2x
ic
2 tan−1 2x
4e4x − e−2x
at
8. lim 16. lim sec
x→+∞ 6e4x − e2x + 3e−x
x→+∞ 3
m
4e4x − e−2x he 1
9. lim 17. lim
x→−∞ 6e4x − e2x + 3e−x x→−∞ π + 2 tan−1 x
at
M
B. 1. lim x→−∞
x→+∞ ex
e
x
8. lim tanh csch−1 (sinh−1 x)
2. lim e sinh x
ut
x→−∞ x→0−
tit
x→0−
In
3 csch(3x)
4. lim
x→−∞ 2 sech(2x) 10. lim ln(sech−1 x)
UP
x→0+
5. lim sec−1 (csch x)
x→0+ csch−1 x
−1
1
6. lim tan (cosh x) 11. lim
x→−∞ x→0 + 2
76 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Supplementary Exercises
B. Given below is a value of the hyperbolic function of a positive number x. Find the exact
value of the remaining five hyperbolic functions of x.
1. sinh x = 2 7
3. coth x =
25
s
15 4
ic
2. cosh x = 4. sech x =
at
8 5
m
C. Establish the following identities. he
at
M
r
1 + tanh x x 1 + cosh x
2. e2x 4. cosh =
e
=
ut
1 − tanh x 2 2
tit
D. Do as indicated.
s
In
√
a. f (x) = sin(e−x ) b. g(x) = 2 − 2x
h
f (x + h) − f (x) 5 −1
2. If f (x) = 5x ,
show that =5x .
h h
3. Find the exponential function f (x) = Cax whose graphs passes (1, 6) and (3, 24).
4. Show that the horizontal lines y = 1 and y = −1 are asymptotes of y = tanh x and
y = coth x.
5. Show that the graph of y = sech x is asymptotic to the x-axis.
6. If x = ln(sec s + tan s), show that sec s = cosh x.
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 77
Reviewer
I. Evaluate the following limits.
√
5 − x2 − 1 x−9 x
1. lim 2 5. lim 2
+
x→2 x − 3x + 2 x→−2− 2x + 3x − 2 x + 2
√
2x2 − 7 − 1 1 3
2. lim 6. lim 2
− 2
x→2 x2 − x − 2 x→−3+ x − 9 3x + 8x − 9
8x + 3 tan(x2 − x − 2)
3. lim √ 7. lim
x→−∞ 2x − 4x2 + 1 x→2 (x − 2) cosh(x − 2)
1 − 3x sin(y 2 − y)
4. lim √ 8. lim
x→−∞ 4x2 − 3 − 3x x→0+ y(21/y )
II. Determine if the following functions are continuous or discontinuous at the given values of
x. If discontinuous, classify the type of discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite
essential.
ic s
2
at
x −1
|x + 1| ,
if x ≤ 0
m
1. f (x) = [[2x − 1]], if 0 < x ≤ 1 at x = −1, 0, and 1.
he
at
sin(ln x), if x > 1
M
√ 2
x + 5,
if x < 0
of
x
2. g(x) = [[2x − 2]], if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 at x = 0, 12 , and 1.
e
ut
2x2 − 5x + 3
, if x > 1
tit
|1 − x|
s
2
In
x + 2x
|x + 2| ,
if x ≤ −1
UP
III. Suppose that the graph of y = f (x) is given by the figure below.
IV. Use Intermediate Value Theorem to show that each of the following functions has a root on
the given interval.
1. f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1 on [0, 2]
1
2. g(x) = x6 − 6x + on (−∞, 0)
x−6
x √
3. h(x) = 2 log3 + 3x on (0, 3)
3
V. Use Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
ic s
at
ex
−1 5. lim 3tanh x
1. lim cos
m
x→+∞
x→0 2
he
6. lim cot π 1/x
2. lim tan−1 (log5 x) x→0−
at
x→1
1
M
x→0+ x→+∞
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 2
s
one point. However, in a more general sense, a line tangent to a curve may intersect the curve at
ic
at
points other than the point of tangency.
m
he
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
at
M
• find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of a function at a given point
of
Figure 2.1.1
To do this, we need to find the slope of this tangent line. Consider another point Q(x1 , f (x1 )) on
←→
the graph of y = f (x). Form the secant line P Q.
79
80 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
←→
Q Then P Q has slope
f (x1 )
y = f (x)
)
∆y f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
P m←→ = .
f (x0 ) | {z }
PQ x1 − x0
∆x
Letting ∆x = x1 − x0 , the above expression is
equivalent to
x0 x1
Figure 2.1.2 f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m←→ = .
PQ ∆x
`
y = f (x)
Now, imagine the point Q moving along the curve y = f (x)
P
toward P .
ic s
the plane. This object coincides with the line `.
at
m
Figure 2.1.3
he
We define the slope m of the line ` to be the limit of the slope m← → of the secant line as Q gets
at
PQ
closer and closer to P and call ` the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We have
M
of
m = lim m←→.
PQ
Q→P
e
ut
m = lim .
In
∆x→0 ∆x
UP
If the function f is defined on an open interval containing x = x0 , then the tangent line to the
graph of f at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) is the line
2. with equation x = x0 if
Remark 2.1.1.
1. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at P gives us an idea of the “flatness” or
“steepness” of the graph of f at P and whether the graph of f rises or falls at P . See Figure
2.1.4.
2. The tangent line to the graph of a function may intersect the graph at points other than the
point of tangency as shown in Figure 2.1.5.
P
` TL
NL
0
Figure 2.1.5 Figure 2.1.6
0 Figure 2.1.4
The normal line to the graph of f at the point P is the line perpendicular to the tangent line at
s
P . (See Figure 2.1.6.)
ic
at
1
m
Example 2.1.2. Give equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph of f (x) =
he x
at x = 1.
at
M
Solution.
of
Let mT L denote the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 1. We have
e
f (1 + ∆x) − f (1)
ut
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
tit
1
− 1
= lim 1+∆x
s
In
∆x→0 ∆x
1 − (1 + ∆x)
= lim
UP
Thus, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x1 at (1, 1) is y − 1 = −(x − 1). Now,
since mT L = −1, the slope of the normal line is 1 and hence, the equation of the normal line to the
graph of f (x) = x1 at x = 1 is y − 1 = (x − 1), or simply y = x.
Example 2.1.3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) = x2 + 2 at x = 1 and at
x = 2.
Solution.
At x = 1 the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) is
g (1 + ∆x) − g(1)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
82 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
On the other hand, at x = 2 the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) is
g(2 + ∆x) − g(2)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[(2 + ∆x)2 + 2] − (22 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[4 + 4∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − 6
ic s
= lim
∆x
at
∆x→0
4∆x + (∆x)2
m
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x he
= lim (4 + ∆x)
at
∆x→0
M
= 4.
of
e
ut
In fact, we can compute for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) for any value of x.
We have
tit
mT L = lim
In
∆x→0 ∆x
[(x + ∆x)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)
UP
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[x + 2x∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)
2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
2x∆x + (∆x) 2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim (2x + ∆x)
∆x→0
= 2x.
Using this formula, we see that the slope at x = 1 is 2 · 1 = 2 while the slope at x = 2 is 2 · 2 = 4,
which agree with the preceding calculations.
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
It is defined at all points x in the domain of f where the limit exists.
Remark 2.1.4.
1. Hence, from the definition, dom f 0 ⊆ dom f since there may be points x0 ∈ dom f at which
f 0 (x0 ) does not exist.
2. The definition also tells us that f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function
at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )).
s
∆x→0
ic
at
Alternatively, by setting ∆x = x − x0 , we have
m
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim he .
x→x0 x − x0
at
M
dy d
4. Other notations: y 0 if y = f (x), , [f (x)], and Dx [f (x)].
dx dx
of
Example 2.1.5. If g(x) = x2 + 2, then, following the computations in the previous example, we
tit
√
Example 2.1.6. Find the derivative of f (x) = x.
UP
Solution.
Using the definition of the derivative, we have
√ √
0 x + ∆x − x
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
√ √ √ √
x + ∆x − x x + ∆x + x
= lim ·√ √
∆x→0 ∆x x + ∆x + x
(x + ∆x) − x
= lim √ √
∆x→0 ∆x( x + ∆x + x)
1
= lim √ √
∆x→0 x + ∆x + x
1
= √ .
2 x
1
Thus, f 0 (x) = √ . Note that dom f = [0, +∞) while dom f 0 = (0, +∞).
2 x
84 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
2.1.3 Differentiability
This part discusses what it means for a function to be differentiable. We start with the following
definition.
√ 1 √
Example 2.1.7. From the preceding example, Dx [ x ] = √ and so f (x) = x is differentiable
2 x
at any positive real number x. Also, f is not differentiable at x = 0.
Example 2.1.8. It will be shown later that if f (x) is a polynomial, a rational, or a trigonometric
function, then f (x) is differentiable on its domain.
s
ic
2.1.4 Techniques of Differentiation
at
m
The previous section introduced a method of differentiation using Definition 2.1.2. The drawback
he
of such a method is that the process involved is tedious, even for the differentiation of relatively
at
simple functions such as in Example 2.1.2. The theorems introduced in this chapter will greatly
M
simplify the process of finding the derivative of a function by providing formulas for the derivatives
of
Differentiation Rules
tit
The following theorem introduces basic rules in finding the derivative of a function.
s
In
UP
4. (Sum Rule) If h(x) = f (x) ± g(x), then h0 (x) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x), provided both f 0 (x) and
g 0 (x) exist.
5. (Product Rule) If h(x) = f (x)g(x), then h0 (x) = f 0 (x)g(x)+f (x)g 0 (x), provided f 0 (x)
and g 0 (x) both exist.
f (x) g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
6. (Quotient Rule) If h(x) = , where g(x) 6= 0, then h0 (x) = ,
g(x) [g(x)]2
provided f 0 (x) and g 0 (x) both exist.
2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 85
(x + ∆x)n − xn
Dx [xn ] = lim
∆x→0
∆x
n(n−1) n−2
xn + nxn−1 ∆x + 2 x (∆x)2 + . . . + nx (∆x)n−1 + (∆x)n − xn
= lim
∆x→0
∆x
n(n − 1) n−2
= lim nxn−1 + x ∆x + . . . + nx (∆x)n−2 + (∆x)n−1
∆x→0 2
= nxn−1 .
Example 2.1.10.
ic s
1. Dx [x5 ] = 5x5−1 = 5x4
at
m
2. Dx [(2x)5 ] = Dx [32x5 ] = 32 · 5x4 = 160x4 (Note that the derivative is not 5(2x)4 which is 80x4 .)
he
√ d 4√
at
d d d
3. [2x4 − 45 x + 7] = [2x4 ] − 5 x + [7] = 8x3 − 4
5 · 1
√ + 0 = 8x3 − 2
√ .
M
dx dx dx dx 2 x 5 x
Dx [(x − 3)(2x2 − 3)] = (1)(2x2 − 3) + (x − 3)(4x) = 2x2 − 3 + 4x2 − 12x = 6x2 − 12x − 3.
s tit
d 4 √
In
Remark 2.1.11.
1. Using items 1 to 4 of Theorem 2.1.9, one can show that the derivative of a polynomial function is
also a polynomial function. This means that a polynomial function is differentiable everywhere.
2. From the first item and the quotient rule, one can deduce that a rational function is differentiable
on its domain.
!
n n
1 n
xn−k y k
P
Binomial Theorem: If n is a positive integer, then (x + y) =
k=0 k
86 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
At this point, we know how to differentiate polynomial functions, rational functions, and functions
involving radicals. We now present formulas for the derivatives of trigonometric functions.
Theorem 2.1.12.
Proof. We will prove statement 1 only. Statement 2 can be proved similarly, while items 3–6 can
be proved using items 1 and 2, and the product and quotient rules.
sin(x + ∆x) − sin x
Dx [sin x] = lim
s
∆x→0 ∆x
ic
sin x cos(∆x) + cos x sin(∆x) − sin x
at
= lim
∆x
m
∆x→0
sin(∆x) he1 − cos(∆x)
= lim cos x · − sin x ·
∆x ∆x
at
∆x→0
M
= cos x
e
ut
tit
Remark 2.1.13.
s
In
1. The formulas in the previous theorems consider trigonometric functions as real–valued functions.
Thus, whenever these formulas are applied to problems where trigonometric functions are viewed
UP
2. Observe that the derivative of a trigonometric function is either another trigonometric function
or a product of trigonometric functions. That means that a trigonometric function is differen-
tiable where its derivative is defined. Moreover, observe that the domains of a trigonometric
function and its derivative are the same. Hence, a trigonometric function is differentiable on its
domain.
Example 2.1.14.
d
1. [3 sin x − 7 cos x] = 3 cos x + 7 sin x
dx
2. Dx [sec x csc x] = (sec x tan x)(csc x) + (sec x)(− csc x cot x)
cot x − x (1 + tan x)(− csc2 x − 1) − (cot x − x)(sec2 x)
3. If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) = .
1 + tan x (1 + tan x)2
4. Dx [sin 2x] = Dx [2 sin x cos x] = 2 · (cos x · cos x + sin x · (− sin x)) = 2(cos2 x − sin2 x) = 2 cos 2x
2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 87
2.1.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
dy
A. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx
1. y = 2x4 − 3x2 + x − 1 4 − x2
√ 6. y = √
1 8 3 x + tan x
2. y = 6 3 x − 2 + √
x x
√
3. y = x3 cos x cos x + π
7. y =
5 2x − x33
4. y = − sec x csc x
x
√ √
2 2 x x
5. y = x − 2 ( 3 x − cos x) 8. y = 5
x x + sin x
B. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. Determine the equation of the normal line to the graph of g(x) = 2 sin x + tan x at the
ic s
point where x = π3 .
at
2. Find all the points on the graph of y = (x − 2)2 at which the tangent line is perpendicular
m
to the line with equation 2x − y + 2 = 0. he
at
M
Supplementary Exercises
dy
of
√
1. y = 5 sin x − 2 cot x 2x3 csc x + x − 2
tit
5. y =
2. y = (2x2 + 5x − 2)(3x − 7) (sin x + 1)(x cos x − 1)
s
In
2x + 1 √
3. y = 6. y = (x2 − 2x + 2)(sin x − x)(2 + cos x)
UP
csc x
√
x sin x − x 5 1
x3 − x4 + 5x5 (sin x + csc x)
7. y = 2
x − 3
4. y = 5
x cot x − 5 x
7 3
B. Given f (5) = 5, f 0 (5) = − , g(5) = , and g 0 (5) = −8, determine
2 2
1. (f − g)0 (5)
f 0
3. (5)
g
g 0
2. (f · g)0 (5) 4. (5)
f
C. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 2x3 + 1 at x = −1.
2. Determine the values of a and b so that the line with equation 2x + y = b is tangent to the
graph of y = ax2 when x = 2.
88 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
This section provides techniques for differentiation of compositions of functions. We also tackle
the geometric implications of differentiability and non-differentiability, and discuss the notion of a
higher-order derivative.
s
• discuss the differentiability and continuity of a function
ic
at
• find higher order derivatives of a function
m
he
at
M
Recall that in the previous section, to differentiate sin 2x, an identity was used to write it in terms
e
of sin x and cos x. The following theorem allows us to differentiate a given function, a composite
ut
Theorem 2.2.1 (Chain Rule). If the function g is differentiable at x = x0 and the function f
UP
Remark 2.2.2. The chain rule can also be stated in the following manner:
dy dy du
If y = f (u) and u = g(x), then = · or Dx [f (u)] = f 0 (u)Dx [u].
dx du dx
Example 2.2.3.
1. Find Dx [(2x)5 ].
Solution.
Note that (2x)5 = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x5 and g(x) = 2x. We have f 0 (x) = 5x4 and
g 0 (x) = 2. Using chain the rule,
Solution.
√ √ 1
Note that x2 − 1 = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 − 1. We have that f 0 (x) = √
2 x
and g 0 (x) = 2x. Using the chain rule,
1 2x
h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = √ · 2x = √ .
2
2 x −1 2 x2 − 1
Solution.
We have sin 2x = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 2x. So, f 0 (x) = cos x and g 0 (x) = 2
and by the chain rule,
ic s
4. Find h0 (x) if h(x) = 2 cos x2 .
at
m
Solution. he
Note that h(x) = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = 2 cos x and g(x) = x2 . Now, f 0 (x) = 2(− sin x) =
at
−2 sin x and g 0 (x) = 2x. Using chain the rule,
M
of
dy √
5. Find if y = x3 − tan x.
tit
dx
s
In
Solution.
√
We let y = u and u = x3 − tan x. Thus,
UP
dy dy du 1 3x2 − sec2 x
= · = √ · (3x2 − sec2 x) = √ .
dx du dx 2 u 2 x3 − tan x
Remark 2.2.4.
1. The chain rule can also be extended to a finite composition of functions. To illustrate,
(f1 ◦ f2 ◦ f3 ◦ f4 )0 (x) = f10 ((f2 ◦ f3 ◦ f4 )(x)) · f20 ((f3 ◦ f4 )(x)) · f30 (f4 (x)) · f40 (x).
2. When computing derivatives using chain rule, we don’t actually write out the functions f and
g as in the previous examples, but we bear them in mind. It may help to keep in mind:
“The derivative of f (g(x)) is the derivative of the outside function evaluated at the inside func-
tion times the derivative of the inside function.“
90 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
Example 2.2.5.
dy
= 100(2x − 1)99 · 2 · (2 − x)200 + (2x − 1)100 · 200(2 − x)199 · (−1)
dx
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [200(2 − x) − 200(2x − 1)]
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [400 − 200x − 400x + 200)]
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 (600 − 600x)
= 600(1 − x)(2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 .
√ 5 3 5
2x − csc x · 4(2x 2 + 2)3 · (5x 2 ) − (2x 2 + 2)4 · 2√12x · 2 + csc x cot x
" 5
#
(2x + 2 2)4
3. Dx √ = √ 2
2x − csc x 2x − csc x
d d
s
ic
4. [sec(cos x)] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · [cos x] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · (− sin x)
dx dx
at
m
3 3 3 3 1
5. Dx [cos2 (cot 4x 2 )] = 2 cos(cot 4x 2 ) · (− sin(cot 4x 2 )) · (− csc2 4x 2 ) · (6x 2 )
he
at
2.2.2 Derivatives from the Left and from the Right
M
one-sided limits. Similarly, testing differentiability may involve one-sided derivatives defined below.
e
ut
1. The derivative from the left of f (x) at x = x0 , denoted by f−0 (x0 ), is given by
s
In
f (x) − f (x0 )
UP
2. The derivative from the right of f (x) at x = x0 , denoted by f+0 (x0 ), is given by
f (x) − f (x0 )
f+0 (x0 ) = lim .
x→x+
0
x − x0
Remark 2.2.6.
1. In Definition 2.2.2, it is necessary that the function f is defined at x0 . Otherwise, the limit
expressions do not make sense.
2. The derivative from the left [right] is also referred to as the left-hand derivative [right-hand
derivative], or simply left derivative [right derivative].
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 91
3. The function f is differentiable at x = x0 if and only if f−0 (x0 ) and f+0 (x0 ) exist and
Solution.
We compute the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 0.
Since f−0 (0) 6= f+0 (0), the function f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.
s
(
1 2
2 x +√24 , x < 4
ic
Example 2.2.8. Determine if f (x) = is differentiable at x = 4.
at
16 x , x ≥ 4
m
Solution.
he
at
We compute the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 4.
M
lim lim
x→4− x−4 x→4+ √x − 4
1 2
e
2 x + 24 − 32 16 x − 32
ut
= lim = lim
x→4− x−4 x→4+ x√− 4
tit
1 2
2 x − 8 16( x − 2)
= lim = lim
s
1 (x + 4)(x − 4) 16(x − 4)
= lim = lim √
UP
Remark 2.2.10.
Theorem 2.2.12.
s
f+0 (x0 ) = lim f 0 (x).
ic
x→x+
at
0
m
Example 2.2.13. Determine if the following function is differentiable at x = −1:
he
(
x2 , x < −1
at
f (x) = .
−1 − 2x , x ≥ −1
M
of
Solution.
First, we check the continuity of f (x) at x = −1. Note that f (−1) = 1 and lim f (x) =
e
ut
x→−1−
lim f (x) = 1, and thus, f (x) is continuous at x = −1. Next, we determine the derivative from
tit
x→−1+
the left and derivative from the right at x = −1. We obtain
s
In
(
0 2x , x < −1
f (x) = ,
UP
−2 , x > −1
and thus, f−0 (−1) = lim f 0 (x) = 2(−1) = −2, while f+0 (−1) = lim f 0 (x) = −2. Finally, since
x→−1− x→−1+
f−0 (−1) = f+0 (−1), f (x) is differentiable at x = −1.
Example 2.2.14. Determine if the following function is differentiable at x = 1:
(
x2 + x + 2 , x ≤ 1
g(x) = .
3x , x > 1
Solution.
It can be shown that g is discontinuous at x = 1. However, note that
(
2x + 1 , x < 1
g 0 (x) = ,
3 , x>1
and thus, lim g 0 (x) = 3 and lim g 0 (x) = 3. Although lim g 0 (x) = lim g 0 (x), we cannot
x→1− x→1+ x→1− x→1+
conclude that the function is differentiable at x = 1. (Why?) In fact, g is not differentiable at
x = 1. (Why?)
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 93
3. the graph of f has no well–defined tangent line at x = x0 , i.e., the graph of f has a corner, edge
or cusp at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.3).
s
ic
at
x0 x0 x0
m
Figure 2.2.1 Figure 2.2.2
he Figure 2.2.3
at
2.2.5 Higher Order Derivatives
M
If the derivative f 0 of a function f is itself differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 is called the
of
second derivative of f and is denoted f 00 . We can continue to obtain the third derivative, f 000 ,
e
ut
the fourth derivative, f (4) , and even higher derivatives of f as long as we have differentiability.
tit
The n-th derivative of the function f , denoted by f (n) , is the derivative of the (n − 1)-th
s
In
Remark 2.2.16.
Example 2.2.17.
Solution.
We differentiate repeatedly and obtain
s
ic
at
Solution.
m
We differentiate repeatedly and obtain he
at
1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = (2x − 3)− 2 ,
M
2
1 3 3
f (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2)
00 = − (2x − 2)− 2 ,
of
2
3 5 5
f 000 (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = 3 (2x − 2)− 2 ,
e
2
ut
15 7 7
f (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2)
(4) = −15 (2x − 2)− 2 .
tit
2
s
In
Equations in two variables are used to define a function explicitly or implicitly. The equation
y = x2 − 1 defines the function f (x) = x2 − 1 explicitly. On the other hand, the equation y 2 = x + 1
defines two functions of x implicitly, namely:
√ √
f1 (x) = x + 1 and f2 (x) = − x + 1.
However, suppose a function is defined implicitly by a function for which y cannot be isolated easily,
dy
such as x4 y 3 − 7xy = 7 or tan(x2 − 2xy) = y. How do we find ?
dx
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 95
dy
To obtain without solving for y explicitly in terms of x, we use the method called implicit
dx
dy
differentiation. To find using implicit differentiation, we
dx
1. think of the variable y as a differentiable function of the variable x,
2. differentiate both sides of the equation, using the chain rule where necessary, and
dy
3. solve for .
dx
dy
Example 2.2.18. Find using implicit differentiation.
dx
1. x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0
Solution.
s
3x2 − 2 1 · y + x · −3· =0
ic
dx dx
at
dy dy
3x2 − 2y − 2x ·
m
−3· =0
dx dxhe dy dy
3x2 − 2y = 2x · +3·
at
dx dx
M
dy
(2x + 3) = 3x2 − 2y
dx
of
dy 3x2 − 2y
=
e
dx 2x + 3
ut
x3 −6
3x2 − 2 · 2x+3
tit
2x + 3
= ·
2x + 3 2x + 3
s
In
(2x + 3)2
4x3 + 9x2 + 12
=
(2x + 3)2
2. x4 y 3 − 7xy = 7
Solution.
3. tan(x2 − 2xy) = y
Solution.
d2 y
Example 2.2.19. Determine if xy 2 = y − 2.
dx2
Solution.
dy
We use implicit differentiation to get .
dx
Dx [xy 2 ] = Dx [y − 2]
ics
dy dy
y 2 + x · 2y ·
at
=
dx dx
m
dy y2 he
=
dx 1 − 2xy
at
Thus,
M
of
dy dy
d2 y (1 − 2xy)(2y dx ) − (y 2 )[−2(y + x dx )]
=
e
dx2 (1 − 2xy)2
ut
h i h i
y2 y2
(1 − 2xy) 2y · 1−2xy − (y 2 ) −2 y + x ·
tit
1−2xy
= .
(1 − 2xy)2
s
In
UP
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 97
2.2.7 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
B. Differentiability.
1. Determine if ( 2
3x 3 − 1 , x ≤ 1
f (x) = 3
x −x+2 , x>1
is differentiable at x = 1.
ic s
2. Determine if
at
(
x2 − 4 , x < 3
m
g(x) = √
x−2 , x≥3
he
at
is differentiable at x = 3.
M
3. Determine if
(
of
(x − 1)2 , x ≤ 1
h(x) = √
x−1 , x>1
e
ut
is differentiable at x = 1.
s tit
C. Implicit Differentiation.
In
dy
1. Use implicit differentiation to find . There is need to simplify.
UP
dx
√
a. cos(x2 + y 2 ) = x − y 2 2
b. x3 y 2 = x 3 + y 3 + 1
ds √
2. Find if (3s + t)4 = 3 s − cos t.
dt
D. Higher Order Derivatives.
√
N
1. Find f (n) (x) for all n ∈ if f (x) = 6x5 − 5x4 − 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1.
2. Evaluate Dx2 x 4 − x2 .
E. Do as indicated.
1. If g(5) = 3, g 0 (5) = 4, f (3) = 5 and f 0 (3) = 6, find (f ◦ g)0 (5) and (g ◦ f )0 (3).
2. Determine the point/s on the graph of xy = (1 − x − y)2 where the tangent line/s is/are
parallel to the x−axis.
3. Determine Dx103 (cos 2x).
4. Find y 00 at the point with coordinate (2, 1) if 2x2 y − 4y 3 = 4.
98 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
Supplementary Exercises
ic s
at
a. (f ◦ g)0 (2) b. (g ◦ f )0 (2) c. (g ◦ g)0 (2) d. (f ◦ g ◦ f )0 (2)
m
B. Differentiability.
he
at
1. Find the values of m and n so that
M
(
x2 , x < 1
of
f (x) =
mx + n , x ≥ 1
e
ut
is differentiable at x = 1.
tit
(
ax + b , x < 2
g(x) =
UP
2x2 − 1 , x ≥ 2
is differentiable at x = 2.
C. Implicit Differentiation.
dy
1. Use implicit differentiation to find . There is need to simplify.
dx
a. 2x sin y = (x + 2y)6 3 3
c. cot4 (xy) = 4x 2 − sin(x 5 + y 3 )
5
√ x4
b. sec(2x − y) − 3 = sin2 y −
4
2. Give the equation of the normal line to the graph of y 3 − xy 2 + cos(xy) = 2 at (0, 1).
d2 y
2. Determine if (x + y)3 = xy 2 − 2y.
dx2
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 99
E. Do as indicated.
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
100 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
ics
2.3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
at
Our goal is to find the derivatives of logarithmic functions. We begin with the natural logarithmic
m
function and will find later that its derivative appears simplest among all logarithmic functions.
he
at
Let x > 0. Then
M
ln(x + ∆x) − ln x
of
Dx (ln x) = lim
∆x
∆x→0
e
1 x + ∆x
ut
= lim ln
∆x→0 ∆x x
tit
1 x ∆x
s
= lim ln 1 +
In
∆x→0 x ∆x x
" x #
UP
1 ∆x ∆x
= lim ln 1 +
x ∆x→0 x
" x #
1 ∆x ∆x
= ln lim 1 +
x ∆x→0 x
by continuity of ln.
∆x
Let h = . Then h → 0 if and only if ∆x → 0. Thus,
x
1 1 1 1
Dx (ln x) = ln lim (1 + h) h = ln e = .
x h→0 x x
Interestingly, the derivative of the ln function, one that cannot be expressed using a finite number
of operations (including extraction of nth roots) on polynomials, is a simple algebraic expression.
In contrast, the derivatives of circular functions are products of their fellow circular functions.
Now, since any logarithmic function can be expressed as the ln function times a constant, one easily
obtains its derivative. Indeed,
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 101
ln x 1 1 1 1
Dx (loga x) = Dx = Dx (ln x) = · = .
ln a ln a ln a x x ln a
Now, let f (x) = ln |x| on R \ {0}. Since x 6= 0, |x| > 0, so ln |x| is defined. Moreover, using the
chain rule,
√ 1 1 2x 1
Dx (ln |x|) = Dx (ln x2 ) = √ · √ · 2x = 2 = .
2
x 2 x 2 2x x
We summarize the preceding computations into the following theorem.
Theorem 2.3.1.
1
1. Dx (ln x) = for all x > 0
x
1
2. Dx (loga x) = for all x > 0
x ln a
1
3. Dx (ln |x|) = for all x 6= 0
s
x
ic
at
dy
m
Example 2.3.2. Find .
dx he
1. y = log2 x
at
M
Solution.
of
dy 1
=
x ln 2
e
dx
ut
2. y = ln(3x2 + 2)
s tit
Solution.
In
dy 1 6x
= 2 · 6x = 2
UP
dx 3x + 2 3x + 2
3. y = ln |7 − cos(2x)|
Solution.
dy 1 2 sin(2x)
= · sin(2x) · 2 =
dx 7 − cos(2x) 7 − cos(2x)
4. y = ln [sin (log5 x)]
Solution.
dy 1 1 cos(log5 x)
= · cos (log5 x) · =
dx sin (log5 x) x ln 5 x ln 5 · sin(log5 x)
5. y = x2 log x
Solution.
dy 1 x
= 2x · log x + x2 · = 2x log x +
dx x ln 10 ln 10
102 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
y= .
√
4
( csc x)
x5
dy
Suppose you are asked to find . One could imagine the excessive computations that would
dx
be brought about by repeated application of the product, quotient, power, and chain rules. We
shall therefore introduce a process called logarithmic differentiation, a technique helpful in
differentiating an expression involving many products and quotients. In using this technique given
an equation in x and y:
1. Take the absolute value of both sides of the equation and apply properties of the absolute
value.
ic s
2. Take the natural logarithm of both sides and apply properties of logarithms to obtain a sum.
at
m
he dy
3. Take the derivative of both sides implicitly with respect to x and solve for .
dx
at
M
Example 2.3.3.
√
of
3
dy x+1
1. Find if y = √ .
e
dx (csc x) 1 − x2
5
ut
tit
Solution.
s
In
We begin by taking the absolute value of both sides of the equation. Simplifying the result, we
get
UP
√
3
x+1
|y| = √
(csc5 x) 1 − x2
1
|x + 1| 3
= 1 .
| csc x|5 |1 − x2 | 2
Next, we take the natural logarithm of both sides of the function. Using the properties of
logarithms, we rewrite the equation as a sum:
1
!
|x + 1| 3
ln |y| = ln 1
| csc x|5 |1 − x2 | 2
1 1
= ln |x + 1| 3 − ln | csc x|5 − ln |1 − x2 | 2
1 1
= ln |x + 1| − 5 ln | csc x| − ln |1 − x2 |.
3 2
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 103
Finally, we take the derivatives of both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x and
dy
solve for ,
dx
1 1 2
Dx (ln |y|) = Dx ln |x + 1| − 5 ln | csc x| − ln |1 − x |
3 2
1 dy 1 1 5 1 1
· = · ·1− · (− csc x cot x) − · · (−2x)
y dx 3 x+1 csc x 2 1 − x2
dy 1 x
=y + 5 cot x +
dx 3(x + 1) 1 − x2
√3
x+1 1 x
= √ + 5 cot x +
(csc5 x) 1 − x2 3(x + 1) 1 − x2
√3
dy x2 tan4 x
2. Find if y = .
dx (2x2 + 1)3 log x
Solution.
ic s
at
Once again, we begin by taking the absolute value of both sides of the equation. Thus,
m
2
|x| 3 | tan x|4
he
|y| = .
|2x2 + 1|3 | log x|
at
M
Then, we take the natural logarithm of both sides and rewrite the equation as a sum using the
of
2
ln |y| = ln |x| + 4 ln | tan x| − 3 ln |2x2 + 1| − ln | log x|.
s
3
In
UP
dy
Finally, we take the derivative of both sides implicitly with respect to x and solve for ,
dx
1 dy 2 1 1 1 1 1
· sec2 x − 3 · 2
= · +4· · (4x) − ·
y dx 3 x tan x 2x + 1 log x x ln 10
√3 2 4 2
dy x tan x 2 4 sec x 12x 1
= + − 2 − .
dx (2x2 + 1)3 log x 3x tan x 2x + 1 (log x)(x ln 10)
Theorem 2.3.4.
2. Dx (ex ) = ex
104 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
y = ax .
x = loga y,
and taking the derivative of both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x, we obtain
Dx (x) = Dx (loga y)
1 dy
1= · .
y ln a dx
dy
Solving for , we obtain
dx
dy
= y ln a = ax ln a.
dx
ic s
dy
at
This proves the first statement of Theorem 2.3.4. Observe that if a = e, then = ex ln e = ex ,
dx
m
which proves the second statement of Theorem 2.3.4.
he
Thus, we obtain a function whose derivative is itself. (Is this the only function with this property?)
at
M
dy
Example 2.3.5. Find .
of
dx
e
1. y = 4x
ut
tit
Solution.
s
dy
In
= 4x ln 4
dx
UP
3
2. y = ex
Solution.
dy 3
= ex · 3x2
dx
3. y = 24x csc(ex )
Solution.
dy
= 24x ln 2 · 4 csc(ex ) + 24x [− csc (ex ) cot (ex ) · ex ]
dx
Hence, the power rule holds even for irrational exponents. We state this as a theorem:
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 105
Solution.
Using logarithmic differentiation, and since x > 0, we have
ln y = ln (xx ) ,
ic s
at
ln y = x ln x,
m
1 dy 1
· = 1 · ln x + x ·
he ,
y dx x
at
dy
= y(ln x + 1),
M
dx
dy
= xx (ln x + 1).
of
dx
e
ut
Alternatively, we have
tit
y = ex ln x ,
s
dy 1
In
x ln x
=e 1 · ln x + x · ,
dx x
UP
dy
= xx (ln x + 1).
dx
2. y = (sin x)cos x , sin x > 0
Solution.
ln y = cos x ln(sin x)
1 dy 1
· = (− sin x) · ln(sin x) + cos x · · cos x
y dx sin x
cos2 x
dy cos x
= (sin x) − sin x ln(sin x) +
dx sin x
106 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
2.3.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
dy
A. Find . Use logarithmic differentiation whenever appropriate.
dx
1. y = log5 (2x5 − 1) sec x 6. y = x2 · 35x−3
2. y = cos(ln |4 − x|)
√ 7. ln(x2 + y 2 ) = ex+y − ex−y
3. y = x5 (x2 − 1)4 sin x
xy )
(1 + x − x2 )3 8. ln 2 = (x2 − 1)π + 5(e
4. y = √ √
sec 4x(x − log x)6 9. y = (log4 x)e
x
x2 cot4 x
5. y = √ 2
3
5x − 2(log4 x)10 10. y = (tan 3x)1−x
B. Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of f (x) = 2x log2 x at the point where
x = 1.
ic s
Supplementary Exercises
at
dy
m
A. Find . Use logarithmic differentiation whenever appropriate.
dx he
at
csc(log3 x) 8. y = 2x + 3x − 5x
M
1. y = √
x − ln(5x)
4 − 14x
9. y = log8
of
2. sin x2 − y 2 = tan log 1 x 1 − x2
4
e
3. y = logx2 +4 3
ut
10. y = e4x−1 + ln x2 + e
√
esin 2x + ln(1 + x)
tit
4. y = 1 + x − log12 x
2log5 x 11. y =
s
5. y = (x + 2x )sin 5x
2
12. ln |x − cos y| = y 2 + x − 2
UP
6. y x = xy
7. ln(x − y) = (tan x)y 13. x tan y − sin [(x − 1) ln y] = x
2.4. DERIVATIVES OF OTHER NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 107
s
the following theorem.
ic
at
m
Theorem 2.4.1.
he
at
1 1
1. Dx sin−1 x = √ 4. Dx cot−1 x = −
M
1 − x2 1 + x2
of
1 1
5. Dx sec−1 x = √
2. Dx cos−1 x = − √
x x2 − 1
e
1 − x2
ut
1 1
tit
6. Dx csc−1 x = − √
3. Dx tan−1 x =
1 + x2 x x2 − 1
s
In
UP
Proof. We show the proof of statement 1 only. The rest can be proved similarly.
y = sin−1 x
x = sin y
Dx (x) = Dx (sin y)
dy
1 = cos y ·
dx
dy 1
=
dx cos y
p √
Note that cos y = ± 1 − sin2 y = ± 1 − x2 . Since y ∈ − π2 , π2 , cos y ≥ 0. Therefore,
dy 1
=√ .
dx 1 − x2
108 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
dy
Example 2.4.2. Find .
dx
1. y = sin−1 (3x)
Solution.
dy 1 3
=p ·3= √
dx 1 − (3x) 2 1 − 9x2
2. y = cot−1 (ln x)
Solution.
dy 1 1
= − 2
·
dx 1 + (ln x) x
y
1 2
3. = log2 (x − y) − csc−1 (3x2 )
5
Solution.
s
We perform implicit differentiation.
ic
at
y
1 1 dy 1 dy −1 2 1
m
ln = · 1− − 2 csc 3x · − √ · 6x
5 5 dx (x − y) ln 2 dx he 3x2 9x4 − 1
1 6x
at
−1 2
− 2 csc 3x · − √
dy (x − y) ln 2 3x2 9x4 − 1
M
= y
dx 1 1 1
ln +
of
5 5 (x − y) ln 2
e
ut
Theorem 2.4.3.
In
UP
Solution.
dy
= − csch x5 − 2 coth x5 − 2 · (5x4 )
dx
2.4. DERIVATIVES OF OTHER NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 109
√
2. y = tanh3
x+3
Solution.
dy √ √ 1
= 3 tanh2 x + 3 · sech2
x+3 · √
dx 2 x+3
3. y = (cosh x)sinh x , cosh x > 0
Solution.
y = esinh x ln(cosh x)
dy 1
= esinh x ln(cosh x) cosh x · ln(cosh x) + sinh x · · sinh x
dx cosh x
ic s
Theorem 2.4.5.
at
m
1 he 1
1. Dx (sinh−1 x) = √ 4. Dx (coth−1 x) = , |x| > 1
x2 + 1 1 − x2
at
M
1 1
2. Dx (cosh−1 x) = √ 5. Dx (sech−1 x) = − √
x2 − 1 x 1 − x2
of
1 1
e
3. Dx (tanh−1 x) = 6. Dx (csch−1 x) = − √
ut
, |x| < 1
1 − x2 |x| x2 + 1
s tit
dy
In
1. y = sinh−1 (1 − x)
Solution.
dy 1 −1
=p · (−1) = p
dx 2
(1 − x) + 1 (1 − x)2 + 1
x
−1 4 −1 1
2. y = coth (x ) − sech
4
Solution. x
dy 1 1 1 1
· 4x3 +
= 8
q · ln
dx 1−x 1 x
1 2x
4 4
4 1− 4
Solution.
dy 1 1
= −1
·√ ·2
dx cosh (2x) ln 10 4x2 − 1
110 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
2.4.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
dy
A. Find .
dx
√
1. y = 5cos
−1 x sec−1 (2x ) − e
4. y =
√ (log 3x) tan−1 x
2. y = cos−1 ( 6 cos x4 + ecot x − 4π 2 ) 5. sin−1 (xy) = cos−1 (x − y)
tan−1 (√x)
3. y = sec ln csc−1 x 6. y = sin−1 (x2 )
dy
B. Find .
dx
3
1. y = cosh(ln x) 4. y = 10csch x sec−1 (cosh 4x)
√
2. y = tanh3 ( 3 2x )
5. cosh(x − y) = log3 x − tanh(x2 + y 2 )
log5 (sech(ex ))
s
√
ic
3. y = 6. sec−1 ( x) = tanh x2 y + y sinh 2
sinh (x − tan−1 x)
at
m
dy
C. Find . he
dx
at
M
√
ut
tanh−1 ( x) 3x2 +1
3. y = 6. cosh x = tanh−1 y
tit
1 + sec x2
s
In
Supplementary Exercises
UP
dy
A. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx
s
ic
at
Theorem 2.5.1 (Rolle’s Theorem). Let f be a function such that
m
(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],he
at
(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b), and
M
Then there exists a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
e
ut
tit
s
y y y
In
c
UP
a b
x
a
x
a bx b1 b2
Remark 2.5.2.
1. Note that condition (iii) of Rolle’s Theorem implies that the line passing through the points
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is horizontal. On the other hand, the conclusion implies that there is
a horizontal tangent line to the graph of f and the point of tangency has x-coordinate lying
between a and b. Refer to Figure 2.5.1.
2. Continuity on [a, b] is important because there are functions that satisfy only conditions (ii) and
(iii) but do not satisfy the conclusion. Refer to Figure 2.5.2 and consider the function on the
interval [a, b1 ]. It may also be the case that the conclusion is satisfied even if one of the premises
is not satisfied. Refer to Figure 2.5.2 and consider the function on the interval [a, b2 ].
112 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
3. Notice that f need not be differentiable at the endpoints a and b. Refer to Figure 2.5.1.
4. The number c ∈ (a, b) in the conclusion need not be unique. Refer to Figure 2.5.3.
Theorem 2.5.3 (The Mean Value Theorem). Let f be a function such that
Remark 2.5.4. The Mean Value Theorem is the generalization of Rolle’s Theorem where the line
`, passing through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is not necessarily horizontal. The conclusion says that
there is a tangent line to the graph of f that is parallel to ` and whose point of tangency has
ic s
x-coordinate between a and b. Refer to Figures 2.5.4 and 2.5.5.
at
m
y
y he
at
`
M
x
a c b
of
c2 b
e
x
a c1
ut
tit
Example 2.5.5.
UP
1. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem is applicable to the given functions on the indicated intervals.
Solution.
Note that f (x) is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on (1, 2) because it is a polynomial.
Moreover, f (1) = 0 = f (2). Hence, Rolle’s Theorem can be applied. We therefore conclude
that there exists a c such that 1 < c < 2 and f 0 (c) = 0. In fact, we can solve for c. Since
Solution.
2.5. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 113
Notice that the only possible point of discontinuity of f (x) is at x = 21 . Checking conditions
for continuity at x = 21 , we have
1 1 1 1
f = , lim f (x) = lim (x − 1) = − , and lim f (x) = lim x2 = .
2 4 x→ 1+
x→ 1+ 2 x→ 1−
x→ 1− 4
2 2 2 2
1
Hence, f is not continuous at x = 2 and Rolle’s Theorem cannot be applied.
2. Apply Rolle’s Theorem to f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + x to show that 6x2 + 1 = 6x has at least one real
root between 0 and 1.
Solution.
Note that f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 6x + 1. Since f is a polynomial and f (0) = 0 = f (1), then f satisfies
the assumptions of Rolle’s Theorem on [0, 1]. Hence there is a c ∈ (0, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
This c is a root of the equation 6x2 + 1 = 6x.
x+2 1
3. Let f (x) = . Show that there is a c ∈ (1, 2) such that f 0 (c) = − .
x+1 6
ic s
at
Solution.
m
Since −1 ∈
/ [1, 2] and f is a rational function, f is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on (1, 2).
he f (2) − f (1) 4 3 1
By the Mean Value Theorem, there is a c ∈ (1, 2) such that f 0 (c) = = − =− .
at
2−1 3 2 6
M
4. Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [6, 15], differentiable on the interval (6, 15), and f 0 (x) ≤ 10
of
for all x. If f (6) = −2, what is the largest possible value for f (15)?
e
ut
Solution.
tit
Note that f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem. Hence there is a c ∈ (6, 15)
s
such that
In
15 − 6 9
Therefore, f (15) ≤ 88.
114 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
2.5.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals, and if
so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
1. f (x) = x2 − x − 2 on [−1, 2] x2 − x − 12
3 1 4. f (x) = on [−3, 4]
2. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 4 on [0, 4] x−3
3. f (x) = 3 cos2 x on [ π2 , 3π
2 ] 5. f (x) = 1 − |x| on [−1, 1]
B. Determine if the Mean Value Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals,
and if so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
1. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 on [0, 1] 2
3. f (x) = 3(x − 4) 3 on [−4, 5]
√
4. f (x) = 1 + cos x on [− π2 , π2 ]
ic s
4
on [ 25 , 4]
at
2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = (1 + sin x)2 on [−π, 0]
9 − 2x
m
C. Do as indicated.
he
at
1. Using the function f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 4x, show that the Rolle’s Theorem confirms there
M
2. Prove that the equation x3 + 2x + 5 = 0 cannot have more than one real root.
e
ut
3. Let g be a function such that g 0 (x) ≥ −6 for all x ∈ [0, 2]. If g(0) = 0, determine the least
tit
4. Show that sin b − sin a ≤ b − a whenever b ≥ a. In particular, show that sin x < x for all
x > 0.
UP
5. Let f (x) be differentiable everywhere and suppose that f (1) = 1, f 0 (x) < 0 on (−∞, 1),
and f 0 (x) = 1 on (1, +∞).
a. Show that f (x) ≥ 1 for all x.
b. Must f 0 (1) = 0? Explain your answer.
6. Suppose two runners in a 100m dash finish a tie. Show that there is at least one instant
during the race where they had the same velocity.
Supplementary Exercises
A. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals, and if
so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
B. Determine if the Mean Value Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals,
and if so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
C. Do as indicated.
1. Suppose f (x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere. Suppose also that f (x) has at
least two distinct zeros. Show that f 0 (x) has at least one zero.
2. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that the graph of f (x) = x5 − 3x3 − x + 5 has a
tangent line on (0, 2) which is parallel to 3x − y = 2.
3. Let f (x) = cos 2x − 5 sin 5x. Show that there exists c ∈ 0, π6 such that f 0 (c) = − 18
π.
√ √ y−x
s
4. Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove that if 0 < x < y, then y − x < √ . In
ic
2 x
at
particular, show that the geometric mean of x and y is less than their arithmetic mean,
√
m
i.e., xy < 12 (x + y).
he
5. Suppose f is continuous on an interval I. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that if
at
f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is constant in I.
M
π
6. Use the previous item to prove the identity sin−1 x + cos−1 x = on [−1, 1].
2
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
116 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
• interpret the notion of increasing functions, decreasing functions, and relative ex-
trema of a function graphically
ic s
2.6.1 Relative Extrema
at
m
We define below the instances when a function attains a relative extremum at a given point.
he
at
1. A function f is said to have a relative maximum at x = c if there is an open interval I
M
containing c such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ I.
of
containing c such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ I.
tit
relative minimum at x = c.
UP
4. If f has a relative extremum at x = c, then it is equivalent to saying that (c, f (c)) is a relative
extremum point of f , or f (c) is a relative extremum value of f .
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6
Figure 2.6.1
Example 2.6.2. Find all the critical numbers of the following functions.
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
ic s
Solution.
at
x2 1 1
m
Note that dom f = R. Differentiating f , we get f 0 (x) = − 3 = (x2 − 9) = (x − 3)(x + 3).
he 3 3 3
The derivative is always defined and f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 3 or x = −3. Therefore, the critical
at
numbers are 3 and −3.
M
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3
of
e
Solution.
ut
The domain of f is R and its derivative is f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 = 2x2 (2x + 3). Hence, the critical
tit
3
numbers of f are 0 and − .
s
In
2
x2
UP
3. f (x) =
9 − x2
Solution.
18x
Note that dom f = R \ {±3}. The derivative of f is f 0 (x) = . Note that f 0 (x) is
(9 − x2 )2
not defined at x = ±3 but ±3 are not critical numbers of f because ±3 ∈ / dom f . Meanwhile,
f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 0. Thus, the only critical number of f is 0.
4 1
4. f (x) = −x 3 + 4x 3
Solution.
1 2 −4(x−1)
First, dom f = R. Differentiating f , we get f 0 (x) = − 34 x 3 + 43 x− 3 = 2 . Note that
3x 3
f 0 (x) = 0 if and only if x = 1 and that f 0 (x) is undefined at x = 0. Moreover, 0 ∈ dom f . Thus,
the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.
The following theorem tells us that finding the critical numbers of a function takes us one step
closer to finding its relative extremum points.
118 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
Illustration 2.6.4.
1. The graph of f (x) = −x2 given in Figure 2.6.2 has a relative maximum point at its vertex
(0, 0). Note that f 0 (x) = −2x. Indeed, f 0 (0) = 0.
2. Take f (x) = |x − 1|. From its graph shown in Figure 2.6.3, it is clear that f has a relative
minimum at x = 1. Since the graph has a corner at x = 1, we know that f 0 (1) is undefined.
y = −x2
y = |x − 1|
s
Figure 2.6.2 Figure 2.6.3
ic
at
m
Remark 2.6.5. The preceding theorem says that relative extrema can only be attained at critical
he
numbers of f , that is, if a is not a critical number, then the point (a, f (a)) is not a relative extremum
at
point of f . However, these critical numbers are only candidates for relative extrema. If c is a critical
M
number, f may or may not have a relative extremum at x = c. This will be illustrated in the next
sections.
of
e
ut
Our next goal is to determine when the graph of a function rises or falls. We will see then that this
s
1. f is said to be (strictly) increasing on I if f (a) < f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
2. f is said to be (strictly) decreasing on I if f (a) > f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
Example 2.6.6. Let f be a function whose graph is illustrated in Figure 2.6.1. Then
• f is decreasing on [c1 , c2 ), [c3 , c4 ] and [c5 , c6 ]. But note that it is incorrect to say f is decreasing
on [c1 , c2 ) ∪ [c3 , c4 ] ∪ [c5 , c6 ].
The following theorem gives us an analytical (as opposed to graphical) method of showing that the
function is increasing or decreasing. It should be noted that the Mean Value Theorem is a key in
proving this theorem.
2.6. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 119
Theorem 2.6.7. Let f be a function that is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and dif-
ferentiable on the open interval (a, b).
1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].
Example 2.6.8.
1. The derivative of f (x) = x2 is f 0 (x) = 2x. Note that f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, 0) and f 0 (x) > 0
for all x ∈ (0, +∞). Indeed, as seen in Figure 2.6.4, the graph of f is decreasing on the interval
(−∞, 0] and is increasing on the interval [0, ∞).
2. If f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 3x2 which is never negative. Observe the graph of f (x) = x3 in
Figure 2.6.5. Indeed, it is always increasing.
ic s
at
y = x2 y = x3
m
he
at
M
of
Figure 2.6.4
e
Figure 2.6.5
ut
tit
Note that if we want to reach the peak of a hill, we first have to climb up a slope, and when
UP
we finally reach the top, we will go downhill. Analogously, when a continuous function y = f (x)
attains a relative extremum, say a relative maximum, the behavior of the graph of f transitions
from increasing to decreasing as it proceeds from the left of the point to its right.
Theorem 2.6.9 (First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function continuous
on the open interval (a, b) which contains the number c. Suppose that f is also differentiable
on the interval (a, b), except possibly at c.
1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative maximum
at x = c.
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative minimum
at x = c.
3. If f 0 (x) does not change signs from (a, c) to (c, b), then there is no relative extremum at
x = c.
120 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
We will use Theorem 2.6.9 to verify whether a function has relative extrema at its critical numbers.
We enumerate below some suggested steps in finding the relative extrema of a given function.
Locating relative extremum values of a function
2. Determine the sign of f 0 on the left and right of each critical number. (Note that in creating
the table of signs of f 0 , one should consider all values of x that make f 0 either zero or undefined,
regardless of whether they are critical numbers or not.)
Example 2.6.10. Determine the intervals where the given function is increasing or decreasing and
find all of its relative extrema.
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
s
ic
Solution.
at
x2 − 9
From Example 2.6.2.1, we know f 0 (x) = and the critical numbers of f are ±3.
m
3 he
−3 3
at
f 0 (x) + − +
M
of
Then f is increasing on (−∞, −3] and on [3, +∞), while it is decreasing on [−3, 3]. By the first
derivative test, (−3, 6) is a relative maximum point of the graph of f and (3, −6) is a relative
e
ut
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3
s
In
Solution.
UP
From Example 2.6.2.2, f 0 (x) = 2x2 (2x + 3) and the critical numbers of f are 0 and − 23 .
− 32 0
f 0 (x) − + +
−3 0 3
999
999
f 0 (x) − − + +
2.6. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 121
The graph of f is decreasing on (−∞, −3) and on (−3, 0]. It is increasing on [0, 3) and on
(3, +∞). Therefore, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.
4 1
4. f (x) = −x 3 + 4x 3
Solution.
−4(x − 1)
From Example 2.6.2.4, f 0 (x) = 2 and the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.
3x 3
0 1
f 0 (x) + + −
Then the graph of f is increasing on (−∞, 1] and decreasing on [1, +∞). We conclude that f
has a relative maximum at x = 1.
x2 + 4x + 3
5. f (x) =
2(x − 1)2
Solution.
ic s
−(3x + 5)
Differentiating and simplifying, we get f 0 (x) = . Note that the only critical number
at
(x − 1)3
m
5
of f is − . We form the following table: he
3
at
− 53 1
M
999
f 0 (x) − + −
of
e
We conclude that f is increasing on [− 35 , 1); decreasing on the intervals (−∞, − 35 ] and (1, +∞);
ut
and has a relative minimum at x = − 35 . Notice that even if there was a change of sign at x = 1,
tit
we don’t say that f has a relative maximum at x = 1 since f is undefined when x = 1. In the
s
In
2.6.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Determine the intervals on which the graph of the following functions is increasing or decreas-
ing. Use the first derivative test to find its relative extremum points.
√
1. f (x) = 1 − 4x − x2 6. f (x) = 3
x+2
√
2. f (x) = x2 (x − 1)3 7. f (x) = 2x 3 − x
2
3. f (x) = x (x −
3 1)2 x
8. f (x) = − sin x
x2 2
4. f (x) = e2x + 16e−x
x2 + 2 9. f (x) =
√ 2
1+ x
5. f (x) = √ 10. 2
f (x) = ln(x + 1)
1− x
B. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
ic s
intervals where f is increasing or decreasing, and the x-coordinates of the relative extrema of
at
f.
m
he
1. 2.
at
M
2
of
3
e
(0, 2) 1
ut
2
(−2, 0) (2, 0)
tit
−2 −1 1 2 3
s
1
In
−1
UP
−2 −1(−1, 0) 1 2 −2
−1 −3
C. Do as indicated.
1
1. Suppose f (x) is increasing on (0, 1]. Show that f is decreasing on R.
x2 + 1
2. The population P of a new species of frogs in a conservation facility is modelled by
2500t2
P (t) = 50 + ,
25 + t2
where t is the number of years after the introduction of the new species.
a. How many frogs will populate the area in the long run?
b. Describe the behavior of the population. Is this a good model? Why or why not?
2.6. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 123
Supplementary Exercises
A. Determine the intervals on which the graph of the following functions is increasing or decreas-
ing. Use the first derivative test to find its relative extremum points.
B. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
intervals where f is increasing or decreasing, and the x-coordinates of the relative extrema of
f.
ic s
at
1 2
m
2
he 2 (1, 32 )
at
(0, 1)
M
1 (− 21 , 34 ) 1
of
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
(0, 0)1
ut
(0, −1) −4 −3 −2 −1 2
−1
tit
−1
(−2, −1)
s
−2
In
(2, −2) −2
UP
C. Do as indicated.
1
1. Show that if f is decreasing on (0, +∞), then g(x) = f is increasing on (0, +∞).
x3
2. Use a first derivative to show that sin x < x for all x > 0.
3. Find a polynomial with critical numbers 0 and 3 with a relative maximum at x = 0 and
no relative extremum at x = 3.
4. Find the value of c such that f (x) = x + ln(x2 + 1) + c tan−1 x has a relative maximum at
x = −5 and a relative minimum at x = 3.
124 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
2.7.1 Concavity
s
We define below the concept of concavity at a point, and on an interval.
ic
at
m
1. The graph of a function f is said to be concave up at the point P (c, f (c)) if f 0 (c) exists and
he
there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ {c}, the point (x, f (x)) is
at
above the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We say that the graph of f is concave up on
M
2. The graph of a function f is said to be concave down at the point P (c, f (c)) if f 0 (c) exists
e
ut
and there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ {c}, the point (x, f (x))
tit
is below the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We say that the graph of f is concave down
on an interval I if it is concave down at (c, f (c)) for all c ∈ I.
s
In
UP
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6 c7
Figure 2.7.1
• The graph of f is concave up on (c1 , c2 ) ∪ (c2 , c3 ) ∪ (c3 , c5 ) and concave down on (c5 , c7 ).
2.7. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 125
• The graph of f is neither concave up nor concave down at the point (c5 , f (c5 )).
We wish to find another characterization of concavity aside from its graphical definition. Observe
the behavior of the tangent lines to the concave up curve in Figure 2.7.2a. As a point goes from
left to right, the slope increases. Meanwhile, the slope of the tangent line decreases as a point goes
from left to right along the concave down curve in Figure 2.7.2b. We shall state this as a theorem.
ic s
at
m
Figure 2.7.2a he Figure 2.7.2b
at
Recall that f 00 (x) = Dx (f 0 (x)). Hence if f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f 0 (x) is increasing on
M
(a, b) and the graph of f is concave up on (a, b). If f 00 (x) < 0, then f 0 (x) is decreasing on (a, b) and
of
Theorem 2.7.2 (Test for Concavity). Let f be a function such that f 00 exists on (a, b).
s
In
1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave up on (a, b).
UP
2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave down on (a, b).
Example 2.7.3. If f (x) = x3 , then f 00 (x) = 6x. Note that f 00 (x) > 0 when x > 0 and f 00 (x) < 0
when x < 0. Hence, the graph of f is concave up on (0, ∞) and concave down on (−∞, 0) (refer to
Figure 2.7.3a). Observe that that the graph of f changed concavity at x = 0. In this case, we call
the point (0, f (0)) = (0, 0) a point of inflection.
g(x) = x2/3
f (x) = x3 √
3
f (x) = x
f (x) = x4
The graph of f (x) has a point of inflection at P (c, f (c)) if f is continuous at x = c and the graph
of f changes concavity at P , i.e. there is an open interval (a, b) containing c such that
1. f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b) or;
2. f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b).
Theorem 2.7.4. If P (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of the function f , then
f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exist.
Example 2.7.5.
s
2
ic
f 00 (x) = − 5/3 . Indeed, f 00 (0) is undefined.
at
9x
m
Remark 2.7.6. The converse of the preceding theorem is not true. That is, if f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c)
he
dne, the graph of f may or may not have a point of inflection at x = c. Take for example the
at
graphs of f (x) = x4 and g(x) = x2/3 illustrated in Figures 2.7.3c and 2.7.3d. The graph of both
M
functions has no points of inflection but f 00 (x) = 0 and g 00 (x) does not exist when x = 0. Let us
of
Example 2.7.7. Determine all points of inflection of the graph of the following functions and
UP
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
Solution.
2x
Note that f 00 (x) = = 0 when x = 0.
3
0
f 00 (x) − +
Then the graph of f has a point of inflection at (0, 0) and the graph of f is concave down on
(−∞, 0) and concave up on (0, ∞).
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3
Solution.
2.7. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 127
−1 0
f 00 (x) + − +
Then (−1, −1) and (0, 0) are points of inflection of the graph f . The graph of f is concave up
on (−∞, −1) and (0, ∞). The graph of f is concave down on (−1, 0).
x2
3. f (x) =
9 − x2
Solution.
(9 − x2 )2 18 − 18x(2)(9 − x2 )(−2x) 54(3 + x2 )
Note that f 00 (x) = = which is never zero and is
(9 − x2 )4 (9 − x2 )3
undefined when x = ±3.
−3 3
999
999
00
f (x) − + −
ic s
the graph of f is concave up on (−∞, −3) and (3, ∞), while f is concave down on (−3, 3).
at
m
4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3 he
at
Solution.
M
−4(x + 2)
Verify that f 00 (x) = = 0 when x = −2 and f 00 (x) is undefined when x = 0.
9x5/3
of
e
−2 0
ut
f 00 (x) − + −
tit
√
s
Then (−2, 2 3 2) and (0, 0) are points of inflection of the graph of f . The graph of f is concave
In
Theorem 2.7.8 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function such that
f 0 and f 00 exist for all values of x on some open interval containing x = c and f 0 (c) = 0.
3. If f 00 (x) = 0, we have no conclusion (f may or may not have a relative extrema at x = c).
Remark 2.7.9. Note that the second derivative test is only applicable to the first type of critical
numbers: those that make the first derivative zero (x-coordinates of so-called stationary points).
128 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
Example 2.7.10. Given the following functions, determine if the second derivative test is appli-
cable to their critical numbers. If yes, what can you conclude using the second derivative test?
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x with C.N. : −3, 3
9
Solution.
x2 − 9 2x
Recall that f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = . The second derivative test is applicable to both
3 00 3
−3 and 3. Observe that f (−3) = −2 < 0 and thus, f has a relative maximum at x = −3.
Similarly, f 00 (3) = 2 > 0 and thus, f has a relative minimum at x = 3.
Solution.
Recall that f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x. The second derivative test is applicable
to both 0 and − 23 . Note that f 00 (0) = 0 and this gives us an inconclusive case. On the other
hand, f 00 − 32 = 9 > 0 and so f has a relative minimum at x = − 32 .
ic s
x2
at
3. f (x) = with C.N. : 0
9 − x2
m
Solution. he
18x 2
00 (x) = 54(3 + x ) . The second derivative test is
at
We have seen that f 0 (x) = and f
(9 − x2 )2 (9 − x2 )3
M
00 54(3)
applicable to 0. Since f (0) = 93 > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.
of
Solution.
−4(x − 1) −4(x + 2)
s
2/3
. The second derivative test is applicable to 1 but
3x 9x5/3
00 4
not to 0. Because f (1) = − 3 , then f has a relative maximum at x = 1.
UP
b
5. f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0. C.N. : − 2a .
Solution.
Note that f 0 (x) = 2ax+b and f 00 (x) = 2a. The second derivative test is applicable to − 2a
b
. From
00 b b
f (− 2a ) = 2a, we conclude that if a > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = − 2a . Meanwhile,
b
a < 0, then f has a relative maximum at x = − 2a .
2.7. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 129
2.7.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Identify the possible points of inflection of the graph of each function. Determine which of
these are indeed points of inflection using a table of signs. Determine the intervals on which
the graph of the function is concave up or concave down.
1. f (x) = (x + 2)3 x
5. f (x) = √
x2 + 1
2. f (x) = x2/3 √ 1
x 6. f (x) = x + √
3. f (x) = 2 x
x +2 7. f (x) = sin x cos x
x2 − 3 sin x
4. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
x2 + 1 2 − cos x
B. Determine which critical numbers satisfy the hypotheses of the second derivative test and
apply the test to these numbers.
ic s
at
m
1. f (x) = (x2 − 1)4 4. f (x) = 2x + cot x
2. f (x) = x1/3 (x + 4)
he 5. f (x) = cos2 x − 2 sin x
at
√
3. f (x) = x4/3 − 6x1/3 6. f (x) = 3x + 2 sin x
M
of
C. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
e
intervals where f is concave up, concave down and the x-coordinates of the points of inflection
ut
of f .
tit
s
In
1 2
UP
2 3
1
−1
−1
(−2, −4)
(1, −2)
Supplementary Exercises
A. Identify the possible points of inflection of the graph of each function. Determine which of
these are indeed points of inflection using a table of signs. Determine the intervals on which
the graph of the function is concave up or concave down.
130 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
√
1. f (x) = −x4 + 10x3 − 36x2 − 90x + 200 5. f (x) = x2 + 2x + x
2. f (x) = x2 (2x2 − 4x + 3) 1 − 2x2 e2x
6. f (x) =
3. f (x) = (x + 2)5
+ + x4 8x3
+ 24x2 e2x
7. f (x) = ln(x3 − 1)
(
9 − x , if x ≤ 3
4. f (x) =
x2 − 3 , if x > 3 8. f (x) = 2x2 + ln x
B. Determine which critical numbers satisfy the hypotheses of the second derivative test and
apply the test to these numbers.
√ √
16000 3
4. f (x) = 2 3 x − x2
1. f (x) = x2 +
x
5. f (x) = cos(π sin x)
200
2. f (x) = (x − 4) −2 2
x 6. f (x) = e−x
√
3. f (x) = x − 2 x + 1 + 1 7. f (x) = x − ln sech x
ic s
C. Suppose that water is flowing at a constant rate into the container below. If f (t) is the water
at
level (height) in the container after time t, how would you describe the graph of y = f (t)?
m
he
1. 2.
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
D. Do as indicated.
UP
1. If f is a function concave down everywhere, show that e−f (x) is concave up everywhere.
2. Suppose n is a positive integer such that n ≥ 2. Let g(x) = xn+1 − (n + 1)xn .
a. Prove that g has a relative minimum at x = n.
b. Explain why the Second Derivative Test cannot be used to show that g has a relative
maximum at x = 0 when n is even.
c. Show that g has a point of inflection at x = n − 1 and at x = 0 when n is odd.
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 131
• using derivatives, graph polynomial functions (of degree at most 5) and rational
functions
ic s
at
2. Determine vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes of f by computing necessary limits.
m
3. Compute f 0 and f 00 . Determine the critical numbers and possible points of inflection, if any.
he
at
4. Construct a table of signs with intervals divided at the numbers that make f 0 zero or unde-
M
fined, and f 00 zero or undefined. Indicate the sign of f 0 and f 00 on each interval.
of
or concave down. Determine the coordinates of the relative extremum points and points of
tit
inflection, if any.
s
In
6. Plot important points (intercepts, holes, relative extremum points, points of inflection) and
asymptotes first.
UP
7. Use the table of signs of f 0 and f 00 to graph the rest of the function.
domf : R √
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
x-intercept: x = 0, ±3 3 (−∞, −3) + - inc., cd
−3 6 0 - rel. max.
y-intercept: y = 0
(−3, 0) - - dec, cd
x2 − 9
f 0 (x) = CN: −3, 3 0 0 - 0 POI
3 (0, 3) - + dec, cu
2x
f 00 (x) = PPOI : 0 3 −6 0 + rel. min.
3
(3, +∞) + + inc, cu
132 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
(−3, 6)
√ √
(−3 3, 0) (3 3, 0)
(0, 0)
(3, −6)
Solution.
ic s
domf : R f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 CN: 0, − 23
at
m
x-intercept: x = 0, −2 f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x PPOI: 0, −1
y-intercept: y = 0
he
at
M
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
of
(−∞, − 32 ) - + dec., cu
−27
− 32 0 + rel. min.
e
16
ut
(− 32 , −1) + + inc, cu
tit
−1 −1 + 0 POI
s
In
(−1, 0) + - inc, cd
0 0 0 0 POI
UP
(0, 0)
(−2, 0)
(−1, −1)
( −3
2
, −27
16
)
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 133
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x) if at least one of the following is true:
(a) lim f (x) = +∞ (b) lim f (x) = −∞ (c) lim f (x) = +∞ (d) lim f (x) = −∞
x→a− x→a− x→a+ x→a+
ic s
at
m
Remark 2.8.3. To look for the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a function, we have to think
he
of a real number a such that the limit of f as x approaches a is infinite. For a rational polynomial
at
P (x)
, x = a is a vertical asymptote if (x − a) is a factor of Q but not of P (or the multiplicity of
M
Q(x)
x − a as a factor of Q is greater than the multiplicity of x − a as a factor of P ).
of
e
Example 2.8.4.
ut
tit
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
1. f (x) = = has a vertical asymptote at x = 3 but has none at x = 2.
s
2
x − 5x + 6 (x − 3)(x − 2)
In
(x − 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)
lim = lim = −4,
x→2 (x − 3)(x − 2) x→2 (x − 3)
(x − 2)(x + 2) 1·5
lim = −∞ ,
x→3 (x − 3)(x − 2)
− (0− ) · 1
and
(x − 2)(x + 2) 1·5
lim =∞ .
x→3 (x − 3)(x − 2)
+ (0+ ) · 1
4 − x2 (2 − x)(2 + x)
2. f (x) = 2
= has a vertical asymptote at x = 2. To verify this using
x − 4x + 4 (x − 2)2
limits,
(2 − x)(2 + x) −(x + 2) −4
lim = lim = ±∞ .
x→2∓ (x − 2)2 x→2∓ (x − 2) 0∓
134 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if at least one of the following is true:
y=b
(a) lim f (x) = b
x→+∞
y=b
y=b
(b) lim f (x) = b
x→−∞
y=b
Remark 2.8.5. To find all horizontal asymptotes of a polynomial or rational function, we only
need to evaluate the limit of the function as x → ∞ and as x → −∞. If the limit is finite, then there
s
is a horizontal asymptote. Notice that in a rational function, whenever the degree of the numerator
ic
is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator, then there is a horizontal asymptote.
at
m
he
Example 2.8.6.
at
M
x+3
of
1 1 3
x+3 x2 x + x2
lim · = lim =0
s
x→+∞ x2 − 1 1 1
x→+∞ 1−
In
x2 x2
UP
and
1 1 3
x+3 x2 x + x2
lim · 1 = lim 1 =0
x→−∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ 1−
x2 x2
2x + 1 2 2
2. f (x) = has a horizontal asymptote at y = and y = − . To verify this using limits,
|5x − 2| 5 5
2x + 1 2x + 1 2
lim = lim =
x→+∞ |5x − 2| x→+∞ 5x − 2 5
and
2x + 1 2x + 1 2
lim = lim =−
x→−∞ |5x − 2| x→−∞ −5x + 2 5
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 135
The graph of f has the line y = mx + b, m 6= 0, as an oblique asymptote if at least one of the
following is true:
y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b
ic s
y = mx + b
at
y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b
m
he
at
P (x)
Remark 2.8.7. If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions with deg(P ) = deg(Q) + 1, then
M
Q(x)
has an oblique asymptote.
of
x2 + 3
e
ut
Example 2.8.8. The rational function f (x) = has an oblique asymptote because the de-
x−1
tit
gree of the numerator is 2, which is one degree greater than that of the denominator. To find the
s
x+1
x2
x−1 +3
− x2 + x
x+3
−x+1
4
Thus
4
f (x) = (x + 1) + .
x−1
From here it can be shown that y = x + 1 is an oblique asymptote since
4
lim f (x) − (x + 1) = lim = 0.
x→±∞ x→±∞ x − 1
136 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
x2
Example 2.8.9. Sketch the graph of f (x) = using derivatives.
9 − x2
Solution.
R
domf : \ {±3} interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
x-int: x = 0 y-int: y = 0 (−∞, −3) - - dec., cd
−3 und und und V.A.
Vertical Asymptotes: x = −3and x = 3
9 (−3, 0) - + dec, cu
lim f (x) = −∞ − 0 0 0 + rel. min.
x→−3− 0
(0, 3) + + inc, cu
9
lim f (x) = +∞ +
3 und und und V.A.
x→−3+ 0 (3, +∞) + - inc, cd
9
lim f (x) = +∞ +
0
x→3 −
ic s
9 x2
f (x) =
lim f (x) = −∞
at
9 − x2
x→3 + 0−
m
Horizontal Asymptotes: y = −1 x = −3 x=3
lim
x2
= lim 9
1
= −1
he (0, 0)
x→±∞ 9 − x2
at
x→±∞ 2 − 1 y = −1
x
Oblique Asymptotes: none
M
18x
f 0 (x) = CN: 0
of
(9 − x2 )2
54(3 + x2 )
e
(9 − x2 )3
s tit
In
4x
Example 2.8.10. Sketch the graph of f (x) = using derivatives.
UP
x2 +1
Solution.
domf : R
x-int: x = 0 interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
√
(−∞, − 3) - - dec., cd
y-int: y = 0 √ √
− 3 − 3 - 0 POI
Vertical Asymptote.: none √
(− 3, −1) - + dec, cu
Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0 −1 −2 0 + rel. min.
4
x 0 (−1, 0) + + inc, cu
lim = =0
1
x→±∞ 1 + x12 0 0 + 0 POI
Oblique Asymptote: none (0, 1) + - inc, cd
4 − 4x2 1
√
2 0 - rel. max.
f 0 (x) = 2 CN: −1, 1 (1, 3) - - dec, cd
(x + 1)2 √ √
8x(x2 − 3) √ 3 3 - 0 POI
√
f 00 (x) = 2 3
PPOI: 0, ± 3 ( 3, +∞) - + dec, cu
(x + 1)
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 137
(1, 2) √ √
( 3, 3)
(0, 0)
y=0
4x
√ √ f (x) =
(− 3, − 3) x2 + 1
(−1, −2)
x−1
Example 2.8.11. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 4 + x + using derivatives.
x2 − 1
Solution.
R
domf : \ {−1, 1} √ x = −1
x-intercept: x = −5±2 5
1 x2 + 5x + 5
s
f (x) = 4 + x + = , x 6= 1
ic
x+1 x+1 x−1
f (x) = 4 + x +
at
y-intercept: y = 5 x2 − 1
11
m
11
V.A.: x = −1 hole: 1, (1, 2
)
2 he
H.A.: none y =x+4
at
(0, 5)
lim f (x) = +∞ and lim f (x) = −∞
M
x→+∞ x→−∞
O.A.: y = x + 4
of
x−1 1
lim f (x)−(x+4) = lim = lim =0
e
2
x→±∞ x − 1 x→±∞ x + 1 (−2,1)
ut
x→±∞
√
x2 + 2x ( −5− 5
tit
2
, 0)
f 0 (x) = CN: 0, −2 √
(x + 1)2 ( −5+ 5
s
2
, 0)
In
2
f 00 (x) = PPOI: none
(x + 1)3
UP
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
(−∞, −2) + - inc, cd
−2 1 0 - rel. max.
(−2, −1) - - dec, cd
−1 und und und V.A.
(−1, 0) - + dec, cu
0 5 0 + rel. min.
(0, +∞) + + inc, cu
Example 2.8.12. Given the graph of f 0 below and assuming that f is continuous everywhere,
sketch a possible graph of f .
138 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
−1 1 2
−1
Solution.
(a) First, we need to determine the critical numbers of f . Remember that these are the numbers
that make f 0 zero or undefined. From the graph of f 0 , we see that the critical numbers are −1
and 2 for f 0 = 0, and 0 for f 0 undefined.
ic s
at
(b) Next, we need to determine where the graph of f has points of inflection. These are the points
m
where the graph of f 0 changes from increasing to decreasing, or vice versa. The possible points
he
of inflection of the graph of f are attained at values of x where the graph of f 0 has a horizontal
at
tangent line or a vertical tangent line or has no tangent line. Thus, the x-coordinates of the
M
(c) Recall that the graph of f is increasing on [a, b] if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). This means that
ut
the graph of f 0 is above the x-axis on the interval (a, b). Similarly, the graph of f is decreasing
tit
on [a, b] if the graph of f 0 is below the x-axis on the interval (a, b).
s
In
(d) Meanwhile, the graph of f is concave up on an interval (a, b) if the graph of f 0 is increasing on
UP
(a, b). It is concave down on (a, b) if the graph of f 0 is decreasing on (a, b).
−1 0 1 2
We remark that this is only one of the possible graphs for f. For instance, one may shift this graph
in the y-direction to obtain another possible graph.
ics
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
140 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
2.8.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Explain why the following functions do not have a linear asymptote and sketch their graphs.
1. y = x3 − 3x2 + 1 3. y = x1/3 (x + 4)
2. y = −x4 + 8x3 − 18x2 + 10 4. y = sin x cos x
B. Find all vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of the following functions using limits.
√
x2 + 1 x+1−1
1. f (x) = 4. f (x) =
x+1 x
sin x 2
x − 4x + 4
2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 2
x x +x−6
s
x2 − 1 4
ic
3. f (x) = 2 6. f (x) = x + 1 +
at
5x + 1 x−4
m
C. Sketch the graph of the following functions analytically.
he
at
M
x x2 + 1
1. f (x) = 4. f (x) =
of
x3 − 1
ut
2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 2
(x − 2)2 x −1
tit
2x3 (x + 1)3
s
3. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
In
x2 − 4 x2
UP
D. Sketch a possible graph of the function f given the graph of f 0 . Assume that f is continuous
everywhere.
1. 2.
(−1, 2) 2 3
(0, 2.6)
2
1
(−2, 1) (0, 1)
√ 1
(−2, 0) (3 − 2, 0)
(−1, −0.6) (3, 0)
−3 −2 −1(0, 0) 1 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−1
−1
−2 (1, −2) −2
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 141
Supplementary Exercises
A. Explain why the following functions do not have a linear asymptote and sketch their graphs.
B. Find all vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes of the following functions using limits.
2x + 3 1
1. f (x) = 3. f (x) =
x+4 |x − 3|
1
4. f (x) = ln(1 + )
x−9 x2
2. f (x) = √ 5. f (x) = coth x
x−3
ic s
at
m
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 12x2 (x + 1)3
he 5. f (x) =
x2
(x − 1)2
at
2. f (x) = (x − 2)(3x + 2)
x2 6. f (x) =
M
x+1
4(2x + 3)(x + 3) (2x − 1)2
3. f (x) =
of
(x + 2)2 7. f (x) =
(x − 2)2
e
ut
x2 + 3x + 2 x3
4. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
tit
3x + 2 x2 − 4
s
In
D. Sketch a possible graph of the function f given the table of signs of f 0 and f 00 . Assume that
UP
f is continuous everywhere
1. 2.
Reviewer
dy
I. Find . No need to simplify your final answers.
dx
(2x −1)21 sec2 (3x+4)
1. y = s (use logarithmic differentiation)
1 3
5−
x2
−1 x cosh(πx)
2. y = cot (7 )
3. y = f 0 (x), where f (x) = tan−1 (5x2 + 3)
√
4. log3 (x5 + y 3 ) = e + sin(x2 − y)
1 6
5. 2y − π 3 = cosh(xy 2 ) + log2 (x3 + 7)
II. Do as indicated.
1. Find the point-slope form of the equation of the normal line to the graph of y = cot(πx)
at x = 21 .
s
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of
ic
at
1
π + x3 sinh(y 4 ) = 3x +
m
he y
1
at
at the point 0, .
M
π
3. Determine if the function
of
3 + x,
e
x≤3
ut
f (x) = 4 − √
x
tit
x + 2x + 3, x>3
s
In
is differentiable at x = 3.
UP
4. Find all possible values for a and b such that the function
(
tan(πx), x < 3
p(x) =
ax2 − b, x ≥ 3
is differentiable at x = 3.
5. Verify that the Mean Value Theorem is applicable to the following functions on the given
interval. Find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem on
the given interval.
2x
1. f (x) = on [0, 1]
x+1
2. g(x) = 3sin x on [0, π]
3. h(x) = x − ex on [0, 2]
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 143
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
144 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
s
ic
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 3
Applications of Differentiation
ic s
• determine the absolute extrema of a function on an interval
at
m
• solve optimization problems using techniques for finding absolute extrema
he
at
M
Suppose a businessman wishes to know how many toy robots he needs to produce to maximize his
of
profit. If he produces too many toys, some of these may not be bought because of limited demand.
e
ut
Using market research, he finds out that if he produces x toy robots, his profit will be given by the
tit
function f (x). In deciding how many he will produce, he also has to consider some constraints, like
his budget or his factory’s production speed. Hence, he only considers values of x on a given set,
s
In
say, an interval I. How will the businessman determine what value of x on the interval I will give
UP
Remarks.
1. Unlike with relative extrema, the interval I need not be an open interval.
2. Note that the absolute maximum (or minimum) value of a function on an interval is unique, if
it exists. However, the graph of f may have more than one absolute maximum (or minimum)
point (same y-values but different x-values).
145
146 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
− π2
π (0, 3)
2 f (x) = 2x + 3
(1, 1)
(−1, 1)
−2 0 1
−1 0
Example 3.1.1.
• f (x) = x2 has an absolute minimum on the interval (−2, 1) at x = 0 but has no absolute
s
maximum on the interval (−2, 1).
ic
at
m
• f (x) = 2x + 3 has an absolute minimum on the interval [−1, +∞) at x = −1 but has no
absolute maximum on the interval [−1, +∞).
he
at
M
Ultimately, we want to find the absolute extrema of a function on a given interval. It would also be
In
helpful if we can easily determine the existence of an absolute minimum or an absolute maximum
UP
of a function, so that we are at least guaranteed that our efforts in finding them are not wasted.
Theorem 3.1.2 (Extreme Value Theorem). If f is continuous on [a, b], then f has both an
absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on [a, b].
Remark 3.1.3. If you replace [a, b] by one of the following intervals (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], (a, +∞),
(−∞, b), [a, +∞), (−∞, b], then the conclusion of the Extreme Value Theorem does not follow.
The Extreme Value Theorem assures us that a continuous function on [a, b] will attain both an
absolute maximum and minimum on [a, b]. Hence, an absolute extremum may be attained at either
an interior point, that is x ∈ (a, b), or at an endpoint, that is x = a or x = b.
Theorem 3.1.4. If f has an absolute extremum on the open interval (a, b) at x = c, then c is
a critical number of f on (a, b), that is, either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) is undefined.
3.1. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 147
• the number that gives the highest (lowest) value of f gives the absolute maximum
(minimum).
Note: Always check if the function is continuous on I. One way to do this is to check if the interval
in consideration is a subset of dom f .
Example 3.1.5. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum values of f (x) on the
given closed interval. Specify the values of x at which these absolute extrema are attained.
1. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 on I = [− 21 , 4]
ic s
Solution.
at
R
m
We note that f is a polynomial, which is continuous on . Thus, f is continuous on any interval;
he
in particular, it is continuous on I. Now, we solve for the critical numbers of f :
at
M
1 1
f − = f (0) = 1 f (2) = −3 f (4) = 17
e
2 8
ut
tit
1
In
2. f (x) = on I = [−2, 1]
1 + x2
UP
Solution.
Since the denominator of f is nonzero, then dom f = R. Thus, f is defined and continuous on
[−2, 1]. Solving for the CNs of f , we get:
−2x
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0
(x2+ 1)2
1 1
f (−2) = f (0) = 1 f (1) =
5 2
Therefore, f has an absolute minimum at x = −2 and an absolute maximum at x = 0.
Solution.
Since taking cube roots is possible for any real number, f is defined, and thus continuous, on
I. We solve for the CNs of f :
148 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
2
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0
3x1/3
f (−8) = 4 f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1
4. f (x) = x − tan x on I = [− π4 , π4 ]
Solution.
The function f1 (x) = x is continuous everywhere. From the graph of f2 (x) = tan x, we can
infer that f2 is continuous on I. Thus, f (x) = f1 (x) − f2 (x) is continuous on I. We solve for
the CNs of f :
ic s
π
Therefore, f has an absolute minimum at x = 4 and an absolute maximum at x = − π4 .
at
(
m
x2 − 4 , x < 3
5. f (x) = on I = [0, 5] he
8−x , x≥3
at
Solution.
M
Each component function is defined and continuous on R. We now check for continuity at x = 3.
of
Since
e
ut
x→3− x→3−
s
x→3+ x→3+
UP
Example 3.1.7. Find the value(s) of x where the given function attains its absolute extrema, if
any, on the given interval.
1
1. f (x) = on I = (−2, 1)
1 + x2
Solution.
From item 2 of Example 3.1.5, f is continuous on (−2, 1).
−2x
f 0 (x) = C.N.: 0
(x2+ 1)2
ic s
6x2 − 2
at
f 00 (x) = and f 00 (0) = −2 < 0
(x2 + 1)3
m
he
By the second derivative test, f has a relative maximum at x = 0. Since the point (0, 1) is the
at
only relative extremum of f on I, then f has an absolute maximum at x = 0.
M
2. f (x) = x4 − 4x on R
of
e
Solution.
ut
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 1. It is the only relative
R
extremum of f in . Hence, f has an absolute minimum at x = 1.
16
3. f (x) = x + on (1, +∞)
x
Solution.
Since dom f = R \ {0}, then f is continuous on (1, +∞).
16 x2 − 16
f 0 (x) = 1 − = C.N. on (1, +∞): 4
x2 x2
32 1
f 00 (x) = 3
and f 00 (4) = > 0
x 2
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 4. Since it is the only relative
extremum of f on (1, +∞), then f has an absolute minimum at x = 4.
150 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Consider a function f continuous on an interval I with more than one relative extremum on I.
We can also determine the absolute extrema of f by observing the limit of f as x approaches the
endpoints/tails of the interval.
Example 3.1.8. Find the value(s) of x where f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4 attains its absolute extrema on
I = (−3, +∞).
Solution.
√ √
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 10x = 2x(2x2 − 5) and C.N. : 0, − 10
2 ,
10
2
s
f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 10
ic
at
√ √
f 00 (0) = −10 and f 00 − 210 = 20 = f 00 210
m
he
at
By the√ second derivative
√ test, f has a relative maximum at x = 0 and a relative minimum at
M
10 10
x = − 2 and x = 2 . Now,
of
e
√ √
ut
x→−3+ x→+∞
UP
Make a rough sketch of the graph of f on (−3, +∞). Clearly, f has no absolute maximum. Note
that the interval (−3, +∞) is open. Thus, if f has an absolute minimum on (−3, +∞), then it must
be a relative minimum. From the behavior of the function towards the left
√ endpoint and √ towards
+∞, we can conclude that f has an absolute minimum attained at x = 210 and x = − 210 .
Many real-life situations require us to find a value that best suits our needs. If we are given
several options for the value of a variable x, how do we choose the “best value”? Such a problem is
classified as an optimization problem. We wish to apply our previous discussion on finding absolute
extremum values of a function to solve some optimization problems.
3.1. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 151
4. Determine the domain or constraint of q from the physical restrictions of the problem.
5. Use appropriate theorems involving absolute extrema to solve the problem. Make sure to
give the exact answer to the question with the correct units of measurement.
ic s
at
m
Example 3.1.9. he
at
M
1. Find the number in the interval [−2, 2] so that the difference of the number from its square is
of
maximized.
e
ut
Solution.
tit
f (x) = x2 − x,
where x ∈ [−2, 2]. Note that f is continuous on [−2, 2] and thus, we can apply the Extreme
Value Theorem. We first find the critical numbers of f in the interval (−2, 2). Since
f 0 (x) = 2x − 1,
we have one critical number in (−2, 2), that is, x = 21 . Then we compare the function value at
the critical number and the endpoints:
1 1
f (−2) = 6 f (2) = 2 f =− .
2 4
From this, we conclude that f attains an absolute maximum on I at x = −2. Hence, the number
we are looking for is −2.
152 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
s s
s s
9 in
2. A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of
cardboard 24 inches long and 9 inches wide by s s
cutting out identical squares from the four corners s s
and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the
largest rectangular box that can be formed. 24 in
Solution.
If s is the length of the side of the squares to be cut out, then the volume of the open-topped
box we can construct is
We wish to maximize V (s) but note that s is a positive real number which has to be less than
ic s
half the width of the cardboard. Thus, s ∈ (0, 4.5). Since
at
m
V 0 (s) = 216 − 132s + 12s2 = 12(18 − 11s + s2 ) = 12(s − 2)(s − 9),
he
the only critical number of V in the interval (0, 4.5) is 2. Using the second derivative test, we see
at
that V 00 (s) = −132 + 24s and V 00 (2) < 0. Therefore, V has a relative maximum at s = 2. Since
M
it is the only relative extremum of V on the interval (0, 4.5), then V also attains its absolute
of
maximum at s = 2. We conclude that the volume of the largest box that can be formed is
e
3. A 1000-square-yard rectangular lot along a highway is to be fenced off such that one side of the
s
fence is on the highway. The fencing on the highway costs Php 80 per yard and the fencing on
In
the other sides costs Php 20 per yard. Determine the dimensions of the lot that will minimize
UP
the total cost of the fencing. (Assume that materials can be bought in any fractional parts.)
Solution.
Let s1 be the length of the side of the lot facing the highway and s2 be the length of the other
side. Since the area of the lot is 1000 yd2 , then we can write s2 = 1000s1 . If C is the cost of
fencing the lot, then
40, 000
C(s1 ) = 100s1 + 40s2 = 100s1 + .
s1
We want to minimize this function. But first, we need to ask: what are the feasible values for
s1 ? Clearly, s1 is a positive real number. Aside from this, we do not have any other constraint
for s1 . Thus, the domain is (0, +∞). Note that
40, 000 100(s21 − 400)
C 0 (s1 ) = 100 − = ,
s21 s21
C also attains its absolute minimum at s1 = 20. Therefore, the side facing the highway must
be 20 yards and the other side must be 50 yards to minimize the cost of fencing the lot.
4. Determine the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume that can be inscribed
in a right circular cone of radius 6 inches and height 9 inches.
r
6 in
9 in
ic s
at
Solution.
m
Let h and r denote the height and radius of the cylinder, respectively. Note that the volume of
he
the cylinder is V = πr2 h. Looking at the middle cross-section of the cylinder and cone, we can
at
see similar triangles and so,
M
6 9
= ,
of
6−r h
or h = 9 − 32 r. We can now write the objective function
e
ut
tit
3 3
V (r) = πr 9 − r = 9πr2 − πr3
2
s
2 2
In
to be maximized. Note that r ∈ (0, 6). Now, V 0 (r) = 18πr − 92 πr2 = 9πr(2 − 2r ) and hence, the
UP
only critical number is 4. Applying the second derivative test, we get V 00 (r) = 18π − 9πr and
V 00 (4) = −18π < 0. Since V has only one relative extremum on the interval (0, 6) and it is a
relative maximum, then it is also an absolute maximum. Therefore, the inscribed right circular
cylinder will have the greatest volume if its dimensions are r = 4 inches and h = 3 inches.
5. Angelo, who is in a rowboat 2 miles from a straight shoreline, notices smoke billowing from his
house, which is on the shoreline and 6 miles from the point on the shoreline nearest Angelo. If
he can row at 6 miles per hour and run at 10 miles per hour, how should he proceed in order to
get to his house in the least amount of time?
Starting Point
2 mi
Angelo’s house c P
shoreline
6 mi
154 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Solution.
Let c be the distance between the house and the point P on the shore from which Angelo will
start to run. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we see that the distancep he will travel by boat is
4 + (6 − c)2
4 + (6 − c)2 . Note that speed= distance
p
time . Thus, he will sail for hours and walk
c
6
for 10 hours. We wish to minimize
p
4 + (6 − c)2 c
T (c) = + .
6 10
We can assume that c ∈ [0, 6]. Solving for the critical numbers of f on [0, 6], we have
p
0 5c − 30 + 3 4 + (6 − c)2
T (c) = p ,
30 4 + (6 − c)2
and thus, c = 29 . Comparing the function values at the endpoints and the critical number,
√
10 9 13 14
T (0) = T = T (6) = ,
s
3 2 15 15
ic
at
we see that the absolute minimum of T is attained at c = 92 . Therefore, Angelo must row up
m
to the point P on the shore 92 miles from his house and 23 miles from the point on the shore
he
nearest him. Then he must run straight to his house.
at
M
of
e
ut
Solution.
Let r denote the radius of the semicircle and h denote the height of the rectangle as seen in the
illustration. Since the perimeter is 20 feet, we get the equation 20 = 2h + 2r + rπ. From this,
we can solve for h in terms of r and vice versa:
1 20 − 2h
h = 10 − (2 + π)r and r= .
2 2+π
From these two equations, notice that since h and r are positive real numbers, then h cannot
exceed 10 and
20
r< .
2+π
Thus, we want to maximize the surface area A = 2rh + 21 πr2 , which can be written as
πr2
1 1
A(r) = 2r 10 − (2 + π)r + πr2 = − − 2r2 + 20r,
2 2 2
3.1. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 155
20
where r ∈ (0, 2+π ). Since A0 (r) = −πr − 4r + 20, then the only critical number is r = π+4
20
. If
we can show that A attains a relative maximum at this critical number, then we can conclude
that A also attains its absolute maximum at this critical number. Indeed,
00 00 20
A (r) = −π − 4 = A <0
π+4
and so, by the second derivative test we obtain the desired conclusion. Therefore, the window
20 20
admits the most light when r = π+4 feet and h = π+4 feet.
7. Find all points on the parabola with equation x = 2y 2 that are closest to the point (10, 0).
x = 2y 2 (x, y)
(10, 0)
ic s
Solution.
at
Since the points we are looking for are on the graph of x = 2y 2 , we let (2y 2 , y) be the coordinates
m
of the desired points. We wish to minimize the distance
he
at
p p p
d := (x − 10)2 + y 2 = (2y 2 − 10)2 + y 2 = 4y 4 − 39y 2 + 100
M
R
where y ∈ . Note however that a value of y minimizing d also minimizes d2 because d is a
of
R. Note that D0(y) = 16y3 − 78y = 2y(8y2 − 39) and so, the critical numbers
In
instead, where
qy ∈
39
UP
3.1.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the given interval, if there are any, and determine
the values of x at which the absolute extrema occur.
√
1. f (x) = x 4 − x2 on [−1, 2]
(
4x − 2, x<1
2. f (x) = on [ 12 , 72 ]
(x − 2)(x − 3), x ≥ 1
3. f (x) = 2 sec x − tan x on 0, π4
s
(x − 3)2
ic
8. f (x) = [[x]] − x2 on (−1, 1)
at
√ √
m
9. f (x) = x2 + cos(x2 ) on (− π, π)
he
at
B. Answer the following optimization problems systematically.
M
1. Find two numbers such that their difference is 50 and their product is as small as possible.
of
2. A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 2,000 in3 . The material for the top
e
and bottom of the box cost 30 pesos per square inch and the material for the sides cost 15
ut
pesos per square inch. Find the dimensions of the box so that the total cost of material is
tit
least.
s
In
3. Find the area of the largest rectangle having two vertices on the x-axis and two vertices
UP
Supplementary Exercises
A. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the given interval, if there are any, and determine
the values of x at which the absolute extrema occur.
x sin x
1. f (x) = on [−1, 4] 6. f (x) = √ on [0, 2π]
x2
+2 cos x + 2
2. f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 3 on (−1, +∞) 7. f (x) = sin(cos x) on [0, 2π]
1
3. f (x) = on [−2, 3] 8. f (x) = x ln x on (0, +∞)
x
√
4. f (x) = |x − 4| + 1 on (0, 6) 9. f (x) = ln(1 + 3x2 ) + 2 tan−1 ( 3x) on
5. f (x) = 2 cos x on [ −2π π
3 , 3) (−∞, +∞)
1. Express the number 11 as a sum of two nonnegative numbers whose product is as large as
possible.
ic s
2. A garden is to be laid out in a rectangular area and protected by a chicken wire fence.
at
What is the largest possible area of the garden if only 100 running feet of chicken wire is
m
available for the fence? he
3. An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out
at
squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides. What size should the
M
4. An offshore oil well, located at a point W , is 5 km from the closest point A on a straight
e
ut
on a straight line underwater from W to some shore point P between A and B and then
on to B via a pipe along the shoreline. If the cost of laying the pipes is P10,000,000/km
s
In
underwater and P5,000,000/km over land, where should the point P be located to minimize
UP
Suppose the projectile is fired from the base of a plane that is inclined at an angle of π4 from
the horizontal. Determine θ so that the range of the projectile (i.e., its net displacement
from its point of origin before it lands on the plane) is maximized.
9. The bottom of a projector screen 1 meter high is 0.8 meter above eye level. How far should
one stand from the screen in order to get the best view? (A viewer gets the best view when
the angle subtended by the screen whose vertex is at the viewer’s eyes is maximized.)
10. A rectangular sheet of paper 12 cm × 6 cm is folded so that one corner meets the longer
of the opposite edges. Find the shortest possible length of the crease.
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
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s tit
In
UP
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE, RECTILINEAR MOTION, AND RELATED RATES 159
• A microbiologist might be interested in the rate at which the number of bacteria in a culture
s
changes over time.
ic
at
m
• An engineer might be interested in the rate at which the length of a metal rod changes with
he
temperature.
at
M
• An economist might be interested in the rate at which production cost changes with the quantity
of
• A medical researcher might be interested in the rate at which the radius of an artery changes
with the concentration of alcohol in the bloodstream.
s
In
UP
∆f f (x) − f (x0 )
= .
∆x x − x0
∆f f (x) − f (x0 )
lim = lim = f 0 (x0 ).
∆x→0 ∆x x→x 0 x − x0
Remark 3.2.1.
160 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
f (x)
1. Graphically, the average rate of change of y with )
y = f (x)
respect to x on [x0 , x] is the slope of the secant ∆f
line passing through P (x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x, f (x)). P
f (x0 )
| {z } R
∆x
x0 x = x0 + dx
Figure 3.3.1
3. Let y be a function of x.
ic s
dy
at
(a) If > 0 on an interval I, then y increases as x increases, and y decreases as x decreases.
dx
m
dy he
(b) If < 0 on an interval I, then y decreases as x increases, and y increases as x decreases.
dx
at
dy
(c) If = 0 on an interval I, then y does not change with respect to x.
M
dx
of
Example 3.2.2. A right circular cylinder has a fixed height of 6 units. Find the instantaneous
e
rate of change of its volume with respect to the radius of its base.
ut
tit
Solution.
s
In
Let r and h be the radius and height, respectively, of the cylinder. Then the volume of the cylinder
is given by V = πr2 h = 6πr2 . Thus, the rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius is
UP
dV
= 12πr. This means that a unit change in the radius of the sphere produces a change of 12πr
dr
cubic units in the volume.
Example 3.2.3. A bactericide was introduced to a nutrient broth in which bacteria were growing.
The bacterium population continued to grow for some time but then stopped growing and began
to decline. The size of the population at time t (hours) was
Solution.
The growth rate or the rate of change of the bacterium population P with respect to time t is given
by P 0 (t). We have
The growth rates are P 0 (0) = 104 , P 0 (5) = 104 − 2(103 )(5) = 0 and P 0 (10) = 104 − 2(103 )(10) =
−104 .
Also, notice that P 0 (t) > 0 on [0, 5), P 0 (5) = 0, and P 0 (t) < 0 on (5, +∞). This shows that
the bacterium population was increasing until t = 5 hours, then it stopped growing and began to
decline.
Example 3.2.4. A ladder 24 feet long rests against a vertical wall. Let θ be the angle between
the top of the ladder and the wall and let x be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the
wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does x change with respect to
π
θ when θ = ?
3
Solution.
s
24 ft.
ic
at
x
sin θ =
m
24
x
x = 24 sin θ. he
at
dx π
Thus, the rate of change of x with respect to θ is = 24 cos θ. At θ = , we have
M
dθ 3
of
dx π
= 24 cos = 12 ft/radian.
dθ θ= π3 3
e
ut
stit
Suppose a particle is moving along a horizontal line, which we shall refer to as the s-axis. Suppose
UP
the position of the particle at time t is given by the function s(t), called the position function of
s(t) − s(t0 ) ∆s
the particle. The average velocity of the particle on [t0 , t] is vave = = .
t − t0 ∆t
Let s(t) be the position function of a particle moving along s-axis.
∆s ds
v(t) = lim = = s0 (t).
∆t→0 ∆t dt
dv d2 s
a(t) = = v 0 (t) or a(t) = = s00 (t).
dt dt2
162 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Remark 3.2.5. Let s(t) be the position function of a particle moving along the s-axis. Note that
∆t is always positive. The signs of v(t) and a(t) give us information about the motion of the
particle.
1. a. If v(t) > 0, then the particle is moving in the positive direction of s (usually to the right
or upward) at time t.
b. If v(t) < 0, then the particle is moving in the negative direction of s (usually to the left or
downward) at time t.
c. If v(t) = 0, either the particle is not moving or is changing direction at time t.
2. a. If a(t) > 0, then the velocity of the particle is increasing at time t. In addition,
i. if v(t) > 0, then the speed of the particle is increasing at time t (speeding up).
ii. if v(t) < 0, then the speed of the particle is decreasing at time t (slowing down).
b. If a(t) < 0, then the velocity of the particle is decreasing at time t. In addition,
i. if v(t) > 0, then the speed of the particle is decreasing at time t.
s
ii. if v(t) < 0, then the speed of the particle is increasing at time t.
ic
at
c. If a(t) = 0, then the velocity of the particle is constant.
m
(This does not mean that the particle is NOT moving!) he
at
Example 3.2.6. A particle moves along a horizontal coordinate line in such a way that its position
M
at time t is specified by s(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t − 30 where s is measured in feet and t in seconds.
of
2. Describe the position and motion of the particle in a table that includes the intervals of time
tit
when the particle is moving to the left or to the right, when the velocity is increasing or
s
decreasing, when the speed is increasing or decreasing, and the particle’s position with respect
In
4. Determine the total distance traveled by the particle during the first 7 seconds.
Solution.
ds dv
1. We have s(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t − 30 so v(t) = = 3t2 − 24t + 36 and a(t) = = 6t − 24.
dt dt
2. First, we find t ≥ 0 such that v(t) = 0 and a(t) = 0.
v(t) = 0
3t2 − 24t + 36 = 0 a(t) = 0
2
t − 8t + 12 = 0 6t − 24 = 0
(t − 6)(t − 2) = 0 t = 4
t = 6, t = 2
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE, RECTILINEAR MOTION, AND RELATED RATES 163
t=6
t=2
t=0
−30 2
ic s
at
4. Note that the particle changed directions at t = 2 and t = 6. Thus, the total distance traveled
m
is |s(2) − s(0)| + |s(6) − s(2)| + |s(7) − s(6)| = 32 + 32 + 7 = 71 feet.
he
Example 3.2.7. A ball is thrown upwards from the top of a high building. The height of the ball
at
from the ground at any time t (in seconds) is given by the equation s(t) = −16t2 + 128t + 320,
M
4. Find the time when the ball crosses the top of the building again.
UP
Solution.
2. We have s(t) = −16t2 + 128t + 320, so that v(t) = −32t + 128 and a(t) = −32.
3. At the instant when the ball reaches its maximum height, the ball is actually at rest; that is,
its velocity equals zero. So we equate v(t) with 0 and solve for t:
Thus, the ball reaches its maximum height at t = 4 seconds. This gives a maximum height
of s(4) = −16(42 ) + 128(4) + 320 = 576 feet.
4. The ball will cross the top of the building again when s(t) = 320:
But the time t = 0 corresponds to the time when the ball is thrown upward. Hence, it crosses
the top of the building again after 8 seconds.
s
But since we only consider positive values of time, we conclude that the ball hits the ground
ic
at
at t = 10 seconds. Hence, the velocity of the ball upon impact is
m
v(10) = −32(10) + 128 = −192 ft/s
he
at
3.2.3 Related Rates
M
Consider a still pond. If you drop a stone on the pond, the water is disturbed, thus creating ripples.
of
The ripples are composed of circles increasing in size as time passes. The areas and the radii of the
e
circles both increase and are related to each other. Thus, if we know how fast one increases, say,
ut
how fast the radius increases, we can determine how fast the areas of the circles are changing.
stit
dx
In
Let x be a quantity that is a function of time t, meaning the quantity changes over time. Then
dt
UP
is the rate of change of x with respect to t. A problem on related rates is a problem involving
rates of change of several variables where one variable is dependent on another. In particular, if y
is dependent on x, then the rate of change of y with respect to t is dependent on the rate of change
dy dx
of x with respect to t, that is, is dependent on .
dt dt
2. Select variables to represent the quantities that change with respect to time. Label those
quantities whose values do not depend on t with their given constant values.
3. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables. Interpret each rate of change as
the derivative of a variable with respect to time. Remember that if a quantity decreases over
time, then its rate of change is negative.
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE, RECTILINEAR MOTION, AND RELATED RATES 165
5. Write an equation relating the variables that is valid for any time t > 0.
7. Substitute in the equation obtained in (6) all values that are valid at the particular time of
interest. Solve for what is being asked.
8. Write a conclusion that answers the question in the problem. Do not forget to include the
correct units of measurement.
Example 3.2.8. A ladder 10 meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is
being pulled horizontally towards the wall at 2 m/s, how fast is the top of the ladder moving when
the bottom is 6 meters from the wall?
Solution.
Let x be the distance of the bottom of the ladder from the wall, and y wall
be the distance of the top of the ladder from the ground. Then we have
ic s
dx
= −2 m/s, negative since x decreases as time goes on. We want to find
at
dt ladder
y
m
dy
when x = 6 m. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we obtain
he
dt
at
x2 + y 2 = 100. x
M
Dt [x2 + y 2 ] = Dt [100]
e
ut
dx dy
2x + 2y = 0
tit
dt dt
s
dy x dx
In
= − .
dt y dt
UP
Example 3.2.9. Water is pouring into an inverted cone at the rate of 8 cubic feet per minute. If
the height of the cone is 12 feet and the radius of its base is 6 feet, how fast is the water level rising
when the water is 4 feet deep?
Solution.
Let V be the volume of the water inside the cone at any time t. Let h and r be the height and radius,
dV
respectively, of the cone formed by the volume of water at any time t. We have = 8 ft3 /min
dt
dh
and we wish to find when h = 4 ft.
dt
166 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
h r 12
or r = at any time t. Thus,
2
h
2
1 1 h 1
V = πr2 h = π h = πh3 .
3 3 2 12
Differentiating both sides with respect to t,
1
Dt [V ] = Dt πh3
12
dV 1 2 dh
= πh
dt 4 dt
dh 4 dV
= .
dt πh2 dt
s
ic
Thus,
at
dh 4 2
m
= 2
· 8 = ft/min.
dt h=4 π(4) π he
Example 3.2.10. An automobile traveling at a rate of 20 ft/s is approaching an intersection. When
at
the automobile is 100 feet from the intersection, a truck traveling at a rate of 40 ft/s crosses the
M
intersection. The automobile and the truck are on roads that are at right angles to each other. How
of
fast are the truck and the automobile separating 2 seconds after the truck leaves the intersection?
e
ut
Solution.
s tit
In
dx dy dz
2x + 2y = 2z
dt dt dt
dz 1 dx dy
= x +y .
dt z dt dt
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE, RECTILINEAR MOTION, AND RELATED RATES 167
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
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ut
s tit
In
UP
168 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
3.2.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. 1. An object moves on a horizontal coordinate line. Its directed distance s from the origin
at the end of t seconds is s(t) = (t3 − 6t2 + 9t) feet.
a. When is the object moving to the left?
b. What is its acceleration when its velocity is equal to zero? -12 ft/sec **
c. When is the acceleration positive? when t>2 secs
d. When is its speed increasing? when t>3 secs
2. Suppose that a ball is thrown upward from the top of a building. The equation of the ball
is s = −16t2 + 64t + 160, where s is the directed distance from the ground in feet and t is
in seconds.
a. When did the ball reach its maximum height? t= 2 secs
b. What was the ball’s maximum height? 224 feet
s
c. When did the ball hit the ground? 2 + sqrt. 14
ic
at
d. With what speed did the ball hit the ground?
m
e. What was the acceleration of the ball after 2 seconds?
f. What is the height of the building?
he
at
3. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the top of a building. The equation of the motion
M
of the stone is s = −5t2 + 30t + 200, where s is the directed distance from the ground in
of
a. Find the acceleration of the stone when the velocity is 10 meters per second.
tit
b. After how many seconds will the stone reach its maximum height?
s
B. 1. Find how fast the volume of a sphere increases as the radius increases.
2. If water is being drained from a swimming pool, and V = 250(1600 − 80t + t2 ) is the
volume of the water (in liters) t minutes after the draining starts, how fast is the water
flowing out of the swimming pool 5 minutes after the draining starts?
3. Find the slope of the tangent line at each point of the graph of y = x4 + x3 − 3x2 where
the rate of change of the slope is equal to zero.
4. An airplane is flying on a horizontal path at a height of 3,800 feet. Let θ be the angle of
elevation of the airplane from a fixed point P on the ground. At what rate is the angle of
elevation θ changing with respect to the distance between the airplane and P , if θ = 30◦ ?
5. If two resistors with resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the total resistance
1 1 1
R in ohms is given by = + . If R1 and R2 are increasing at 0.4 ohms/s and 0.25
R R1 R2
ohms/s, respectively, how fast is R changing when R1 = 600 ohms and R2 = 400 ohms?
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE, RECTILINEAR MOTION, AND RELATED RATES 169
Supplementary Exercises
A. 1. A particle is moving along a horizontal line. Its directed distance s from the origin at the
end of t seconds is s = t3 − 9t2 + 24t − 16 feet.
1. When is the particle moving to the left?
2. What is the acceleration when its velocity is equal to zero?
3. When is the acceleration positive?
4. When is the particle slowing down?
5. What is the total distance traveled by the particle after 4 seconds?
2. An apple is thrown vertically upward from the top of a tree. The directed distance of the
apple from the ground after t seconds is s = −5t2 + 6t + 8 meters.
a. When did the apple hit the ground? t = 2secs
b. With what speed did the apple hit the ground? 44 ft/sec
c. What was the apple’s maximum height? 8 feet
d. If a person stands directly below the path of the apple to catch it and he can extend
s
his arm to reach up to 2 meters from the ground, at what time will he be able to catch
ic
the apple?
at
3. An object’s position along a horizontal axis after t seconds is given by s = −t3 +4t2 −4t+5
m
feet. he
at
a. When will the object change direction?
M
d. Suppose another object is on the same horizontal axis with position function r(t) =
ut
5
s
B. 1. Starting from the same point, Reden starts walking eastward at ft/s while Neil starts
In
2
running towards the south at 6 ft/s. How fast is the distance between Reden and Neil
UP
6. At 12:10:00 p.m., a bug starts crawling away from the center of a clock, which is 2 meters
above the ground. It moves along the minute hand at a constant rate of 0.1 cm/s. Find
the initial rate at which its height above the ground changes. (For this problem, assume
that all hands of the clock have negligible thickness and move at a constant rate.)
7. Shan, who is 5 feet tall, is approaching a post that holds a lamp 15 feet above the ground.
If he is walking at a speed of 4 ft/s, how fast is the end of his shadow moving when he is
17 feet away from the base of the lamp post?
8. Water is being poured at a rate of 2π ft3 /min into an inverted conical tank that is 12 feet
deep and having a radius of 6 feet at the top. If the water level is rising at a rate of 16
ft/min and there is a leak at the bottom of the tank, how fast is the water leaking when
the water is 6 feet deep?
9. Newton is traveling eastward at 20 km/hr while Leibniz is traveling northward at 10 km/hr.
At 1:00 PM, Leibniz is located 50 km south of Newton. At what rate is the distance between
Newton and Leibniz changing at 3:00 PM?
10. The apparent brightness of a star is equal to the rate at which it emits energy (in watts)
s
divided by the square of its distance from Earth (in meters). Currently, the sun is 1.5 × 108
ic
−16
at
meters away, while it emits energy at a rate of 3.15 × 1019−10 t watts, t seconds from
m
now. If the Earth is moving away from the sun at a constant rate of 0.05 m/s, at what
rate is the apparent brightness of the sun changing?
he
at
11. A particle moves along the curve y = 2x−2 , with its x-coordinate increasing at a constant
M
rate of 1 unit/s. At what rate is the distance of the particle from the origin changing when
of
12. A dot moves along the upper half of the curve y 2 − y = x3 − x, with its x-coordinate
ut
increasing at a constant rate of 1 unit/s. At what rate is the slope of the tangent line at
tit
the dot changing with respect to time when the dot is at (2, 3)?
s
In
UP
3.3. LOCAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION, DIFFERENTIALS, AND MARGINALS 171
• estimate the change in cost, profit and revenue for an additional unit produced
using marginals
3.3.1 Differentials
Recall the following:
Q
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim R
x→x0 x − x0 f (x)
∆y
s
dy
ic
= lim . ∆y
∆x→0 ∆x P
at
f (x0 ) | {z }S
m
dx=∆x
∆y
If ∆x is small enough, then is approximately he
0
∆x x0 x = x0 + dx
equal to f (x0 ). Thus, ∆y may be approximated y = f (x)
at
by f 0 (x0 )∆x.
M
Figure 2.3.1
f 0 (x)dx.
In
UP
dy
Observe that if dx 6= 0, then dy = f 0 (x)dx implies that = f 0 (x). This serves as a motivation
dx
for the following remark.
dy
Remark 3.3.1. Symbolically, we may interpret as either the derivative of y = f (x) with respect
dx
to x or the quotient of the differential of y by the differential of x. Another interpretation of this
quantity may be derived from the figure above:
• If ∆x is small enough, the value of dy is approximately equal to the actual change in function
value, ∆y.
dy
• If ∆x is small enough, the value of approximates the slope of the secant line through the
dx
points P (x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x, f (x)).
172 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
1. If u = c, then du = 0.
Example 3.3.3.
dy
3. Find if xy 2 = y + x. Using implicit differentiation,
dx
s
x(2ydy) + y 2 dx = dy + dx
ic
at
m
and therefore,
dy =
1 − y2
dx.
he
at
2xy − 1
M
y = f (x)
∆y ≈ f 0 (x0 )∆x. `
f (x)
Equivalently, we have f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 )
Remark 3.3.4.
1. The function L(x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) is called the local linear approximation of f (x)
at x0 . It follows that f (x) ≈ L(x) at points close to (x0 , f (x0 )). Moreover, from the discussion
above, the tangent line to the graph of f at x0 approximates the graph of f when x is near x0 .
2. Note that there are many ways to approximate any function using a linear function. However,
the local linear approximation turns out to be the ”best” linear approximation of f near x0 .
4. If dx ≈ 0, then dy = f 0 (x)dx = f 0 (x)∆x ≈ ∆y. Hence, for sufficiently small values of dx,
dy ≈ ∆y.
ic s
sufficiently small (depending on the required accuracy of the increment).
at
m
Example 3.3.5.
√
he √
3
at
1. Find the local linear approximation of f (x) = 3
x at x0 = 8 and use this to approximate 8.03.
M
of
Solution.
e
1
ut
We have f 0 (x) = √
3
, thus at x0 = 8,
3 x2
stit
1
L(x) = 2 + (x − 8).
UP
12
√ 1
Therefore, 8.03 = f (8.03) ≈ L(8.03) = 2 + (8.03 − 8) = 2.0025.
12
2. Approximate the following:
√
3
(a) 27.027
Solution.
√ 1
Let f (x) = 3
x. Then f 0 (x) = √ 3
. Thus,
3 x2
√3
27.027 = f (27 + 0.027)
≈ f (27) + f 0 (27) · (0.027)
1
= 3+ · (0.027)
3·9
= 3.001.
174 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
√
(b) 15.96
Solution.
√ 1
Let f (x) = x. Then f 0 (x) = √ . Thus,
2 x
√
15.96 = f (16 − 0.04)
≈ f (16) + f 0 (16) · (−0.04)
1
= 4+ · (−0.04)
2·4
= 4 − 0.005
= 3.995.
1
3. A ball 10 inches in diameter is to be covered by a rubber material which is 16 inch thick. Use
differentials to estimate the volume of the rubber material that will be used.
Solution.
4
s
The volume of the ball with radius r is given by V (r) = πr3 . So dV = 4πr2 dr. The volume
ic
3
at
of the rubber material is
m
1 he
V 5+ − V (5) = ∆V
16
at
≈ dV
M
1
= 4πr2 dr, where r = 5, dr =
16
of
2 1
= 4π (5) ·
e
ut
16
25π 3
tit
= in .
4
s
In
4. A metal rod 15 cm long and 8 cm in diameter is to be insulated, except for the ends, with a
UP
material 0.001 cm thick. Use differentials to estimate the volume of the insulation.
Solution.
Note that since the ends are not to be insulated, the height h of the rod remains the same.
Thus, the volume of the rod with radius r at the ends is given by V = πr2 h = 15πr2 . Then
dV = 30πrdr. The volume of the insulation is
V (4 + 0.001) − V (4) = ∆V
≈ dV
= 30πrdr, where r = 4, dr = 0.001
= 30π (4) · (0.001)
= 0.12π cm3 .
5. The side of a square is measured with a ruler to be 8 inches with a measurement error of at
1
most ± 64 of an inch. Estimate the error in the computed area of the square.
3.3. LOCAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION, DIFFERENTIALS, AND MARGINALS 175
Solution.
The area of a square with side x is A(x) = x2 . Thus, dA = 2xdx. The measurement error of
1 1
at most ± 64 implies that |dx| = 64 . We can approximate the error in the computed area ∆A
using dA. We have
1 1
|∆A| ≈ |dA| = 2x|dx| = 2(8) 64 = 4
Therefore, the propagated error in the computed area is at most ± 14 of a square inch.
3.3.3 Marginals
Rates of change are also used in the field of economics. Economists refer to marginal profit, marginal
revenue and marginal cost as the rates of change of the profit, revenue and cost, respectively, with
respect to the number of units produced or sold.
s
2. Revenue function R(x) - revenue in the sale of x units of a product
ic
at
3. Profit function P (x) - profit earned in the sale of x units of a product
m
he
4. Price-demand funciton p(x) - price of product x if there are x demands
at
M
Remark 3.3.6.
of
e
R(x) = x · p(x).
s
In
2. The profit, revenue and cost functions are related by the equation
UP
Differentiating each of these quantities with respect to the number of units x gives a term in
economics called marginal, that is,
dP dR dC
= marginal profit, = marginal revenue, = marginal cost.
dx dx dx
Note that the marginal function value at a number n is the rate of change of the function when
x = n. This value is an approximation of F (n + 1) − F (n), where F = C, R or P .
176 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Example 3.3.7. A manufacturer determines that the profit derived from selling x units of a certain
item is given by
P (x) = 0.0002x3 + 10x.
1. Find the marginal profit for a production level of 50 units.
Solution.
dP
The marginal profit is = 0.0006x2 + 10. When x = 50, we have
dx
dP
= 0.0006(50)2 + 10 = 11.50 per unit.
dx
2. Compare this to the actual profit obtained by increasing the production level from 50 units to
51 units.
Solution.
ic s
P (50) = 0.0002(50)3 + 10(50) = 525
at
m
The actual gain in profit is given by
he
P (51) − P (50) = 536.53 − 525 = 11.53.
at
M
Notice that the actual gain in profit can be approximated by the marginal profit.
of
e
Example 3.3.8. A company manufactures fuel tanks for automobiles. The total weekly cost (in
ut
Solution.
dC
= 90 − 0.1x
dx
2. Find C 0 (500) and the actual additional cost of producing the 501st tank.
Solution.
Example 3.3.9. A fast-food restaurant has determined that the monthly price-demand function
for their hamburgers is given by
60, 000 − x
p(x) = ,
20, 000
where x is the number of hamburgers sold. Find the increase in revenue per hamburger for a
monthly sale of 20,000 hamburgers.
Solution.
The revenue function R(x) is equal to the product x · p(x) where p(x) is the price-demand function:
x2
60, 000 − x
R(x) = x · = 3x − .
20, 000 20, 000
So
dR x
=3− .
dx 10, 000
dR
If x = 20, 000, then = 1. Hence, the marginal revenue for the sale of 20,000 hamburgers is 1.
dx
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
178 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
3.3.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
1. (2.001)5
√
2. 2.99 3.99
3. e0.01 + 0.01 ln 1.02
1. Use differentials to approximate the increase in the surface area of a soap bubble when its
ic s
radius increases from 3 inches to 3.025 inches.
at
m
2. A metal box in the form of a cube is to have an interior volume of 1,000 cm3 . The six sides
he
are to be made of metal 21 cm thick. If the cost of the metal to be used is 0.20 pesos per
at
cubic centimeter, use differentials to find the approximate cost of the metal to be used in the
M
3. A cylindrical roller is exactly 12 inches long and its diameter is measured as 6 ± 0.05 inches.
Approximate its volume with an estimate for the error.
e
ut
1
tit
D. 1. Suppose that R(x) = 300x − x2 dollars is the total revenue from the sale of x tables.
2
s
In
c. Find the actual additional revenue from the sale of the 41st table.
2. The research department of a certain company found out that the price-demand equation
and cost functions of a particular product are given by
Supplementary Exercises
1. A ball of malt, with diameter 1.5 cm, is coated by a layer of chocolate 0.02 cm thick to
form a candy. Use differentials to approximate the amount of chocolate (in mL) each candy
contains.
ic s
2. A burn on a person’s skin is in the shape of a circle. Estimate the decrease in the area of
at
the burn when the radius decreases from 1 cm to 0.8 cm.
m
3. The pH of an aqueous solution is given by
he
at
pH = − log10 (aH+ ),
M
of
where aH+ is the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. A solution with initial
e
pH = 3 decreases in volume from 1 L to 0.99 L, but the amount of hydrogen ions in the
ut
it was introduced. Estimate the net change in the population within the first six minutes.
UP
a Find the actual additional cost of producing the 21st food processor.
b Use the marginal cost to approximate the cost of producing the 21st food processor.
2. The price-demand equation and the cost function for the production of a certain product
are given by
x = 6, 000 − 30p and C(x) = 72, 000 + 60x,
respectively, where x is the number of units that can be sold monthly at a price p pesos per
piece.
a. Determine the marginal cost.
b. Determine the revenue function and the break-even point(s), i.e., the production level
when the revenue is equal to the cost.
c. Determine R0 (1500).
180 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
3.4. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 181
• evaluate limits with indeterminate form 0/0, ∞/∞ using L’Hôpital’s Rule
0 ∞
3.4.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and
∞
s
0
ic
With the aid of derivatives, certain limits can be evaluated more conveniently. We first recall
at
some terminology defined in the early part of this course. We also recall here some techniques in
m
evaluating limits we have previously encountered. he
f (x)
at
The lim is an indeterminate form of type:
M
x→a g(x)
0
of
∞
2. if lim f (x) and lim g(x) are both +∞ or −∞.
tit
∞ x→a x→a
s
In
x2 − 3x
0
1. lim 2
x→0 2x + x 0
Solution.
x2 − 3x x(x − 3) x−3
lim = lim = lim = −3
x→0 2x2 + x x→0 x(2x + 1) x→0 2x + 1
sin 5x 0
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x 0
Solution.
sin 5x sin 5x 3x 5 5 5
lim = lim =1·1· =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 5x sin 3x 3 3 3
182 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
x2 + 3x − 10
0
3. lim 2
x→2− x − 4x + 4 0
Solution.
x2 + 3x − 10 (x + 5)(x − 2)
lim = lim
x→2− x2 − 4x + 4 x→2− (x − 2)2
x+5 7
= lim
x→2− x − 2 0−
= −∞
3x − 1 +∞
4. lim
x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞
Solution.
1
3x − 1 3x − 1 3 − x1 1
s
x
lim = lim · = lim =−
ic
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ 7 − 6x 1 7 2
x −6
x→+∞
at
x
m
3.4.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule he
at
The following theorem tells us how derivatives can be used to evaluate limits that are indeterminate
0 ∞
M
f (x) 0
except possibly at a and g 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim is indeterminate of type
s
x→a g(x) 0
In
∞
or , then
UP
∞
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
provided that lim 0
exists or lim 0 = ±∞.
x→a g (x) x→a g (x)
Dx x2 − 3x
x2 − 3x 2x − 3
lim 2 = lim = lim = −3
x→0 2x + x 2
x→0 Dx 2x + x x→0 4x + 1
3.4. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 183
sin 5x 0
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x 0
Solution.
sin 5x 5 cos 5x 5
lim = lim =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 3 cos 3x 3
x2 + 3x − 10
0
3. lim 2
x→2− x − 4x + 4 0
Solution.
x2 + 3x − 10
2x + 3 7
lim 2 = lim
0−
s
x→2− x − 4x + 4 x→2 2x − 4
−
ic
= −∞
at
m
3x − 1
+∞
he
4. lim
at
x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞
M
Solution.
of
e
ut
3x − 1 3 1
lim = lim =−
tit
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ −6 2
s
In
x3 − 3x + 2
0
UP
5. lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x 0
Solution.
x3 − 3x + 2 3x2 − 3
0
lim = lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x x→1 −1 + 1 0
x
6x
= lim 1
x→1 − 2
x
= −6
csc x −∞
6. lim
x→0− 1 − cot x +∞
Solution.
184 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Observe that the expression in the last line above is exactly the same as the expression in
the second line. Hence, continued application of L’Hôpital’s Rule here will just lead us to
an infinite string of equations and will not help us evaluate the limit. This example tells us
ic s
that L’Hôpital’s Rule is not always helpful. Sometimes, we must go back to old-fashioned tricks.
at
m
For instance, we evaluate this limit by simply manipulating the given expression to obtain
he
a simpler expression:
at
M
of
1
csc x sin x
e
x→ 0− 1 − cot x −
x→ 0 1 −
sin x
tit
1
= lim
s
x→ 0 sin x − cos x
In
= −1
UP
It is imperative to remember the behavior of each function introduced in this course; doing so will
help us in computing new limits. Recalling the graphs of functions will be helpful in remembering
their behavior. For instance, using the graph of y = loga x, where 0 < a < 1, we can see that
lim loga x = +∞. Thus, if a function u = f (x) approaches 0 through positive values as x
x→0+
approaches k, then
lim loga [f (x)] = lim loga u = +∞.
x→k u→0+
x + sin x
Example 3.4.5. Evaluate: lim
x→+∞ x
Solution.
Note that since x+sin x ≥ x−1 for any x ∈ R and x→+∞
lim (x−1) = +∞, then lim (x+sin x) = +∞
x→+∞
∞
as well. Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type .
∞
3.4. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 185
We therefore need to employ other techniques. In particular, notice that for any x > 0, the following
hold:
x − 1 ≤ x + sin x ≤ x + 1
x−1 x + sin x x+1
⇔ ≤ ≤
x x x
x−1 x+1 x + sin x
Also, lim = 1 = lim , so by the Squeeze Theorem, lim = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
s
x→a
ic
at
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or − ∞, or
x→a x→a
m
he
lim f (x) = +∞ or − ∞ and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
at
M
2. The limit lim f (x) + g(x) is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞ if either
x→a
of
x→a x→a
ut
x→a x→a
s
In
0 ∞
UP
Remark 3.4.6. L’Hôpital’s Rule works only for indeterminate forms of type and . Any
0 ∞
other indeterminate form must be expressed equivalently in one of these two forms if we wish to
apply L’Hôpital’s Rule. For the new indeterminate forms described above, these conversions can
be performed as described below.
1. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞, write lim f (x)g(x) as:
x→a x→a x→a
f (x) 0
(a) lim , which is indeterminate of type , or
x→a 1 0
g(x)
g(x) ∞
(b) lim , which is indeterminate of type
x→a 1 ∞
f (x)
Solution.
sin−1 (2x)
0
lim sin−1 (2x) csc x = lim
x→0+ x→0+ sin x 0
1
√ · (2)
1 − 4x2
= lim
x→0+ cos x
2
=
1
= 2
s
ic
at
Solution.
m
he
ln(sin θ) 0
at
lim tan θ ln (sin θ) = lim
π− π− cot θ 0
M
θ→ 2 θ→ 2
1
cos θ
of
= lim sin θ 2
π−
θ→ 2 − csc θ
e
ut
= −1(0)
s
In
= 0
UP
x 1 1 1
3. lim − +
− +
x→1+ x − 1 ln x 0 0
Solution.
x 1 x ln x − (x − 1) 0
lim − = lim
x→1+ x − 1 ln x x→1+ (x − 1) ln x 0
x · x1 + ln x − 1
= lim
x→1+ (x − 1) · 1 + ln x
x
ln x 0
= lim
x→1+ 1 − 1 + ln x 0
x
1
x
= lim
x→1+ 12 + 1
x x
1
=
2
3.4. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 187
s
x→a
ic
R, then x→a
at
1. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = L ∈ lim f (x)g(x) = eL .
x→a
m
2. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = +∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = +∞.
he
x→a x→a
at
M
1. lim xsin x 00
tit
x→0+
s
Solution.
In
x→0+
ln x −∞
lim sin x ln x (0 · (−∞)) = lim
x→0+ x→0+ csc x +∞
1
x
= lim
− csc x cot x
x→0+
− sin2 x
0
= lim
x→0+ x cos x 0
−2 sin x cos x
= lim
x→0+ x(− sin x) + cos x
= 0
3 2x
2. lim 1− (1∞ )
x→+∞ x
188 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Solution.
= e2x ln(1− x )
2x 3
1 − x3
3
ln 1 −
3 x 0
lim 2x ln 1 − (+∞ · 0) = lim
x→+∞ x x→+∞ 1 0
2x
1 3
·
3 x2
1−
= lim x
x→+∞ 1
− 2
2x
−6
= lim
x→+∞ 3
1−
x
= −6
ic s
3 2x
= e−6 .
at
Hence, lim 1−
x→+∞ x
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
3.4. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 189
3.4.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
3−x
p
1. lim x 12. lim x− x2 − x + 2
x→3 2 − 8 x→+∞
ln x 13. lim (tan x)cos x
2. lim 1 x→ π2 −
x→0+ e x
sec x 1
3. lim 14. lim x + e2x x
π − 1 + tan x
x→ 2 x→0
x
4. lim √ 1
x→−∞ x2 + 1 15. lim x + e2x x
x→+∞
ln (3 + ex ) √
5. lim 16. lim
x
cosh 3x
x→+∞ 7x x→+∞
sin x − x
6. lim
x−1
x→0 x3 17. lim x ln
ic s
1 − x + ln x x→+∞ x+1
7. lim
at
x→1 1 + cos πx sin x + tan x
m
1 18. lim
8. lim x2 e x he x→0−ex + e−x − 2
x→0+ cos x
9. lim tan( x) ln x 19. lim x − π2
at
x→0+ x→ π2 +
M
x→+∞
1
11. lim csc x − ln(e3x + 1) − 3x
e
21. lim
x
ut
x→0− x→+∞
tit
B. Do as indicated.
s
In
1. If an electrostatic field E acts on a gaseous polar dielectric, the net dipole moment P per
UP
1
unit volume is P (E) = coth E − . Evaluate lim P (E).
E E→0+
x
x+m
2. For what values of m is lim = e?
x→+∞ x − m
190 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Supplementary Exercises
s
sinh−1 x4 2x + 5
x→+∞
ic
7. lim 1
at
x→+∞ 3x − 1 x3
x3
18. lim
m
8. lim x (ln(−x)) x→+∞ x3 + 4
x→0− he
8 x
2 19. lim (2x + 5)csch(2x+4)
at
9. lim 1− − x→−2+
x→−∞ 5x 5x2
M
√
9
1 4 16 − 8x
10. lim − 20. lim tanh
of
Reviewer
I. A particle is moving along a horizontal line with its position function given by
where s is in meters and t ≥ 0 is in seconds. Assume that the positive direction is to the
right of the origin.
1. Determine the interval(s) when the particle is to the right of the origin.
2. Find the functions v(t) and a(t) of the particle at any time t ≥ 0.
3. Determine the time interval(s) when the particle is moving to the left.
4. Find all time interval(s) when the particle is speeding up.
s
4 2
ic
2. lim −
at
x→ π2 + 2x − π cos2 x
m
csc x cos x
3. lim − he
x→0+ x x sin x
at
1−x
4. lim (x − 1)
x→1+
M
x
x
5. lim
of
x→+∞ x + 2
e
III. Find the local linear approximation of f (x) = e−x cosh(2x) at x = 0 and use it to estimate
ut
3x − 5
In
IV. Given g(x) = . Determine the x-values at which the absolute extrema of f occur on
e3x
UP
V. A new product, Happy Shalala, is now available. Preliminary market studies show that its
x x2
ideal price-demand and cost functions are p(x) = 100 + and C(x) = 3, 000 + 50x +
100 50
respectively, where x is the number of Happy Shalala sold and p is the price in pesos.
3. Find the volume of the largest box with a square base that can be constructed from 24
square inches of a flat, re-shapable sheet of metal.
4. Find the largest possible volume of a cylindrical can if it is to be made such that the
sum of its radius and height is 21 cm.
5. Vin’s car is traveling westward at a rate of 60 mi/hr while Al’s car is traveling due north
at a rate of 50 mi/hr. Both are headed for the intersection of the two roads. Determine
the rate at which the two cars are approaching each other when Vin is 0.4 mi and Al is
0.3 mi away from the intersection.
6. Vin is climbing up a 20-ft ladder leaning on a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder
is moving away from the wall at a rate of 3 ft/s, determine how fast the top of the ladder
is falling at the instant when the foot of the ladder is 3 ft away from the wall.
7. Having their friendship ended, Vin left Al by running southwards at a rate of 2 ft/s and
at the same time, Al decided to walk eastwards at a rate of 32 ft/s. Determine how fast
the distance between Vin and Al is changing after 4 seconds.
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 4
s
differentiation. Given a function f , can we find a function F whose derivative is f ? We will see
ic
at
that this process is related to the computation of the area of a region in the plane.
m
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
he
at
• recognize antidifferentiation as the inverse process of differentiation
M
of
• integrate algebraic functions and functions involving the six circular functions
e
ut
• solve problems involving rates of change given initial conditions (e.g., rectilinear
UP
motion)
Example 4.1.1.
193
194 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Remark 4.1.4. By the theorem above, we can conclude that if F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of f ,
then F2 (x) = F1 (x) + C. That is, F2 and F1 differ only by a constant.
ic s
at
• The function f is called the integrand.
m
• The expression F (x)+C is called the general antiderivative of f . Meanwhile, each antideriva-
he
tive of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .
at
M
of
Example 4.1.5.
e
Z
ut
12x2 + 2x dx = 4x3 + x2 + C
1.
s tit
Z
In
2. cos x dx = sin x + C
UP
2. If a is a constant, then Z Z
af (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1
3 3x−4 3
Z Z Z
−5
3. dx = 3x dx = 3 x−5 dx = +C =− 4 +C
x5 −4 4x
4u7/4 16u7/4
Z
4u /4 du =
3
4. +C = +C
7/4 7
ic s
12x3 2x2
Z Z Z
2 2
+ C2 = 4x3 + x2 + C
5. 12x + 2x dx = 12x dx + 2x dx = + C1 +
at
3 2
m
Z √ Z Z Z he 2t3 6t5/2
2t2 − 3t /2 dt = 2t2 dt − 3t /2 dt =
3 3
6. t 2t − 3 t dt = − +C
3 5
at
M
x−1
Z 2
x +1 1
Z
−2
7. dx = 1 + x dx = x + +C =x− +C
of
x 2 −1 x
e
ut
tit
Z Z
UP
= − cos x + sin x + C
cos x
Z
2. dx
sin2 x
1 cos x
Z Z
= · dx = csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
sin x sin x
196 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Z
3. tan2 x dx
Z
sec2 x − 1 dx = tan x − x + C
=
Z
dx
4.
1 + sin x
1 1 − sin x 1 − sin x
Z Z
= · dx = dx
1 + sin x 1 − sin x cos2 x
Z
sec2 x − sec x tan x dx = tan x − sec x + C
=
ic s
Example 4.1.10.
at
1. Given that F 0 (x) = 2x and F (2) = 6, find F (x).
m
he
Solution.
at
Since F 0 (x) = 2x, we have
M
Z
F (x) = 2x dx = x2 + C.
of
e
F (x) = x2 + 2.
In
UP
√
2. The slope of the tangent line at any point (x, y) on a curve is given by 3 x. Find an equation
of the curve if the point (9, 4) is on the curve.
Solution.
Let y = F (x) be an equation of the curve. The slope of the tangent line mT L at a point
√
(x, y) on the graph of the curve is given by F 0 (x) = 3 x. We have
Z
F (x) = 3x /2 dx = 2x /2 + C.
1 3
The initial condition that (9, 4) is on the curve implies that F (9) = 2 · 93/2 + C = 4. We obtain
C = −50. Thus, an equation of the curve is
y = 2x /2 − 50.
3
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 197
Hence, F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) is an antiderivative of g 0 (x). If we take u = g(x), then du = g 0 (x) dx.
The following theorem thus allows us to take the antiderivatives of more complex functions:
Example 4.1.12.
s
Z
ic
(1 − 4x) /2 dx
1
1.
at
−4
m
If we let u = 1 − 4x, then du = −4 dx. We multiply the integrand by
he . Thus,
−4
at
1 2u3/2
−4 1
Z Z Z Z
1/2 1/2 1/2 du
u /2 du = − ·
1
(1 − 4x) dx = (1 − 4x) · dx = u − =− + C.
M
−4 4 4 4 3
of
(1 − 4x)3/2
Z
1/2
(1 − 4x) dx = − + C.
tit
6
s
In
Z
2. x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx
UP
du
Let u = x3 − 1. Then du = 3x2 dx, or= x2 dx. By substitution,
3
11
1 u11 x3 − 1
Z Z Z
2 3 10 10 du 10
x (x − 1) dx = u · = u du = +C = + C.
3 3 33 33
Z
x
3. dx
(x2 + 1)3
du
Let u = x2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx, or = x dx. By substitution,
2
1 1 u−2 1
Z Z
x −3
3 dx = u du = · +C =− + C.
(x2 + 1) 2 2 −2 4(x + 1)2
2
Z
4. cos4 x sin x dx
du
Let u = sec x2 . Then du = sec x2 tan x2 · 2x dx, or = sec x2 tan x2 · x dx. By
2
substitution,
Z Z
x sec x tan x dx = sec2 x2 sec x2 tan x2 · x dx
3 2 2
1 1 u3
Z
= u2 du = · +C
2 2 3
3 2
sec x
= + C.
6
s
ds = − du
ic
2 1 cos u
s cos s
at
Z
sec u tan u + tan2 u du
=−
m
=−
Z he
sec u tan u + sec2 u − 1 du
at
= − (sec u + tan u − u) + C
M
= − sec 1s − tan 1s + 1s + C.
of
√
e
Z
ut
7. t t − 1 dt
tit
√ 2u5/2 2u3/2
Z Z Z
t t − 1 dt = (u + 1) u /2 du = u /2 + u /2 du =
1 3 1
+ +C
UP
5 3
2 (t − 1) /2 2 (t − 1) /2
5 3
= + + C.
5 3
t3
Z
8. √ dt
t2 + 3
du
Let u = t2 + 3. Then du = 2t dt, or = t dt. Also, t2 = u − 3. By substitution,
2
t3 t2 · t
Z Z Z
−1 du
√ dt = √ dt = u /2 (u − 3)
2
t +3 2
t +3 2 !
1 1/2 1 2u3/2
Z
−1/2 1/2
= u − 3u du = − 6u +C
2 2 3
3/2
t2 + 3 1/2
= − 3 t2 + 3 + C.
3
√
Z q
9. 4 + x dx
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 199
√ 1 dx
Let u = 4 + x. Then du = √ dx or 2 du = √ . By substitution,
2 x x
√
√ √
Z q Z q
x
4 + x dx = 4 + x · √ dx
x
√ √ √
Z q
dx
= 4+ x· x· √ ( x = u − 4)
x
Z
1/2
= u · (u − 4) · 2 du
Z
2u /2 − 8u /2 du
3 1
=
2 · 2u5/2 2 · 8u3/2
= − +C
5 3
√ 5/2 √ 3/2
4 (4 + x) 16 (4 + x)
= − + C.
5 3
ic s
4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited
at
Suppose that a particle is traveling along a straight line and s (t), v (t), and a (t) are equations of
m
motion, velocity, and acceleration, respectively, of the particle. Recall that
he
at
v(t) = s0 (t) and a(t) = v 0 (t).
M
Therefore, s(t) is a particular antiderivative of v(t) while v(t) is a particular antiderivative of a(t).
of
e
ut
Example 4.1.13.
tit
1. A heavy projectile is fired straight up from a platform 3 meters above the ground with an
s
initial velocity of 160 m/s. Find an equation of motion of the particle. (Use −10 m/s2 for
In
Solution.
Let the acceleration and velocity of the particle at time t be given by a (t) and v (t), respec-
tively.
Since a(t) = −10 at any time t and v (t) is a particular antiderivative of a (t), we have
Z
v(t) = −10 dt = −10t + C1 .
The initial velocity is 160 m/s, so v(0) = 160. Thus, 160 = −10 · 0 + C1 , or C1 = 160, and we
obtain
v(t) = −10t + 160.
Let s (t) be the position of the particle from the ground at time t. Now s (t) is a particular
antiderivative of v (t), so
Z
s (t) = (−10t + 160) dt = −5t2 + 160t + C2 .
200 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
2. The acceleration of a particle moving along a line at t seconds is given by a (t) = t2 + 2t.
Find an equation of motion of the particle if the particle is one unit to the right of the origin
when t = 0, and 3 units to the left of the origin when t = 2.
Solution.
Since v(t) is an antiderivative of a(t), we have
t3
Z
t2 + 2t dt = + t2 + C1 .
v(t) =
3
Because there is no initial condition involving velocity, we antidifferentiate the previous ex-
pression to obtain a general expression for s(t) first:
ic s
Z 3
t4 t3
t
at
s(t) = + t2 + C1 dt = + + C1 t + C2 .
3 12 3
m
he
The initial condition s(0) = 1 yields C2 = 1. Meanwhile, the other initial condition s(2) = −3
at
4 8
implies that + + 2C1 + 1 = −3, or C1 = −4. Therefore, an equation of motion of the
M
3 3
particle is
of
t4 t3
s(t) = + − 4t + 1.
e
12 3
ut
tit
1
s
In
1
Recall: Du (ln |u|) = for all u 6= 0. As an immediate consequence, we have the following theorem:
u
1
Z
Theorem 4.1.14. du = ln |u| + C
u
3x2 + 5
Z
Example 4.1.15. 1. dx
4x
Z
3x 5 3 5 1 3 5
Z Z
= + dx = x dx + · dx = x2 + ln |x| + C
4 4x 4 4 x 8 4
At this point, among the six circular functions, we know the antiderivatives of only the sine and
the cosine functions. We will see that the antiderivatives of the other circular functions involve the
natural logarithmic function.
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 201
Theorem 4.1.16.
Z
1. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
Z
2. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z
3. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
Z
4. csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C
Proof. We shall prove items 1 and 3 only. Statements 2 and 4 can be proved similarly.
sin x
Z Z
First, note that tan x dx = dx. Let u = cos x. Then du = (− sin x) dx. Hence,
cos x
s
1
Z Z
ic
tan x dx = − du = − ln |u| + C = − ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec x| + C.
at
u
m
That proves the statement for the tangent function. he
at
Now, for the secant function, note that
M
sec x dx = dx = dx.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
e
ut
Z Z
du
In
Solution.
Let u = x4 . Then du = 4x3 dx. Therefore,
1 1 1
Z Z
3 4
csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C = ln csc x3 − cot x3 + C.
x csc x dx =
4 4 4
sin( x2 ) + 4
Z
2. dx
cos( x2 )
Solution.
Let u = x2 . Then du = 1
2 dx. Hence,
202 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
sin( x2 ) + 4 sin u + 4
Z Z
dx = 2 du
cos( x2 ) cos u
Z
=2 (tan u + 4 sec u) du
s
2. ex dx = ex + C
ic
at
m
Example 4.1.19. Find the following antiderivatives.
Z he
1. 7x dx
at
M
Solution.
of
7x
Z
7x dx = + C.
tit
ln 7
s
In
Z
2. 22x · 5x dx
UP
Solution.
Applying laws of exponents to express the integrand into an equivalent exponential function in
a single base, we have
20x
Z Z Z
2 · 5 dx = 4 · 5 dx = 20x dx =
2x x x x
+ C.
ln 20
One can generalize Theorem 4.1.20 to the case when the constant 1 in the integrand is replaced by
some other positive number, as shown in the next theorem.
ic s
at
Proof. We will prove the first statement only and leave the proofs of the rest as exercises.
m
Let a > 0. Then, he
at
Z Z Z
du du du
M
√ = √ q = q , since a > 0.
a − u2
2
a2 1 − u2
a 1− u 2
a2
of
u 1
e
a a
tit
Z Z
du dv u
s
√ = √ = sin−1 v + C = sin−1 + C.
In
a2 − u2 1 − v2 a
UP
x4
Z
1. dx
x2 + 1
Solution.
x4 x3
Z
1
Z
dx = x 2
− 1 + dx = − x + tan−1 x + C.
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 3
1
Z
2. √ dx
4 − x2
Solution.
1
Z x
√ dx = sin−1 +C
4 − x2 2
204 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Z
dx
3.
9x2+ 25
Solution.
Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and hence
1 1 1 1 −1 3x
Z Z
dx du −1 u
= = · tan +C = tan + C.
9x2 + 25 3 u2 + 25 3 5 5 15 5
Z
dx
4. p
x ln x (ln x)2 − 8
Solution.
1
Let u = ln x. Then du = dx and hence
x
1 1 ln x
Z Z
dx du −1 u −1
p = √ = √ sec √ + C = √ sec √ + C.
x ln x (ln x)2 − 8 u u2 − 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ic s
1
Z
5. √ x dx
at
4 −4
m
Solution. he
R
at
Note that 4x = (2x )2 for any x ∈ . Let u = 2x . Then du = 2x ln 2 dx and hence
M
1 2x ln 2 1 1 1
Z Z Z u
√ x dx = dx = √ du = sec−1 +C
of
q
4 −4 x x 2 ln 2 u u2−4 2 ln 2 2
2 ln 2 (2 ) − 4
e
ut
x
1 −1 2 1
sec−1 2x−1 + C.
= sec +C =
tit
2 ln 2 2 2 ln 2
s
In
Z
dx
6. √
UP
7 + 6x − x2
Solution.
First, note that
Z Z Z Z
dx dx dx dx
√ = p = p = p .
7 + 6x − x2 7 − (x2 − 6x) 7 − (x2 − 6x + 9 − 9) 16 − (x − 3)2
8x + 1
Z
7. 2
dx
4x + 12x + 10
Solution.
Let u = 4x2 + 12x + 10. Then du = (8x + 12) dx and hence
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 205
8x + 1 8x + 12 11
Z Z Z
2
dx = 2
dx − 2
dx
4x + 12x + 10 4x + 12x + 10 4x + 12x + 10
Z Z
du dx
= − 11 2
u 4x + 12x + 9 − 9 + 10
Z
dx
= ln |u| − 11 .
(2x + 3)2 + 1
ic s
at
The succeeding theorem gives the antiderivatives of hyperbolic functions. Some of these antideriva-
m
tive formulas are direct consequence of the derivatives of hyperbolic functions.
he
at
Theorem 4.1.23 (Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions).
M
of
Z Z
e
Z Z
7. tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C
s
2. sinh x dx = cosh x + C
In
Z
UP
Z 8. coth x dx = ln | sinh x| + C
3. sech2 x dx = tanh x + C
Z
Z 9. sech x dx = 2 tan−1 (ex ) + C
4. csch2 x dx = − coth x + C
= tan−1 (sinh x) + C
Z Z
5. sech x tanh x dx = − sech x + C 10. csch x dx = ln |csch x − coth x| + C
Example 4.1.24.
Z
1. 2x cosh (2x ) dx
Solution.
Let u = 2x . Then du = 2x ln 2 dx and
1 1 1
Z Z
2x cosh (2x ) dx = cosh u du = sinh (u) + C = sinh (2x ) + C.
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
206 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
sech(ln x) tanh(ln x)
Z
2. dx
x
Solution.
1
Let u = ln x. Then du = dx and
x
sech(ln x) tanh(ln x)
Z Z
dx = sech u tanh u du = − sech (u) + C = − sech (ln x) + C.
x
csch x − tanh3 x
Z
3. dx
tanh x
Solution.
csch x − tanh3 x
Z Z
dx = (csch x coth x − tanh2 x) dx
tanh x
Z
= (csch x coth x + sech2 x − 1) dx
= − csch x + tanh x − x + C.
ic s
4.1.9 *Antiderivatives Yielding Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
at
m
We now give without proof the antiderivatives yielding the inverse hyperbolic functions.
he
at
Theorem 4.1.25 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions). Let
M
a > 0.
of
1
Z u p
1. √ du = sinh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 + a2 ) + C
e
u2 + a2 a
ut
tit
1
Z u p
2. √ du = cosh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 − a2 ) + C, u > a
u2 − a2 a
s
In
1
−1 u
tanh + C , if |u| < a
UP
Z
1 a
a 1 a+u
3. 2 2
du = = ln +C
a −u 1 u 2a a−u
−1
coth
+ C , if |u| > a
a a
1
It is recommended that the concise formula for the integral of be used rather than the
a2 − u2
complicated piecewise function.
2t4 + 3t2 + 4
Z
Example 4.1.26. 1. dt
t2 − 1
Solution.
2t4 + 3t2 + 4
Z
9
Z
2
dt = 2t + 5 + 2 dt .
t2 − 1 t −1
Z
2 9
= 2t + 5 − dt
1 − t2
2t3 9 1+t
= + 5t − ln +C
3 2 1−t
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 207
1
Z
2. √ dx
9x2 + 1
Solution.
Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and
1 1 1 1 1
Z Z
√ = √ du = sinh−1 u + C = sinh−1 (3x) + C
2
9x + 1 3 2
u +1 3 3
x2
Z
3. dx
x6 − 25
Solution.
Let u = x3 . Then du = 3x2 dx and
x2 1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
6
= 2
du = − du
x − 25 3 u − 25 3 25 − u2
1 1 5+u 1 5 + x3
=− · ln + C = − ln +C
3 10 5−u 30 5 − x3
ic s
2x − 1
Z
at
4. √ dx
2
x + 4x − 5
m
Solution. he
at
Let u = x2 + 4x − 5. Then du = (2x + 4)dx and
M
2x − 1 2x + 4 − 4 − 1
Z Z
√ dx = √ dx
of
x2 + 4x − 5 x 2 + 4x − 5
e
2x + 4 5
Z Z
ut
= √ dx − √ dx
x 2 + 4x − 5 x 2 + 4x − 5
tit
1 5
Z Z
= √ du − √ dx
s
In
u 2
x + 4x + 4 − 4 − 5
√ 5 dx
Z
UP
=2 u− p .
(x + 2)2 − 9
1 1
n+1 Z
u u
+ C, n 6= −1 16. √ du = sec−1 + C, a > 0
R n
n+1 2
u u −a2 a a
1. u du = R
17. sinh u du = cosh u + C
ln |u| + C, n = −1
R
au 18. cosh u du = sinh u + C
au du =
R
2. + C, a > 0, a 6= 1
ln a 19.
R
sech2 u du = tanh u + C
eu du eu
R
3. = +C
csch2 u du = − coth u + C
R
R 20.
4. sin u du = − cos u + C R
R 21. sech u tanh u du = − sech u + C
5. cos u du = sin u + C R
22. csch u coth u du = − csch u + C
sec2 u du = tan u + C
R
6. R
23. tanh u du = ln cosh u + C
csc2 u du = − cot u + C
R
7.
s
R
24. coth u du = ln | sinh u| + C
ic
R
8. sec u tan u du = sec u + C
at
Z
sech u du = 2 tan−1 eu + C
m
R 25.
9. csc u cot u du = − csc u + C he
R = tan−1 (sinh u) + C
at
10. tan u du = ln | sec u| + C
M
R
11.
R
cot u du = ln | sin u| + C 26. csch u du = ln | csch u − coth u| + C
of
1
Z
u
du = sinh−1 + C, a > 0
R
12. sec u du = ln | sec u + tan u| + C 27. √
e
u2+a2 a
ut
R
13. csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C Z
1
tit
u
28. √ du = cosh−1 + C, a ∈ (0, u)
1 u2−a2 a
Z
u
s
du = sin−1 + C, a > 0
In
14. √
a2 −u2 a Z
1 1 u+a
29. du = ln + C,
UP
1 1 a2 − u2 2a u−a
Z
u
15. du = tan−1 + C, a > 0 u 6= a, a > 0
a2 + u2 a a
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 209
4.1.11 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
Z Z
6
2 cot2 θ − 3 tan2 θ dθ
3/4 4
1. x − 5x − 4 dx 6.
x
1
Z Z
2. (4s + 3)(s − 5) ds 7. dx
1 − cos x
4z 2 − 6z + 3 106x + 1
Z Z
3. √ dz 8. dx
z 103x
3 − 2x
Z Z
4. (5 cos x − 4 sin x) dx 9. dx
3x
Z x
3 −7
Z
4 csc x cot x + 2 sec2 x dx
5. 10. dx
e2x
s
B. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.
ic
at
m
Z p Z
3
1. 16n2 − 8n + 1 dn he 7. coth2 x csch2 x dx
at
Z p4
2. z 8 z 3 + 3 dz sec2 x
Z
M
√ 8. dx
1 + 16 tan2 x
sec2 (3 t)
Z
of
3. √ dt Z
1
t √
e
9. dt
ut
1 (t + 3) t2 + 6t − 7
Z 4 cos
tit
x2 Z
x
4. dx 10. √ dx
1
s
3 8x − x2
In
3
x sin
x2
ex
Z
UP
2 ln x + 1
Z
5. dx 11. √ dx
x(ln2 x + ln x) e2x − 4
2 + ln2 x
Z
x
Z
6. dx 12. √ dx
x − x ln x x4 + 4x2 + 5
1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
d2 y
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx
Find an equation of the curve.
D. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from a platform 8 feet above the ground. After 2
seconds, the ball is 2 feet below the platform. Find the initial velocity of the ball.
210 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
2. If the brakes on a car can give the car a constant negative acceleration of 8 m/s2 , what
is the maximum speed it can go to be able to stop within 25 meters after the brake is
applied?
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 211
Supplementary Exercises
Z Z
2 2
2 cosh t sech t + csch2 t dt
1. x (x − 1) dx 6.
√ √ 1
Z
2. y 3
y+ √ dy cosh x
Z
4 y
7. p dx
8 − cosh2 x
s
1 2
Z √
ic
3
3. 2 t+ √ dt
at
3
t sec θ
Z
8. dθ
m
Z
4. 3 csc2 t − 5 sec t tan t dt
he sec θ − tan θ
1 − t2
at
Z Z
5. (tan x + cot x)2 dx 9. dt
M
1 + t2
of
Z
tan2 x 1 + sin2 x
Z
1. (2y − 1)6 dy 11. dx
s
cos2 x
In
√ √
Z
2x2 (4 + 3x3 )4 dx cot 3 x csc2 3 x
Z
2.
UP
12. √3 √ 2 dx
x2 (4 + cot2 3 x)
s3
Z
3. √ ds Z q
√
Z 3s2 + 1 13. 4 − 4 − x dx
t
4. dt
csch cot−1 x
t + 2t2 + 1
4
Z
Z 14. dx
1 + x2
5. 4x[3x + cos(2x2 + 1)] dx Z
sech x 2 + coth2 x dx
Z
cos x 15.
6. dx
(1 + sin x)5 Z
x
Z 16. 5x ecsch(5 ) csch(5x ) coth(5x ) dx
7. csc3 (2x + 1) cot (2x + 1) dx Z
17. sinh x tanh x dx
Z
8. sin θ cos θ cos (cos 2θ) dθ
tanh2 (ey )
Z Z
9. sec2 θ − cos2 θ tan θ dθ
18. dy
cosh y − sinh y
tan(ln x) sec(ln x)
Z Z
sin y − tan2 y sec2 y dy
10. 19. dx
πx − x sec(ln x)
212 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Z Z
dx dx
20. √ 26.
4x2 + 8x + 13 52−x− 5x
cosh−1 (log5 x)
Z Z
dx
21. √ 27. q dx
16 − e−2x x (log5 x)2 − 1
2x + 10
Z
sin 2x + 2 sin x
Z
22. dx 28. dx
x2 + 2x − 3
sin2 x + 1
1
Z Z x
23. √ dx 3 +1
29. dx
e2x − 4 9x + 1
1 1
Z Z
24. √ dx 30. √ dx
25 + 16x2 2x
e +4
sech r
Z Z
x 31. dr
25. √ dx p
4
x −1 15 coth2 r + 1
1. The point (1, 0) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
ics
slope equal to x2 − 2x. Find an equation of the curve.
at
d2 y
m
2. The points (1, −5) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, =
he dx2
3 − x. Find an equation of the curve.
at
3. An equation of the tangent to a curve at the point (1, 3) is y = x + 2. If at any point (x, y)
M
d2 y
on the curve, = 6x, find an equation of the curve.
dx2
of
E. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
e
ut
1. A sandbag is released from a balloon rising vertically with a velocity of 16 ft/s at the
s
In
instant when the balloon is 64 feet from the ground. How many seconds after its release
UP
Now, we deconstruct this notion of area for us to be able to find the area of a region bounded by a
curve and some vertical lines.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
• generalize the notion of area of a polygonal region to the area of any plane region
• derive an expression that gives such a formula, given any function f (x)
s
• use the properties of summation to obtain an exact number that gives the desired area
ic
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Definition 4.2.1. (Sigma Notation) Let n be a positive integer, and F be a function such that
{1, 2, . . . , n} is in the domain of F . We define:
n
X
F (i) := F (1) + F (2) + . . . + F (n)
i=1
We read the left hand side as “the summation of F (i), with i from 1 to n”.
Remark 4.2.2.
214 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
1. The variable i is called a dummy variable. It can be changed arbitrarily, especially when two
or more summations are involved in a single calculation.
2. In general, the summation need not start from 1. As long as we have k ∈ Z , where k < n, we
can define the summation of F (i), with i from k to n:
n
X
F (i) := F (k) + F (k + 1) + . . . + F (n).
i=k
s
i=1
ic
at
n
X n
X
2. cF (i) = c F (i)
m
i=1 i=1 he
at
n
X n n
X X
3. F (i) ± G(i) = F (i) ± G(i)
M
n
X n(n + 1)
e
4. i=
ut
2
i=1
tit
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
s
X
5. i2 =
In
6
i=1
UP
Example 4.2.4.
30 30 30 30 30
X X X X X 30(31)
1. (6i − 1) = 6i + 1=6 i+ 1=6· + 1 · 30 = 2760
2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
10 10 10 10 10
X X
2 2
X
2
X X 10(11)(21) 10(11)
2. (i − 1) = (i − 2i + 1) = i −2 i+ 1= −2· + 10 = 285
6 2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n n n
X X X X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1) n(2n2 − 3n + 1)
3. (i − 1)2 = i2 − 2 i+ 1= −2· +n =
6 2 6
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
Suppose we wish to find the area of the region R in the first quadrant bounded by the curve
f (x) = x2 , the x-axis, and the vertical line x = 2.
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 215
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
1. First, we divide the interval [0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. Note that
UP
2−0 2
∆x = = .
n n
3. Next, we cover the region with n circumscribed rectangles of width ∆x and height f (ci ).
Ai = f (ci ) · ∆x.
5. The area of the region can be approximated by taking the sum of the areas of the n circum-
scribed rectangles. Thus,
Xn
AR ≈ Ai
i=1
or
n
X
AR ≈ f (ci ) · ∆x
i=1
216 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
2
But ∆x = and f (ci ) = c2i . So,
n
n
X 2
AR ≈ c2i ·
n
i=1
2i
Moreover ci = i · ∆x = . So,
n
n 2
X 2i 2
AR ≈ ·
n n
i=1
6. We simplify the right hand side using summation formulas and obtain
n n
X X 8i2
AR ≈ Ai =
n3
i=1 i=1
n
8X2
= i
s
n3
ic
i=1
at
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ·
m
n3 6
4(n + 1)(2n + 1)
he
=
at
3n2
M
of
7. Note that if we increase the number of rectangles, we get a better approximation of the area.
In fact, we define the area of the region to be
e
ut
tit
n
X
AR := lim Ai .
s
n→∞
In
i=1
UP
We obtain
n
X 4(n + 1)(2n + 1) 8
AR := lim Ai = lim = .
n→∞ n→∞ 3n2 3
i=1
In the previous illustration, we calculated the area AR of a plane region R bounded above by a
continuous function y = f (x) and below by the interval [a, b] by covering R with n circumscribed
rectangles of equal width ∆x. We then let n → ∞ to calculate the area
n
X
AR := lim f (ci ) · ∆x
n→∞
i=1
where ci is the right endpoint of ith subinterval and ∆x is the width of the ith rectangle, i =
1, 2, ..., n.
Instead of taking the right endpoint ci of the ith subinterval, we can take any number x∗i in the
ith subinterval and let the height of the ith rectangle be h = f (x∗i ). The area of the region is now
s
given by
ic
n
at
X
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x.
m
n→∞
i=1
he
4.2.2 The Definite Integral
at
M
To find the area of some plane regions R bounded above by y = f (x) and below by the interval
of
Given an interval [a, b], we define a partition of the interval to be a sequence of numbers
the divides interval into n subintervals where the length of the ith interval is given by ∆xi =
xi − xi−1 , where i = 1, ..., n. When the subintervals are of equal length, we say that the partition
is a regular partition.
218 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
For a regular partition, the length of each subinterval tends to 0 as n → ∞. However, if the
partition is not regular, this is not always true. Instead, we define max∆xi to be the length of the
longest subinterval in the partition. This length is called the mesh size of the partition. The area
of the region is now given by
Xn
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi .
max∆xi →0
i=1
Definition 4.2.5. Let f be defined on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b X n
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi
a max∆xi →0
i=1
if the limit exists and does not depend on the choice of partitions or on the choice of numbers x∗i
in the subintervals. If the limit exists, the function is said to be integrable on [a, b].
s
• The process of calculating the integral is called integration.
ic
at
Z b
• In the notation for the definite integral f (x) dx:
m
a he
Z
at
– The integral sign resembles the letter S because an integral is the limit of a sum.
M
– The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration: a is the lower limit of integra-
e
ut
– We use the same symbol as the antiderivative because the definite integral is closely
s
n
UP
f (x∗i )·∆xk is called a Riemann Sum, after the mathematician Bernhard Riemann
P
• The sum
i=1
who formulated much of the concepts in integral calculus.
3. If the function f is continuous, a regular partition can be used to compute the definite integral:
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x
a n→∞
i=1
4. The function f must be defined on the interval [a, b] to define the definite integral of f from [a, b].
Z 1
1 1
For instance 2
dx is not a definite integral, since the 0 is not in the domain of f (x) = 2 .
0 x x
This type of integral is called an improper integral, which is not in the scope of this course.
Solution.
s
We have seen that the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = x2 , the x-axis, and the
ic
Z 2
8 8
at
vertical line x = 0 and x = 2 is square units. Therefore, x2 dx = .
3 3
m
0
Z 6 he
2. 2x dx
at
−2
M
of
Solution.
e
The value of the given definite integral is the net-signed area between the curve y = 2x and the
ut
6
1 1
Z
We have that 2x dx = · 6 · 12 − · 2 · 4 = 32.
−2 2 2
Theorem 4.2.8. If a function is continuous on [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].
220 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Example 4.2.9.
2. The function f (x) = |x| is integrable on the interval [−1, 2], although it is not differentiable on
(−1, 2).
3. The sine and cosine functions are integrable on any closed interval.
Theorem 4.2.10 (Properties of the Definite Integral). Let f and g be integrable on [a, b].
Z b Z a
1. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b
Z a
2. f (x) dx = 0
a
Z b
3. c dx = c(b − a)
ic s
a
at
Z b Z b
m
4. c f (x)dx = c f (x) dx
a a he
at
Z b Z b Z b
5. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
M
a a a
of
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
tit
a a c
s
In
4.2.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Let R be the region bounded by y = 4 − x2 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].
1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
s
4. 3− 4 − t2 dt
ic
0
at
C. Do as indicated.
m
Z 6 Z 6 he Z 6
1. If f (x) dx = 3 and g(x) dx = 8, find [3f (x) − 2g(x)] dx.
at
−1 −1 −1
M
ln 2 Z ln 2
15
Z
cosh2 (x) dx = 16 sinh2 (x) + 16 dx.
2. Given that + ln 2, find
of
ln 0.5 16 ln 0.5
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
e
Z 2 Z 5 Z 5 Z 2
s
−5 −2 −5 −2
Z −2 Z 5
UP
Supplementary Exercises
B. Let R be the region bounded by y = x3 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].
1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
Z 12 Z 7
1. 4 dx 4. −|12 − 3x| dx
−3 2
Z 6 Z 3
s
2. (15 + 4x) dx 5. cosh−1 x dx
ic
−4 3
at
6 Z −10
5 csc−1 w
Z Z
m
3. |2x − 5| dx 6. dw dx
0 4 he −10 csc w
at
D. Do as indicated.
M
√
1. Find the area enclosed by the x-axis and the semicircle y = 16 − x2 , on the following
of
intervals: (a) [0, 4], (b) [2, 4], (c) [0, 2], (d) [−2, 4].
e
ut
2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f (x) = 2 − |x − 5| , the two
tit
Z 6 Z 6 Z 6
In
−3 −3 −3
−3
f (x) 3h(x)
Z
+ 3g(x) − dx
6 4 7
4. Let k be any real number, and a, b be real numbers such that a 6= b. Given that
Z b Z b Z b
2
g(x) dx = k and 2
[g(x)] dx = k + 2k − 1, find the value of [3g(x) − 2]2 dx.
a a a
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 223
At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:
ic s
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. Then the value of the definite integral
at
Z b
m
f (x) dx depends only on the function f and the values of a and b, and is independent of our
a
choice of the variable in the function. That is,
he
at
M
2 2 2 2
8 8 8 8
Z Z Z Z
2 2 2
x dx = , y dy = , r dr = , u2 du = .
3 3 3 3
of
0 0 0 0
e
ut
Z x
tit
We consider a function defined by F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and
a
s
Example 4.3.1.
Z x
1. Let F (x) = t2 dt. Evaluate F at x = 0 and x = 2.
0
Z 0
a. F (0) = t2 dt = 0
0
2
8
Z
b. F (2) = t2 dt =
0 3
Z x
2. Let F (x) = 2t dt.
0
Notice that F (x) gives the areaZ of the triangle under the curve y = 2t in the interval [0, x].
x
Therefore, we get that F (x) = 2t dt = 12 · x · 2x = x2 . Using the limit definition of F 0 , one
0
can verify that F 0 (x) = 2x. Note that F 0 (x) = f (x). Refer to the figure.
224 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
As was illustrated inZthe previous example, the next theorem states that in general, for a function
x
of the form F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x is any number in
a
[a, b], F 0 (x) = f (x).
ic s
at
m
Theorem 4.3.2 (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a function
he
continuous on [a, b] and let x be any number in [a, b]. If F is the function defined by F (x) =
at
Z x
f (t) dt, then
M
a
of
F 0 (x) = f (x).
e
ut
tit
Z x
In
1. F (x) = t2 dt
0
UP
Solution.
Let f (t) = t2 . Applying the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we obtain F 0 (x) = x2 .
Z x
cos t2 + 1 dt
2. F (x) =
−π
Solution.
In this case, let f (t) = cos t2 + 1 . Thus, F 0 (x) = cos(x2 + 1).
Z 3
3. F (x) = sin 2t dt
x
Solution.
To apply the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we first need to switch the upper and
lower
Z limits of integration. Using the first property of the definite integral, we have F (x) =
x
− sin 2t dt. Now let f (t) = sin 2t. Finally, we get that F 0 (x) = − sin 2x.
3
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 225
Z g(x)
Remark 4.3.4. Suppose F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a function continuous on [a, b] and let
Z xa
g (x) ∈ [a, b]. If we let H(x) = f (t) dt, then F (x) = H(g(x)). Using the chain rule, we get
a
F 0 (x) = H 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x). By the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, H 0 (x) = f (x). So, we
have
Z cos x
dt
2. F (x) =
t
s
1
ic
1
F 0 (x) =
at
· (− sin x) = − tan x
cos x
m
Z 0
t he
3. F (x) = dt
at
t 2+1
2x+1
M
Z 2x+1
t
F (x) = − 2+1
dt
t
of
0
2x + 1 2x + 1 2x + 1
F 0 (x) = −
e
·2=− 2 ·2=− 2
ut
(2x + 1)2 + 1 4x + 4x + 2 2x + 2x + 1
tit
Z x
4. F (x) = sin2 t dt
s
In
−x−1
Z 0 Z x
2
sin2 t dt
UP
F (x) = sin t dt +
−x−1 0
Z −x−1 Z x
2
=− sin t dt + sin2 t dt
0 0
F 0 (x) = − sin2 (−x − 1) (−1) + sin2 x = − sin2 (x + 1) + sin2 x
Z tanh(x)
2 t−1
5. F (x) = sinh dt
x3 3
Z 1 Z tanh(x)
2 t−1 2 t−1
= sinh dt + sinh dt
x3 3 1 3
Z x3 Z tanh(x)
2 t−1 2 t−1
=− sinh dt + sinh dt
1 3 1 3
3
0 2 x −1 2 2 tanh(x) − 1
F (x) = − sinh · 3x + sinh · sech2 (x)
3 3
We reserve the proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus in Section 4.7 since it
involves the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
226 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
ic s
−2 x=−2
at
Z 3
dx
m
3.
−1 (x + 2)3 he
at
M
Solution.
of
u−2 1 1
Z Z
dx
tit
−3
3 = u du = +C =− 2 +C =− + C.
(x + 2) −2 2u 2 (x + 2)2
s
In
We now have
UP
3 x=3
1 1 1 24 12
Z
dx
= − =− + = = .
−1 (x + 2)3 2(x + 2)2 x=−1 50 2 50 25
Remark 4.3.8. By the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Substitution Rule,
Z b x=b
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g(x)) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)).
a x=a
Therefore,
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 227
Example 4.3.9. Evaluate the following definite integrals using the previous remark.
Z 3
dx
1. 3
−1 (x + 2)
Solution.
Again, we let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. We use the previous remark and put the limits of
integration in terms of the new variable u. If x = −1, then u = 1. If x = 3, then u = 5. We
now have
u−2 u=5
Z 3 Z 5
dx −3 1 1 12
3 = u du = =− + = .
−1 (x + 2) 1 −2 u=1 50 2 25
√
Z 11 1
2. 2x(x2 − 3) 3 dx
2
Solution.
√
Let u = x2 − 3. Then du = 2x dx. Moreover, if x = 2, then u = 1. If x =
s
11, then
√ 2
ic
u= 11 − 3 = 8. Thus,
at
m
√ 4 u=8 4 4
11 8
3u 3 3(8) 3 3(1) 3 45
Z Z
1 1 he
2
2x(x + −3) 3 dx = u3 du = = − = .
4 4 4 4
at
2 1 u=1
√
M
π2
sin t
Z
3. √ dt
of
π2 t
4
e
ut
Solution.
tit
√ dt dt 2 π
Let u = t. Then du = √ , or 2du = √ . In addition, if x = π4 , then u = . Meanwhile, if
s
2
In
2 t t
2
x = π , then u = π. Thus,
UP
Z π2 √ Z π u=π
sin t
√ dt = 2 sin u du = 2(− cos u) = 2 − 0 = 2.
π2 t π π
4 2 u= 2
Z 2
4. |x| dx
−1
Solution. (
x, if x ≥ 0
Recall that |x| = . We use the 6th property of the definite integral and obtain
−x, if x < 0
Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
|x| dx = (−x) dx + x dx
−1 −1 0
x2 x=0
x2 x=2
=− +
2 x=−1 2
x=0
1 5
= 0− − + (2 − 0) = .
2 2
228 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Remark 4.3.10.
2. To use the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the function f must be continuous on
1 x=2
Z 2
1 1 1
[a, b]. For instance, 2
dx =
6 − = . In fact, the definite integral of f (x) = 2 on
−1 x x x=−1 2 x
[−1, 2] cannot even be defined since the interval is not contained in the domain of f .
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 229
4.3.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
2 7
t3
Z Z
t2 + 1 dt
1. F (x) = 3
dt 3. F (x) =
1−3x 1 + t csc x
Z 1
x√
Z cos x
2. F (x) = 1 + m3 dm 4. F (x) = y 2 dy
1 sin x
B. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following functions at the given value
of x.
√
x 3 x2 −5x+6
3r3 + sech r
Z
t
Z
1. h(x) = 2
dt ; x = −8 3. f (x) = dr ; x = 3
t + 8t + 1
s
−8 9−x2 3r3 − sech r
ic
at
3x2 −10 cos(x2 )
2we−w
Z
z sinh(z)
Z
2. g(x) = dz ; x = −2 4. g(x) = dw ; x = 0
m
2 cos2 z − 4 2x+1 tan−1 w
he
at
C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
M
of
Z π Z π
2 2 p
1. sin x dx 9. sin 2y 1 − sin ydy
e
ut
0 0
Z 4 Z ln 3
tit
0 ln 2
In
64 √ 4
1+ 3y 1
Z Z
3. √ dy 11. √ √ 3 dw
UP
3 y
1 1 w ( w + 2)
π
cos2 θ 2
1 2
1+ 1
Z Z
4
4. dθ 12. 1+ dm
0 cos2 θ 1 m2 m
Z π x x √
3−1
4
Z
5. sin2 cos dx 13. √ dr
π 2 2 3 − 2r − r2
3 −1
Z π
tan u Z 4
1
6. du 14. √ dt
2π sec u − tan u
3 1 (t + 2) t2 + 4t − 5
Z π Z 2
2
7. cos x cos(π sin x) dx 15. |x + 1| dx
0 −2
Z 2 Z 4
|s2 − 5s + 6| ds
p
8. y y − 1 dy 16.
1 0
230 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Supplementary Exercises
Z x √
3 x
t2 − 1
Z
1. F (x) = t2 sin t dt 3. F (x) = dt
√ 3
0 sec x 1 + t
Z 2x " Z 3s2 !#
2x3 d √
1
Z
2. F (x) = ds 4. F (x) = t3 + 1dt ds
1 + s2 5 ds 1
x
B. Find an equation of the tangent line and normal line to the graph of the following functions at
the given value of x.
1−4x
√
x2 5 s2 + 1
Z Z
1. h(x) = sec(t − 1) dt ; x = −2 4. h(x) = ds ; x = 1
2−x −3 tan−1 (s)
s
2
0 πx sinh−1 v
ic
1+u
Z Z
π
2. f (x) = du ; x = 1 5. g(x) = dv ; x =
at
x5 −1 1 + u + u2 csc(x) sinh v 2
m
cos(x2 )
0 2we−w
Z
4 ln(cosh u) + 1
Z
π he
3. f (x) = du ; x = 6. g(x) = dw ; x = 0
2
u +1 2 tan−1 w
at
cos x 2x+1
M
3 4
ut
Z Z
3 2
1. (x − 4x + 5x − 8) dx 10. |s2 − 4s + 3| ds
tit
−2 0
π π
1
Z
s
Z
4
In
2. 3
tan (y)(1 + tan y) dy 2 11. sin x − dx
π 0 2
UP
6
Z 6 2
Z ln 4 √
5x 12. sinh x cosh x dx
3. x sin dx ln 0.5
1 6 Z ln 3
Z π
13. tanh x sech3 x dx
6 2 3x 3x
4. sec tan dx ln 2
−
π 4 4 (
3 π
; x≤0
Z
√ x
3 14. f (x) dx, if f (x) =
tan−1 x sin x ; x>0
Z
3 −π
5. dx
0 1 + x2 Z ln 5
Z 1 csch cot−1 x
15. e−x tanh(e−x ) dx
6. dx ln 0.2
0 1 + x2 Z e4
1
Z e
coth2 (ln x + x)(x + 1) 16. p dx
7. dx e2 x ln2 x − 1
1 x 2
sech−1 (x)
Z 1
Z 0
8. |3x + 1 |dx 17. √ dx
1 x 1 − x2
−1 2
Z 3 Z 1
1
9. (|3x − 6| − 1) dx 18. √ dx
0 0 1 + e4x
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 231
ln 5 3 3 2
sinh x 2log3 (x +2x )
Z Z
19. dx 20. √ dx
1 e + e−x
x
1 x · 4log3 x+2
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
232 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Now that we know the most important properties of the definite integral, we are able to perform
some geometric calculations. One such computation generalizes the concept of the area of a plane
region we discussed earlier.
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:
ic s
at
Z b n
f (x∗i ) ∆x.
P
1. f (x)dx = lim
m
a n→∞i=1
he Z b
at
2. If the graph of y = f (x) lies entirely above the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives
M
a
the area of the region bounded by the curves y = f (x), the x-axis, and the vertical lines
of
We generalize the problem to finding the area of a plane region bounded by several curves such
as the one shown below.
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 233
ic s
at
Some Preliminaries:
m
he
at
1. The coordinates of an arbitrary point on a curve y = f (x) in terms of x are given by the
M
Example 4.4.1.
e
a. y = x2
ut
s tit
In
UP
234 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
b. y = x3
ic s
at
Example 4.4.2.
m
a. y = x2 he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
b. y = x3
Example 4.4.3.
a. y = x2 and y = x + 1
h = (x + 1) − x2 = −x2 + x + 1
b. y = x2 and y = −1
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
h = x2 − (−1) = x2 + 1
UP
Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be the equations of two curves that are continuous on [a, b] such
that g (x) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. To find the area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g (x)
in the interval [a, b], we modify the method used for finding the area of a region bounded above
by a curve and below by the x-axis in a given closed interval:
236 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
ic s
1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. We assign the width
at
of the ith rectangle to be ∆x. Note that
m
b−a
he
∆x = .
at
n
M
2. Let i = 1, 2, ..., n. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. We assign the height
of
hi of the ith rectangle to be the distance between the two curves at x∗i :
e
ut
hi = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) .
s tit
Ai = hi ∆x = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x .
4. We approximate the area AR of the region R by getting the sum of the areas of the n
rectangle:
n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x .
AR ≈ Ai =
i=1 i=1
Suggestion: We can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
Z b
AR = h dx
a
where:
ics
at
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region along the x-axis;
m
• h is the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I;
he
• dx is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I.
at
M
Example 4.4.4.
of
e
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x3 , the x-axis and x = −2.
ut
s tit
In
UP
h = 0 − x3 = −x3 .
Z 0
AR = −x3 dx .
−2
0 x=0
x4
Z
AR = −x3 dx = − = 0 − (−4) = 4 square units .
−2 4 x=−2
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
2 x=2
x3
8 1
Z
2
AR = (x + 3) dx = + 3x = + 6 − − − 3 = 12 square units .
−1 3 x=−1 3 3
ic s
2 − x2 = −x
at
x2 − x − 2 = 0
m
he
(x + 1) (x − 2) = 0
at
x = −1 or x = 2
M
h = 2 − x2 − (−x) = −x2 + x + 2
ut
tit
2 x=2
x3 x2
Z
UP
AR = (−x2 + x + 2) dx = − + + 2x
−1 3 2 x=−1
8 1 1 9
= − +2+4 − + − 2 = square units
3 3 2 2
Notice that the formula for the area of a plane region assumes that the upper curve y = f (x)
is always above the lower curve y = g (x) in [a, b]. That is, the formula for the height h of a
rectangle at an arbitrary x is the same throughout the region. In the case that this is not so,
we have to divide the region into an appropriate number of subregions to apply the formula.
Example 4.4.5.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = cos x, y = sin x, and the lines x = 0 and x = 2π.
240 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
s
We divide the interval into three subregions R1 , R2 and R3 . To determine the appropriate
ic
at
x-interval covered by each of these three subregions, we solve for the x-coordinates of the
m
points of intersection of y = cos x and y = sin x in the interval [0, 2π]:
he
at
sin x = cos x
1 1
M
· sin x = · cos x
cos x cos x
of
tan x = 1
π 5π
e
x= or x =
ut
4 4
s tit
2. Find the area of the region shown below. The boundaries are y = x2 , y = 2x, and 7x + 4y =
15.
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 241
We divide the interval into two subregions R1 and R2 and solve for the points of intersection:
ic s
Intersection of y = x2 and 7x + 4y = 15:
at
15 − 7x
m
x2 =
he 4
4x2 + 7x − 15 = 0
at
M
(4x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
5
of
x= or x = −3
4
e
ut
7x + 4 (2x) = 15
s
In
x = 1
UP
x2 − 2x = 0
x (x − 2) = 0
x=0 or x=2
We now have
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−3, 1] I = [1, 2]
15 − 7x
h= − x2 h = 2x − x2
4
Finally,
AR = AR1 + AR2
Z 1 Z 2
15 − 7x 2 40
2x − x2 dx =
= −x dx + square units .
−3 4 1 3
242 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
In the method we employed to find the area of a plane region, the plane region is covered using
rectangles oriented vertically. Now consider the case of the plane region below. If rectangles
oriented vertically are used to find the area of the plane region, the region would have to be
divided into two subregions because the formula for the height of the rectangle is not consistent
throughout the region. In one subregion, the upper curve is the line, while the lower curve is
the lower branch of the parabola. In the other subregion, the upper curve is the upper branch
of the parabola, while the lower curve is the lower branch of the parabola.
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
Notice, however, that if we use rectangles oriented horizontally, the expression for the length
tit
of the rectangle is the same throughout the given region. This is in contrast to the approach
using vertical rectangles, where the expression for the height of the rectangle is not the same
s
In
Throughout the region, the curve on the right is always the parabola, while the curve of the left
is always the line.
The following gives an alternative method for finding the area of a plane region using horizontal
rectangles, which would be more convenient to use in finding the area of some regions such as
the one shown above.
ics
at
m
he
Suggestion: Again, we can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
at
Z d
AR = l dy
M
c
of
where:
e
ut
Some Preliminaries.
1. The coordinates of a point on the curve x = u (y) in terms of y are given by (u(y), y)
Example.
244 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
h = (3 − y 2 ) − (y + 1) = −y 2 − y + 2 .
Example 4.4.6.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by x = 3 − y 2 and the line y = x − 1. (Refer to the
figure in the previous example.)
To find the y-interval covered by the region above, we solve for the y-coordinates of the
points of intersection:
ic s
at
3 − y2 = y+1
m
y2 + y − 2 = 0 he
(y + 2)(y − 1) = 0
at
y = −2 or y = 1
M
of
e
Therefore, I = [−2, 1]. We have already seen that the length of a horizontal rectangle at an
ut
arbitrary y is given by
stit
In
l = −y 2 − y + 2 .
UP
We get that the area of the region is given by the definite integral
Z 1
− y 2 − y + 2 dy .
AR =
−2
y=1
y3 y2 9
AR = − − + 2y = square units .
3 2 y=−2 2
y2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x = 4 − y 2 and x = 2 − .
2
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 245
ic s
4 − y2
at
4 − y2 =
m
2
y2 − 4 = 0
he
at
y = −2 or y = 2
M
4 − y2 4 − y2
y2
of
2 y=2
y2 y3
16
Z
tit
AR = 2− dy = 2y − = square units .
−2 2 6 y=−2 3
s
In
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x2 = 4y and the parabola y 2 = −4x.
UP
246 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
The curve on the right is the upper branch of the parabola y 2 = −4x. We isolate x and
y2
get x = − . On the other hand, the curve on the left is the left branch of the parabola
4 √
x2 = 4y. We solve for x and obtain x = ±2 y. Since the curve of interest is the left branch
√
of the parabola, the equation of the curve is x = −2 y.
y2 √
Thus, we get I = [0, 4] and h = − + 2 y. Finally,
4
3 y=4
4
y2 y3
√ 4y 2 16
Z
AR = − + 2 y dy = − + = square units .
0 4 12 3 3
s
y=0
ic
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 247
4.4.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
1. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1).
2. Trapezoid whose vertices are the points A(−1, −1), B(2, 2), C(6, 2), and D(7, −1).
3. Region bounded by the upper branch of the parabola x = y 2 , the tangent line to the parabola
at (1, 1), and the x-axis.
4. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 3 and y = x + 7.
5. Region bounded by y = 6x − x2 , 2y = 5x + 6, and the x-axis.
6. Region bounded above by the graph of y = |2x|, and below by the parabola y = x2 − 8.
7. Region shown below. Boundaries are y = 5 − x2 , y = 2x + 2, y = −x − 1.
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
8. Region bounded below by the curves y = 3−x and y = 3x , and the line y = 9.
s
In
9. Region bounded by the curve y = tanh2 (x), the x-axis, and the line x = ln 14.
UP
10. Region bounded by the curve y = 2x , the coordinate axes, and the lines x = 4 and y = 8.
248 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Supplementary Exercises
ic s
at
m
he
at
M
of
e
ut
B. Set up the definite integral(s) equal to the area of the regions below.
tit
1. Region shown below. The parabola and the circle intersect at the point (2, 0).
s
In
UP
C. Do as indicated.
1. The parabola y = 10 − x2 , and the lines y = −2x + 2 and y = 3x + 6, serve as boundaries
of three finite regions in the Cartesian plane. Find the area of each region.
1
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = √ , the x-axis, and the
√ x 4x2 − 1
3
lines x = and x = 1.
3
x2 y 2
3. Derive the formula for the area of an ellipse with equation 2 + 2 = 1, where a, b > 0.
a b x
4. Derive the formula for the area of the region R bounded by the catenary y = a cosh ,
a
the coordinate axes, and the line x = a, where a > 0.
1
5. Let R be the region above the x-axis and under the graph of y = 2 over [1, 4].
x
A. Find a such that the line with equation x = a divides R into two regions having equal
area.
B. Find b such that the line with equation y = b divides R into two regions having equal
area.
ic s
D. Do as indicated.
at
m
1. TRUE OR FALSE: Any region, whose boundaries can be expressed in terms of functions
he
and vertical lines, can be divided into two regions of equal area.
at
2. For the statement above to be always true, what condition(s) must be satisfied?
M
g(x), and the lines x = a and x = b, then there is a unique line dividing the region into
e
4. Construct a similar statement for regions bounded on the left by x = u(y), on the right
tit
5. Consider the region R bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 4x − 4x3 and below by the
x-axis. What value of m will make the graph of y = m divide R into two regions of equal
UP
area?
250 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:
ic s
at
First, we define a smooth curve. A curve with equation y = f (x) is said to be smooth on [a, b] if
m
f 0 is continuous on [a, b]. Suppose we want to find the length of the arc of a smooth curve over the
he
interval [a, b].
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
We use the previous method of dividing the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length. Let
i = 1, 2, ..., n.
1. Let (xi , yi ) and (xi+1 , yi+1 ) be the endpoints of the arc over the ith subinterval.
4. We approximate the length L of the arc by getting the sum of the distances between the
endpoints of all subarcs:
s
n n
∆yi 2
X X
L≈ di = 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
i=1 i=1
ic s
s
n n
∆yi 2
at
X X
L = lim di = 1+ · ∆xi
n→∞ ∆xi
m
i=1 i=1
he
6. Therefore, length of the arc is given by the definite integral
at
M
s 2
Z b
dy
of
L= 1+ dx .
a dx
e
ut
s tit
If y = f (x) is a smooth curve on the interval [a, b], then the arc length L of this curve
UP
from x = a to x = b is
s 2
Z b Z bq
dy 2
L= 1+ dx = 1 + f 0 (x) dx .
a dx a
If x = u(y) is a smooth curve on the interval [c, d], then the arc length L of this curve
from y = c to y = d is
s 2
Z d Z dq
dx 2
L= 1+ dy = 1 + u0 (y) dy .
c dy c
Example 4.5.1.
1 2 3/2
1. Find the length of arc of the curve y = x +2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
3
252 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
First, we compute
dy 1p 2 p
= x + 2 · 2x = x x2 + 2 .
dx 2
Therefore,
s
ic
s 2
Z 2 p Z 2p
at
L= 2
1+ x x +2 dx = x4 + 2x2 + 1 dx
m
1 1
Z 2
x3 x=2
10
he
= (x2 + 1) dx = +x = units .
at
1 3 x=1 3
M
2. Set up the definite integral required to find the arc length of the curve x = (y − 1)2 − 4 from
of
Here, it is more convenient to use the horizontal orientation of the curve. We have that
dx
= 2(y − 1) .
dy
3. Set up the definite integral required to find the perimeter of the region enclosed by the curves
1 2
3 1 3
y=x + ,x=− y− and y = .
2 2 2
1
If L1 is the length of the segment from −1, 32 and 1, 32 , L2 is the length of the arc of y = x3 +
2
s
2
1
ic
from 0, 12 to 1, 32 , and L3 is the length of the arc of x = − y − from −1, 23 to 0, 12 ,
at
2
then the perimeter P of the enclosed region is given by
m
he
P = L1 + L2 + L3 .
at
M
Obviously,
of
L1 = 1 − (−1) = 2 .
e
ut
tit
Z 1p
In
L2 = 1 + 9x4 dx .
UP
Therefore,
3
s
1p
1 2
Z Z
2
P =2+ 1+ 9x4 dx + 1+4 y− dy .
0
1 2
2
Remark 4.5.2. Note in the previous example that our expression for the perimeter involves x and
y. This is sometimes the case, especially for the perimeter of regions with varying boundaries. The
thing to take away here is that each integral must contain only one variable of integration; that is,
x and y cannot appear in a single integrand.
254 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
4.5.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Find the arc length of the following curves in the specified interval:
2
(x − 5) /2 from the point where x = 6 to the point where x = 8.
3
1. y =
3
2. 2x − 4y + 6 = 0 between y = 0 and y = 2.
π
3. y = ln(cos x) from x = 0 to x = .
4
√
4. 9y 2 = 4x3 from the origin to the point (3, 2 3).
5. 8y = x4 + 2x−2 from the point where x = 1 and x = 2.
x
6. y = a cosh , from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = a.
a
7. y = sinh−1 x from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = 4.
B. Do as indicated.
ic s
1. Set up a definite integral that gives the length of the arcsine function throughout its domain.
√
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2. Set up a definite integral that gives the arc length of y = 3 x − 1 from x = 0 to x = 1. (Note
m
that this integral has to be set up in terms of y. Why not x?)
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4.5. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES 255
Supplementary Exercises
A. Find the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1, Exercises for Discussion, Part A, Items
1-7, and Supplementary Exercises, Part A, 1-5.
B. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1,
Exercises for Discussion, Part A, Items 8-10, and Supplementary Exercises, Part A, 6-9, and
Part B.
C. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each of the regions described
in Exercises 4.4.1, Supplementary Exercises, Part C, Items 1-4.
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256 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:
• understand the different procedures used in computing the volume of a given solid
• generate expressions for the volume of any solid using cross-sectional area
• solve for the volume of solids generated by revolving a plane region about an indicated
axis, using the methods of disks, washers, and cylindrical shells
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4.6.1 Volumes of Solids of Revolution1
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m
Solids of Revolution
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A solid of revolution is a solid obtained when a plane region is revolved about a line called the
M
axis of revolution. For simplicity, we will only consider axes of revolution which are vertical
(parallel to the y-axis) or horizontal (parallel to the x-axis).
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Example 4.6.1.
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1. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by x = y 2 and y = x2 is revolved
In
2. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by y = sin x and the x-axis in the
interval [0, π] is revolved about the y-axis:
1
Some figures in this section are taken from [5].
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 257
Remark 4.6.2. Two methods allow us to find the volume of a solid of revolution:
1. Disk or Washer Method. Use rectangles that are perpendicular to the axis of revolution.
ic s
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2. Cylindrical Shell Method. Use rectangles that are parallel to the axis of revolution.
m
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In both methods, we will need to determine the distance d from an arbitrary point x on a curve
to the axis of revolution. To this end, we need the following observations:
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1. If the axis of revolution is a vertical line, the horizontal distance from the axis of revolution to
tit
2. If the axis of revolution is a horizontal line, the vertical distance from the axis of revolution to
an arbitrary point on the curve is given by
Example. Find the distance from an arbitrary point x on the given curve to the given axis of
revolution.
1. y = x2 , x ≥ 0
a. Axis of revolution: x = 5
258 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
√
In terms of x: d = 5 − x In terms of y: d = 5 − y
b. Axis of revolution: x = −2
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In
√
In terms of x: d = x + 2 In terms of y: d = y+2
UP
2. x = 4 − y 2
a. Axis of revolution: y = 3
√
In terms of y: d = 3 − y In terms of x: d = 3 − 4−x
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 259
b. Axis of revolution: y = −1
√ √
In terms of y: d = y − (−1) = y + 1 In terms of x: d = 4 − x − (−1) = 4 − x + 1
ic s
A disk and a washer with the formulas for their respective volumes are shown below.
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m
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In the disk or washer method, the rectangles are oriented so that they are perpendicular to the axis
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of revolution.
When a segment of the axis of revolution is a boundary of the region, as is the case when the
region below is revolved about the y-axis, disks are obtained.
260 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
If the axis of revolution does not intersect the region, or intersects the region at only one point, we
get washers. This is illustrated in the following example.
Let us consider the simple case when we only obtain disks. Refer to the region below, bounded
s
above by the curve y = f (x), in the interval [a, b]. To get the volume of the solid generated when
ic
the region is revolved about the x-axis, we do the following:
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2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. Let ri = f (x∗i ) be the height of the ith
rectangle.
3. When we revolve the ith rectangle about the axis of revolution, we get the ith disk whose radius
is given by ri and whose height is given by ∆x.
5. The volume of the solid of revolution can be approximated by adding the volumes of the disks
obtained when the rectangles are revolved about the axis of revolution. The expression becomes
n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x .
i=1 i=1
6. We define the volume of the solid to be the limit of the sum above as n → ∞:
n
X
V = lim π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
n→∞
i=1
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Z b
m
V = π [f (x)]2 dx .
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a
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y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
In
functions on [a, b]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
UP
of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0 is given by:
1. If only disks are obtained (that is, a boundary of R lies on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r(x)]2 dx
a
2. If washers are obtained (that is, a boundary of R does not lie on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r2 (x)]2 − [r1 (x)]2 dx
a
where r2 (x) and r1 (x) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary x in [a, b].
262 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
s
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c
at
where r2 (y) and r1 (y) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
m
at an arbitrary y in [c, d]. he
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Suggestion:
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Z b
s
V = πr2 dw
In
a
UP
where:
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region
• r is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle
2. If washers are obtained:
Z d
π r22 − r12 dw
V =
c
where:
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region
• r1 is given by the distance of the nearer tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• r2 is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 263
B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.
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Since the rectangles must be perpendicular to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles
M
and set up the integral in terms of x. In this case, a boundary of the region lies on the axis of
of
The x-interval covered by the region is [0, 2] and the distance from the farther tip of an ar-
tit
by
UP
πx5 2 32π
Z 2
4
V = πx dx = = cubic units .
0 5 0 5
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
264 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. Again, only washers are
obtained, so we have:
√
I = [0, 4] ; r = 2 − y
The volume is given by
3
4
√ 8y 2 y2 = 8π cubic units .
Z
V = π(4 − 4 y + y) dy = π 4y − +
0 3 2 3
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.
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m
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We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. This time we obtain washers.
We get the following:
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ut
I = [0, 2] ; r1 = 4 − x2 ; r2 = 4 − 0 = 4
s tit
Z 2 3 2
x5
2 4 8x 224π
UP
V = π 8x − x dx = π − = cubic units .
0 3 5 0 15
4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 265
We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. We use the formula for
washers and get
√ √
I = [0, 4] ; r1 = y−0= y ; r2 = 2 − 0 = 2
4 4
y2
Z
V = π (4 − y) dy = π 4y − = 8π cubic units .
0 2 0
A cylindrical shell and the formula for its volume are shown below.
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Suppose we want to get the volume of the solid generated when the region below is revolved about
the y-axis. In the cylindrical shell method, we orient the rectangles so that they are parallel to the
axis of revolution.
When we revolve the rectangles about the axis of revolution, we obtain cylindrical shells.
266 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
We obtain the formula for the volume of a solid of revolution using cylindrical shells in the following
manner:
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6. The volume of the solid is approximated by adding the volumes of the n cylindrical shells:
n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
i=1 i=1
where r (x) and h (x) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
arbitrary x in [a, b].
Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on
the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
s
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0
ic
is given by
at
m
Z d
V =
he
2πr(y)h(y) dy
c
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M
where r (y) and h (y) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
arbitrary y in [c, d].
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Suggestion:
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A. We can think of the formula for the volume using cylindrical shells in this way:
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In
Z b
V = 2πrh dw
UP
where:
B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
268 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Since the rectangles must be parallel to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles and
set up the integral in terms of x. The x-interval covered by the region is I = [0, 2]. Meanwhile,
s
the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x − 0 = x and the height
ic
of an arbitrary rectangle is h = x2 . Therefore, we get that
at
m
2 2
πx4
Z
V = 2πx3 dx =
he
= 8π cubic units .
0 2
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0
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2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
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UP
We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. We get the following:
I = [0, 2] ; r =2−x ; h = x2
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the x-axis.
In this case, the axis of revolution is horizontal, so use horizontal rectangles and set up the
ic s
integral in terms of y. We have the following:
at
√
m
I = [0, 4] ; r =y−0=y
he ; h=2− y
at
The required volume is given by
M
5
4 4
2y 2 32π
Z
3
of
V = 2π 2y − y2 dy = 2π y 2 − = cubic units .
5 5
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0 0
ut
tit
4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.
s
In
UP
We use horizontal rectangles and set-up the integral in terms of y We get the following
√
I = [0, 4] ; r =4−y ; h=2− y
270 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Remarks.
1. If the formula for the height of the rectangle is not the same throughout the region, divide the
region into the appropriate number of subregions.
2. If you are free to choose the method, the best method is that for which the formula for the
height of the rectangle changes least throughout the region.
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For this particular region, it is better to use horizontal rectangles, so we set up all required integrals
in terms of y.
1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line y = 1.
Since we are using horizontal rectangles and the axis of revolution is also horizontal, we use
the Cylindrical Shell Method.
We find the y-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the y-interval covered by
the region.
3y 2 = 4 − y 2
4y 2 = 4
y = ±1
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 271
2. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line x = −1.
This time the axis of revolution is vertical, so we use the Washer Method. We obtain the
following:
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Z 1 h
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2 2 i
V = π −y 2 + 5 − 3y 2 + 1 dy .
m
−1
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Example 4.6.6. Let R be the region bounded by y = −3x + 8, y = 3x + 2, and y = x2 − 2.
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In this case, it is better to use vertical rectangles so we set-up the integral in terms of x. We divide
the region R into two subregions R1 and R2 .
1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line x = 2.
272 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Vertical rectangles are parallel to the axis of revolution, so we use Cylindrical Shell Method.
First, we find the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the x-interval covered
by the region.
Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2:
3x + 2 = x2 − 2
x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
x = 4 or x = −1
3x + 2 = −3x + 8
x = 1
x2 − 2 = −3x + 8
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x2 + 3x − 10 = 0
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m
(x + 5)(x − 2) = 0
x = −5 or x = 2
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For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
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r =2−x r =2−x
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= −x2 + 3x + 4 = −x2 − 3x + 10
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The volume of the resulting solid when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is the following:
UP
Z 1
V1 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx .
−1
The volume of the resulting solid when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 2
V2 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx .
1
V = V1 + V2
Z 1 Z 2
2
= 2π(2 − x)(−x + 3x + 4) dx + 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx .
−1 1
2. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line y = −3.
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r2 = (3x + 2) − (−3) = 3x + 5 r2 = (−3x + 8) − (−3) = −3x + 11
r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1 r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1
The volume of the solid obtained when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 1 h 2 i
V1 = π (3x + 5)2 − x2 + 1 dx .
−1
The volume of the solid obtained when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is
Z 2 h 2 i
V2 = π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx .
1
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V = V1 + V2
at
Z 1 h 2
m
Z
2 2 i h 2 i
= 2
π (3x + 5) − x + 1 dx + he π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx .
−1 1
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Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = a and x = b
such that the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular to the x-axis at an arbitrary x
in [a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x).
2
Some figures in this section are taken from [5].
274 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
We obtain the volume of the solid by ”slicing” the solid into vertical cylinders:
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Vi = A(x∗i )∆x .
Similarly, we can also find the volume of a solid by slicing the solid into horizontal cylinders.
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Example 4.6.7.
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The given solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = 1.
Note that the cross-sectional area of S in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis at any x ∈ [0, 1]
is a circle. If r(x) is the radius of the cross-section at x, then
√ √ √
2 x− x x
r(x) = = .
2 2
276 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Thus,
πx
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 = .
4
The volume is therefore given by
1 x=1
πx2
Z
πx π
V = dx = = cubic units .
0 4 8 x=0 8
2. Derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of radius r and height h.
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The solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = h. Again,
ut
an arbitrary cross-sectional area in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis is a circle. Let r(x) be
tit
r (x) r
=
UP
x h
rx
r (x) =
h
The area of a cross-section is given by
πr2 x2
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 = .
h2
We get the desired formula for the volume of a cone
h x=h
πr2 x2 πr2 x3 πr2 h
Z
V = dx = = .
0 h2 3h2 x=0 3
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 277
4.6.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
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2. The solid whose base is the triangular region with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). Cross-
at
sections perpendicular to the y-axis are squares.
m
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B. Find the volume of the solid generated when the indicated plane region is revolved about the
at
given axis of revolution.
M
π π
1. Region bounded by y = cos x, x = , x = and y = 0; about the x-axis.
of
4 2
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2. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1, y = 7 − x;
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tit
a. about y = −1 b. about x = −2
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3. Region bounded by x = y 2 , x = 0, y = 2;
UP
a. about y = −1 b. about x = 4
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −2 using the Washer
Method.
278 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = 10 using the Cylin-
drical Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 1.
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4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 279
Supplementary Exercises
B. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the given plane region about the indicated
axis.
a. x = 0 b. x = −4 c. y = −4
2. Region bounded by the curve y = 4x − x2 , the y-axis, and the lines y = 6 and x = 2
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a. x = 3 b. y = −1 c. x = −4
m
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3. Region bounded by the curve y = cos x, and the two coordinate axes
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M
a. y = 1 b. x = π c. x = −π
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a. y = 0 b. x = −3 c. x = −1
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a. y = 3 b. x = 5 c. x = −5
a. y = 0 b. y = 5 c. x = 10
a. x = 0 b. x = −5 c. y = 0
1
C. Let R be the region bounded by y = , x = 4 and y = 1.
x
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −1 using the Washer
Method.
280 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = −3 using the Cylindrical
Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 6.
1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about x = 4:
a. using the method of washers
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
2. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about y = −5:
a. using the method of washers
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
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4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 281
In particular, we need the third goal - that is, to state the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
- to be able to provide a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus. The
ics
proof will be given in this section.
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m
We begin with the following result, which compares the definite integrals of two regions in the same
he
closed interval [a, b]:
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Theorem 4.7.1. If the functions f and g are integrable on [a, b], and if f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x
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The geometric interpretation of the previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. If the
s
In
graph of y = f (x) lies above the graph of y = g (x) in the interval [a, b], then the net-signed area
UP
between the curve y = f (x) and [a, b] must be greater than the net-signed area between the curve
y = g (x) and [a, b].
282 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Theorem 4.7.2. Suppose f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. If m and M are the
absolute minimum function value and absolute maximum function value, respectively, of f in
[a, b], then
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).
a
The previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. By the Extreme Value Theorem, we
know that if f is continuous on [a, b], then f achieves an absolute maximum value M and absolute
minimum value m on [a, b]. Therefore, the area between y = f (x) and the interval [a, b] is greater
than the area of the rectangle with width (b − a) and height m, but less than the area of the
rectangle with the same width, but with height M .
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Theorem 4.7.3 (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals). If the function f is continuous
on the closed interval [a, b], then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
Z b
f (x) dx = f (c) (b − a).
a
Geometrically, this means that if a function f is nonnegative and continuous on a closed interval
[a, b], we can find a number c in [a, b] such that area of a rectangle with base equal to the length
of the interval [a, b] and height equal to the height of the curve at c is the same as the area under
the curve y = f (x) from a to b.
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 283
Example 4.7.4. Since f (x) = x2 is continuous on [0, 2], there exists c ∈ [0, 2] satisfying the
conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals. That is,
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at
Z 2
x2 dx = c2 (2 − 0)
m
0
√ he √
8 2 3 2 3
at
We get that 2c2 = so c can be ± . Note that − 6∈ [0, 2] but we should have c ∈ [0, 2], so
3
√ 3 3
M
2 3
we only have c = .
of
3
In the previous example, there is only one value of c in the interval satisfying the conclusion of the
e
ut
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals. In general, however, the value of c is not unique. For instance,
tit
in the previous example consider f (x) = x2 but now in the interval [−2, 2].
s
In
The value of f (c) in the Mean Value Theorem is called the average value of f in the interval [a, b].
It is a generalization of the arithmetic mean of a discrete and finite set of numbers. We thus have
UP
Definition 4.7.5. If the function f is integrable on [a, b], the average value of f on [a, b] is
Z b
f (x) dx
a
fave = .
b−a
Example 4.7.6. The average value of f (x) = x on [a, b], where a < b, is
Z b
x dx b2 a2
−
a
= 2 2 = b+a
b−a b−a 2
We recover the usual average of a and b. This should motivate the following statement.
Remark 4.7.7. The average value of a function f on [a, b] works in a similar way with taking the
usual average of a (finite) set of numbers.
284 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Solution.
From the given information, we have p(x) = 20; furthermore, from the relation R(x) = xp(x), we
get R(x) = 20x. Thus,
The average profit from selling 30 cans of beans, which is the average value of P (x) on [0, 30], is
30
30 x3
Z
P (x) dx + 5x2 − 375x
3
s
0 0
Pave = = = 75.
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30 − 0 30
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Thus, an average profit of P75 is gained from selling 30 cans of beans.
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We end this part with a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus. he
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Z x
d
Proof. Let f be continuous on [a, b]. We wish to show that f (t) dt = f (x).
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dx a
Z x
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F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
F 0 (x) = lim
s
∆x
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∆x→0
Z x+∆x Z x
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f (t) dt − f (t) dt
a a
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
Z x+∆x Z a
f (t) dt + f (t) dt
a x
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
Z a Z x+∆x
f (t) dt + f (t) dt
x a
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
Z x+∆x
f (t) dx
x
= lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
Since f is continuous, we apply the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals to f in the interval [x, x+∆x]
so that there exists c ∈ [x, x + ∆x] such that
Z x+∆x
f (t) dt = f (c) [(x + ∆x) − x] = f (c)∆x.
x
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 285
Note that c depends on x and ∆x. In order to compute this limit, we use the Squeeze Theorem.
Indeed, since c ∈ [x, x + ∆x], we have
x ≤ c ≤ x + ∆x.
Moreover,
lim x = x and lim (x + ∆x) = x.
∆x→0 ∆x→0
s
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F 0 (x) = f lim c = f (x).
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∆x→0
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286 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
4.7.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Do as indicated.
2
3
Z
1. Given that x dx = , find the average value of f (x) = x in the interval [−1, 2]. Find
−1 2
the value of x ∈ [−1, 2] at which the average value occurs.
Z 3
2. If f is continuous and f (x) dx = 4, show that f takes on the value of 2 at least once
1
on the interval.
3. Use Theorem 4.7 to prove the following inequalities:
2 3
1 1 1 4
Z Z
a. 2+4
dx ≤ c. ≤ 3+5
dx ≤ 4
0 x 2 2 −1 x
Z 2 Z 1+ln 9
πx x−1 64
b. −2 ≤ sin dx ≤ 2 d. 0 ≤ sinh3 dx ≤ ln 9
s
2 2 27
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0 1
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4. Find the value of b such that the average value of g(x) = 3x2 − 4x − 1 on [0, b] is 2.
m
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B. Use Theorem 4.7 to find a closed interval containing the value of the definite integral of the
at
following functions on the specified intervals:
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of
x2 + 5
1 1 7
In
C. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:
Supplementary Exercises
A. Use Theorem 4.7 to find a closed interval containing the value of the definite integral of the
following functions on the specified intervals:
B. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:
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10. f (x) = 4x − 2x on [−3, log2 5]
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2. f (x) = x2 − 3x − 9 on [−3, 3]
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3. f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 3 on [−2, 4] 11. f (x) = 2x + 2−x on [−4, −1]
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4. f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 3 on [−2, 0] 12. f (x) = 4x − 3 on [−2, 2]
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13. f (x) = sinh(x) on [0, 1]
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6. f (x) = √ on [1, 5]
24 + x2
15. f (x) = π tanh2 x on [0, ln 3]
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1
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1 sinh−1 (x)
s
9 + x2 x2 + 1
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1. A container containing 1,000L of some liquid loses half its contents every 8 hours. Find
the average volume of the liquid during a 24-hr period.
2. On a given day, the heat index (in ◦ C) was determined to be modeled by the equation
where x is the number of hours from 12nn. Calculate the average heat index on Planet E
from 2 am to 10pm. (4 pts)
288 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Reviewer
I. Evaluate the following integrals.
Z 2
√
sech x tanh x + 6 sinh x
Z
1. |4x − 1| dx 4. dx
0 cosh x
√ 3
e2
2sec x 1
Z Z
2. √ √ √ dx 5. p dx
x cot( x) cos( x) 1
e2 x 2 ln x − (ln x)2
3π
(x + 1)2 sin θ
Z Z
2
3. √ dx 6. dθ
1−x π cos2 θ + 2 cos θ + 2
Z ln(x)+1 p
II. Let F (x) = 1 + t4 dt.
1
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III. After ending their friendship, Al threw Vin’s gift vertically from an elevation of 27 meters
m
atop a building. Unbeknownst to Al, Vin is at the foot of the building and reaches out to
he
catch the gift so he could return it to Al. If Vin’s outstretched arms are 2 meters high and
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the gift reached its maximum height after 2 seconds, when will Vin catch the gift? (Use -10
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IV. Let R be the region bounded by x = log2 y, y = 4, and y = (x − 1)2 as shown below.
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y
tit
(2, 4)
s
(3, 4)
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R
(0, 1)
[1] H. Anton, I. Bivens, S. Davis, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, John Wiley and
Sons, 7th Edition, 2002.
[3] L. Leithold, College Algebra and Trigonometry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc.,
1989, reprinted-Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd, 2002.
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[4] L. Leithold, The Calculus 7, Harpercollins College Div., 7th edition, December 1995.
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[5] J. Stewart, The Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Brooks/Cole, 6th Edition, 2008.
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289
Institute of Mathematics, College of Science
University of the Philippines Diliman