Professional Documents
Culture Documents
together with Prussia, issued the Declaration of Bottom: The Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800)
Pillnitz, which threatened severe consequences
should anything happen to King Louis XVI and Date 20 April 1792 – 27 March 1802
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 1/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
In 1794, the situation improved dramatically for changes establishment of the French Republic
the French as huge victories at Fleurus against the France annexes Piedmont and all
Austrians and at the Black Mountain against the the lands west of the Rhine
Spanish signaled the start of a new stage in the Establishment of the pro-French
wars. By 1795, the French had captured the
Batavian, Helvetian, Italian, and
Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic. The
Ligurian Republics
French also knocked Spain and Prussia out of the
war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown Other territorial changes
general named Napoleon Bonaparte began his first Belligerents
campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year,
French armies under Napoleon decimated the Catholic and Kingdom of
Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian
Royal Armies
France (until 1792)[g]
peninsula, winning almost every battle and
French Republic
capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces Émigré Armies (from 1792)
marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for
peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio,
Holy Roman Batavia (1795–
ending the First Coalition against the Republic.
Empire[a]
1802)
Ottoman Empire
then reorganized the French army and launched a Other Italian states[f]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 2/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
1,169,000[1]
Casualties and losses
Contents
Austrians (1792–97)
French (1792–97)
1793
100,000 wounded[2]
150,000 captured[2]
1796 1796–97
45,000 killed,
1797 27,000 allied soldiers wounded or captured
1798 killed or wounded[2]
(10.000 killed)[2]
160,000 captured[2]
1791–1792
The key figure in initial foreign reaction to the revolution was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II,
brother of Louis XVI's Queen Marie Antoinette. Leopold had initially looked on the Revolution with
equanimity, but became more and more disturbed as the Revolution became more radical, although
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 3/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
he still hoped to avoid war. On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in
consultation with emigrant French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the
interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but
severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as
a non-committal gesture to placate the sentiments of French monarchists and nobles, it was seen in
France as a serious threat and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders.[6]
France eventually issued an ultimatum demanding that the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria under
Leopold II, who also was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, renounce any hostile alliances and
withdraw its troops from the French border.[7] The reply was evasive, and the French Assembly voted
for war on 20 April 1792 against Francis II (who succeeded Leopold II), after a long list of grievances
presented by foreign minister Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate
invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian
rule as they had earlier in 1790. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the army, and
the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. Following the declaration of war, French soldiers
deserted en masse and in one case murdered their general, Théobald Dillon.[8]
Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying Savoy and Nice, which
were parts of the Kingdom of Sardinia, while General Custine invaded Germany, occupying several
German towns along the Rhine and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in
the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at the Battle of
Jemappes on 6 November and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.[10]
1793
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 4/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
France suffered severe reverses at first. They were driven out of the Austrian Netherlands, and serious
revolts flared in the west and south of France. One of these, at Toulon, was the first serious taste of
action for an unknown young artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed to the siege of the
city and its harbor by planning an effective assault with well-placed artillery batteries raining
projectiles down on rebel positions. This performance helped make his reputation as a capable
tactician, and it fueled his meteoric rise to military and political power. Once the city was occupied, he
participated in pacifying the rebelling citizens of Toulon with the same artillery that he first used to
conquer the city.[13]
By the end of the year, large new armies had turned back foreign invaders, and the Reign of Terror, a
fierce policy of repression, had suppressed internal revolts. The French military was in the ascendant.
Lazare Carnot, a scientist and prominent member of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the
fourteen armies of the Republic, and was then nicknamed the Organizer of the Victory.[14]
1794
On the middle Rhine front in July, General Michaud's Army of the Rhine attempted two offensives in
July in the Vosges, the second of which was successful but not followed up, allowing for a Prussian
counter-attack in September. Otherwise this sector of the front was largely quiet over the course of the
year.
At sea, the French Atlantic Fleet succeeded in holding off a British attempt to interdict a vital cereal
convoy from the United States on the Glorious First of June, though at the cost of one quarter of its
strength. In the Caribbean, the British fleet landed in Martinique in February, taking the whole island
by 24 March and holding it until the Treaty of Amiens, and in Guadeloupe in April, where they
captured the island briefly but were driven out by Victor Hugues later in the year. In the
Mediterranean, following the British evacuation of Toulon, the Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli agreed
with admiral Samuel Hood to place Corsica under British protection in return for assistance capturing
French garrisons at Saint-Florent, Bastia, and Calvi, creating the short-lived Anglo-Corsican
Kingdom.
By the end of the year French armies had won victories on all fronts, and as the year closed they began
advancing into the Netherlands.
1795
Meanwhile, Britain's attempt to reinforce the rebels in the Vendée by landing troops at Quiberon
failed, and a conspiracy to overthrow the republican government from within ended when Napoleon
Bonaparte's garrison used cannon to fire grapeshot into the attacking mob (which led to the
establishment of the Directory).
On the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and
forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mainz by Jourdan. This was a
moderate setback to the position of the French.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 6/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
In northern Italy, victory at the Battle of Loano in November gave France access to the Italian
peninsula.
1796
After a short pause, Napoleon carried out a brilliant flanking manoeuvre, and crossed the Po at
Piacenza, nearly cutting the Austrian line of retreat. The Austrians escaped after the Battle of Fombio,
but had their rear-guard mauled at Lodi on 10 May, after which the French took Milan. Bonaparte
then advanced eastwards again, drove off the Austrians in the Battle of Borghetto and in June began
the Siege of Mantua. Mantua was the strongest Austrian base in Italy. Meanwhile, the Austrians
retreated north into the foothills of the Tyrol.
During July and August, Austria sent a fresh army into Italy under Dagobert Wurmser. Wurmser
attacked toward Mantua along the east side of Lake Garda, sending Peter Quasdanovich down the
west side in an effort to envelop Bonaparte. Bonaparte exploited the Austrian mistake of dividing their
forces to defeat them in detail, but in so doing, he abandoned the siege of Mantua, which held out for
another six months (Carl von Clauswitz mentioned in On War that the siege might have been able to
be kept up if Bonaparte had circumvallated the city[15]). Quasdanovich was overcome at Lonato on 3
August and Wurmser at Castiglione on 5 August. Wurmser retreated to the Tyrol, and Bonaparte
resumed the siege.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 7/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
In September, Bonaparte marched north against Trento in Tyrol, but Wurmser had already marched
toward Mantua by the Brenta valley, leaving Paul Davidovich's force to hold off the French. Bonaparte
overran the holding force at the Battle of Rovereto. Then he followed Wurmser down the Brenta
valley, to fall upon and defeat the Austrians at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September. Wurmser elected
to march for Mantua with a large portion of his surviving troops. The Austrians evaded Bonaparte's
attempts to intercept them but were driven into the city after a pitched battle on 15 September. This
left nearly 30,000 Austrians trapped in the fortress. This number rapidly diminished due to disease,
combat losses, and hunger.
The Austrians sent yet another army under József Alvinczi against Bonaparte in November. Again the
Austrians divided their effort, sending Davidovich's corps from the north while Alvinczi's main body
attacked from the east. At first they proved victorious over the French at Bassano, Calliano, and
Caldiero. But Bonaparte ultimately defeated Alvinczi in the Battle of Arcole southeast of Verona. The
French then turned on Davidovich in great strength and chased him into the Tyrol. Wurmser's only
sortie was late and ineffectual.
The rebellion in the Vendée was also finally crushed in 1796 by Hoche, but Hoche's attempt to land a
large invasion force in Ireland was unsuccessful.
1797
Archduke Charles of Austria hurried from the German front to defend Austria, but he was defeated at
the Tagliamento on 16 March, and Napoleon proceeded into Austria, occupying Klagenfurt and
preparing for a rendezvous with Joubert in front of Vienna. In Germany, the armies of Hoche and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 8/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
Moreau crossed the Rhine again in April after the previous year's failure. The victories of Napoleon
had frightened the Austrians into making peace, and they concluded the Peace of Leoben in April,
ending hostilities. However, his absence from Italy had allowed the outbreak of the revolt known as
the Veronese Easters on 17 April, which was put down eight days later.
Although Britain remained at war with France, this effectively ended the First Coalition. Austria later
signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France and recognizing the
French border at the Rhine. Austria and France also partitioned Venice between them.
1798
With only Britain left to fight and not enough of a navy to fight a
direct war, Napoleon conceived of an invasion of Egypt in 1798,
which satisfied his personal desire for glory and the Directory's
desire to have him far from Paris. The military objective of the
expedition is not entirely clear, but may have been to threaten
British dominance in India. In July 1798, French forces under
Napoleon annihilated an Egyptian
Napoleon sailed from Toulon to Alexandria, taking Malta on the army at the Battle of the Pyramids.
way, and landing in June. Marching to Cairo, he won a great The victory facilitated the conquest
victory at the Battle of the Pyramids; however, his fleet was sunk of Egypt and remains one of the
by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, stranding him in Egypt. most important battles of the era.
Napoleon spent the remainder of the year consolidating his
position in Egypt.[16]
The French were also under pressure in the Southern Netherlands and Luxembourg where the local
people revolted against conscription and anti-religious violence (Peasants' War). The French had
taken this territory in 1794, but it was officially theirs in 1797 due to a treaty with Austria. The French
forces easily handled the Peasants' rebellion in the Southern Netherlands, and were able to put down
the revolting forces in under 2 months.
The French in 1798 fought an undeclared war at sea against the United States, that was known
variously as the "Quasi-War", the "Half War" and the "Pirate Wars". It was resolved peaceably with
the Convention of 1800.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 9/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
Britain and Austria organized a new coalition against France in 1798, including for the first time the
Russian Empire, although no action occurred until 1799 except against the kingdom of the Two
Sicilies.
1799
The major part of the imperial army, under command of the Archduke Charles', had wintered
immediately east of the Lech, which Jourdan knew, because he had sent agents into Germany with
instructions to identify the location and strength of his enemy. This was less than 64 kilometres
(40 mi) distant; any passage over the Lech was facilitated by available bridges, both of permanent
construction and temporary pontoons and a traverse through friendly territory.[20]
In March 1799, the Army of the Danube engaged in two major battles, both in the southwestern
German theater. At the intensely fought Battle of Ostrach, 21–2 March 1799, the first battle of the War
of the Second Coalition, Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, defeated
Jourdan's Army of the Danube. The French suffered significant losses and were forced to retreat from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 10/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
the region, taking up new positions to the west at Meßkirch (Messkirch, Mößkirch), and then at
Stockach and Engen. At the second battle, in Stockach, on 27 March 1799, the Austrian army achieved
a decisive victory over the French forces, and again pushed the French army west. Jourdan instructed
his generals to take up positions in the Black Forest, and he himself established a base at Hornberg.
From there, General Jourdan relegated command of the army to his chief of staff, Jean Augustin
Ernouf, and traveled to Paris to ask for more and better troops and, ultimately, to request a medical
leave.[21]
Napoleon himself invaded Syria from Egypt, but after a failed siege of Acre retreated to Egypt,
repelling a British-Turkish invasion. Alerted to the political and military crisis in France, he returned,
leaving his army behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him
First Consul, the head of the French government.[22]
1800
In Italy, the Austrians under General Melas attacked first, and by the third week in April had
advanced to the Var, with Massena and half his army in Genoa besieged by land, by the Austrians and
under tight blockade by the Royal Navy. In response Berthier moved – not to the threatened frontier,
but to Geneva – and Massena was instructed to hold Genoa until 4 June. The Army of the Reserve was
joined by Napoleon, and in mid-May set out to cross the Alps to attack the Austrian rear. The bulk of
the army crossed by the Great St Bernard Pass, still under snow, and by 24 May 40,000 troops were
in the valley of the Po. Artillery was man-hauled over with great effort and ingenuity; however an
Austrian-held fort on the Italian side (although bypassed by infantry and cavalry) prevented most of
the artillery reaching the plains of Northern Italy until the start of June.
Once over the Alps, Napoleon did not proceed directly to the relief of Genoa. Instead, he advanced on
Milan, to improve his lines of communication (via the Simplon and St Gotthard passes) and to
threaten Melas's lines of communication with Mantua and Vienna, in the belief that this would cause
Melas to raise the siege of Genoa. He entered Milan on 2 June and by crossing to the South bank of
the Po completely cut Melas's communications. Taking up a strong defensive position at Stradella, he
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 11/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
However, Melas had not raised the siege of Genoa, and on 4 June,
Masséna had duly capitulated. Napoleon then faced the
possibility that, thanks to the British command of the
Mediterranean, far from falling back, the Austrians could instead
take Genoa as their new base and be supplied by sea. His
defensive posture would not prevent this; he had to find and
attack the Austrians before they could regroup. He therefore
advanced from Stradella towards Alessandria, where Melas was,
apparently doing nothing. Convinced that Melas was about to
retreat, Napoleon sent strong detachments to block Melas's
routes northwards to the Po, and southwards to Genoa. At this
point, Melas attacked, and for all the brilliance of the previous
campaign, Napoleon found himself at a significant disadvantage Napoleon Crossing the Alps by
in the consequent Battle of Marengo (14 June). Napoleon and the Jacques-Louis David. In one of the
French came under huge pressure in the early hours of the battle. famous paintings of Napoleon, the
Melas believed he had already won and turned over delivery of Consul and his army are depicted
the final blow to a subordinate. Suddenly, the prompt return of a crossing the Swiss Alps on their way
detached French force under Desaix and a vigorous French to Italy. The daring maneuver
counter-attack converted the battle into a decisive French victory. surprised the Austrians and forced a
decisive engagement at Marengo in
The Austrians lost half of their army, but Desaix was one of the
June 1800. Victory there allowed
French victims.
Napoleon to strengthen his political
position back in France.
Melas promptly entered into negotiations, which led to the
Austrians evacuating Northern Italy west of the Ticino and
suspending military operations in Italy. Napoleon returned to
Paris after the victory, leaving Brune to consolidate in Italy and begin a march toward Austria.
In the German theater, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine at the
beginning of 1800. Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. In addition to his
Austrian regulars, his force included 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from
the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz, and 7,000
militiamen from the County of Tyrol. Of these, 25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance
(Bodensee) to protect the Vorarlberg. Kray posted his main body of 95,000 soldiers in the L-shaped
angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of
Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France. Unwisely, Kray set up his main
magazine at Stockach, near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a day's march from French-
held Switzerland.[23]
General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a modestly-equipped army of 137,000
French troops. Of these, 108,000 troops were available for field operations while the other 29,000
watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a
plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, but Moreau
declined to follow it. Rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to
the north. A French column would distract Kray from Moreau's true intentions by crossing the Rhine
from the west. Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbe's corps to be detached to Italy after the initial
battles, but Moreau had other plans.[24] Through a series of complicated maneuvers in which he
flanked, double flanked, and reflanked Kray's army, Moreau's army lay on the eastern slope of the
Black Forest, while portions of Kray's army was still guarded the passes on the other side.[25] On 3
May 1800 Moreau and Kray fought battles at Engen and Stockach. The fighting near Engen resulted
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 12/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
A several month armistice followed, during which Kray was replaced by the Archduke John, with the
Austrian army retiring behind the river Inn. Austrian reluctance to accept negotiated terms caused the
French to end the armistice in mid-November, effective in two weeks. When the armistice ended,
John advanced over the Inn towards Munich. His army was defeated in small engagements at the
battles of Ampfing and Neuburg an der Donau, and decisively in the forests before the city at
Hohenlinden on 3 December. Moreau began a march on Vienna, and the Austrians soon sued for
peace, ending the war on the continent.
1801
The naval war also continued, with the United Kingdom First Battle of Algeciras
maintaining a blockade of France by sea. Non-combatants Russia,
Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden joined to protect neutral shipping
from British attacks, but were unsuccessful. British Admiral Horatio Nelson defied orders and
attacked the Danish fleet in harbor at the Battle of Copenhagen, destroying much of the fleet of one of
France's more steady allies during the period. An armistice prevented him from continuing into the
Baltic Sea to attack the Russian fleet at Reval (Tallinn). Meanwhile, off Gibraltar, the outnumbered
French squadron under Linois rebuffed a first British attack under Saumarez in the First Battle of
Algeciras, capturing a line-of-battle ship. In the Second Battle of Algeciras, four days later, the British
captured a French ship and sank two others, killing around 2000 French for the loss of 12 British.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 13/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
1802
In 1802, the British and French signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending the war. The peace held for less
than a year but still constituted the longest period of peace between the two countries during the
period 1793–1815. The treaty is generally considered to be the most appropriate point to mark the
transition between the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, although Napoleon was
not crowned emperor until 1804.
Influence
The French Revolution transformed nearly all aspects of
French and European life. The powerful sociopolitical forces
unleashed by a people seeking liberté, égalité, and fraternité
made certain that even warfare was not spared this upheaval.
18th-century armies – with their rigid protocols, static
operational strategy, unenthusiastic soldiers, and aristocratic
officer classes – underwent massive remodeling as the
French monarchy and nobility gave way to liberal assemblies
obsessed with external threats. The fundamental shifts in
warfare that occurred during the period have prompted
The armies of the Revolution at
scholars to identify the era as the beginning of "modern
Jemappes in 1792. With chaos internally
war".[28]
and enemies on the borders, the French
were in a period of uncertainty during the
In 1791 the Legislative Assembly passed the "Drill-Book"
early years of the Revolutionary Wars. By
legislation, implementing a series of infantry doctrines 1797, however, France dominated much
created by French theorists because of their defeat by the of Western Europe, conquering the
Prussians in the Seven Years' War.[29] The new developments Rhineland, the Netherlands, and the
hoped to exploit the intrinsic bravery of the French soldier, Italian peninsula while erecting a series
made even more powerful by the explosive nationalist forces of sister republics and puppet states
of the Revolution. The changes also placed a faith on the stretching from Spain to the German
ordinary soldier that would be completely unacceptable in heartland.
earlier times; French troops were expected to harass the
enemy and remain loyal enough to not desert, a benefit other
Ancien Régime armies did not have.
Following the declaration of war in 1792, an imposing array of enemies converging on French borders
prompted the government in Paris to adopt radical measures. 23 August 1793, would become a
historic day in military history; on that date the National Convention called a levée en masse, or mass
conscription, for the first time in human history. By summer of the following year, conscription made
some 500,000 men available for service and the French began to deal blows to their European
enemies.[30]
Armies during the Revolution became noticeably larger than their Holy Roman counterparts, and
combined with the new enthusiasm of the troops, the tactical and strategic opportunities became
profound. By 1797 the French had defeated the First Coalition, occupied the Low Countries, the west
bank of the Rhine, and Northern Italy, objectives which had defied the Valois and Bourbon dynasties
for centuries. Unsatisfied with the results, many European powers formed a Second Coalition, but by
1801 this too had been decisively beaten. Another key aspect of French success was the changes
wrought in the officer classes. Traditionally, European armies left major command positions to those
who could be trusted, namely, the aristocracy. The hectic nature of the French Revolution, however,
tore apart France's old army, meaning new men were required to become officers and commanders.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 14/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
In addition to opening a flood of tactical and strategic opportunities, the Revolutionary Wars also laid
the foundation for modern military theory. Later authors that wrote about "nations in arms" drew
inspiration from the French Revolution, in which dire circumstances seemingly mobilized the entire
French nation for war and incorporated nationalism into the fabric of military history.[31] Although
the reality of war in the France of 1795 would be different from that in the France of 1915, conceptions
and mentalities of war evolved significantly. Clausewitz correctly analyzed the Revolutionary and
Napoleonic eras to give posterity a thorough and complete theory of war that emphasized struggles
between nations occurring everywhere, from the battlefield to the legislative assemblies, and to the
very way that people think.[32] War now emerged as a vast panorama of physical and psychological
forces heading for victory or defeat.
See also
Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleonic Wars
Military history of France
Footnotes
Notes
a. The Austrian Netherlands and the Duchy of Milan were under direct Austrian rule. Many other
Italian states, as well as other Habsburg ruled states such as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, had
close ties with the Habsburgs.
b. Neutral following the Treaty of Basel in 1795.
c. United with Ireland in 1801 to become the United Kingdom.
d. Most forces fled rather than engaging the invading French army. Allied with France in 1795 as the
Batavian Republic following the Peace of Basel.
e. French invasion of Switzerland and Stecklikrieg
f. Virtually all of the Italian states, including the neutral Papal States and the Republic of Venice,
were conquered following Napoleon's invasion in 1796 and became French satellite states.
g. War against Austria was actually announced in the National Assembly by then King Louis XVI of
the French on 20 April 1792 while the kingdom still existed in name. (Constitutional) monarchy
was suspended on 10 August following the assault on the Tuileries, and abolished 21 September
1792
h. Started the Irish Rebellion of 1798 against British rule.
i. Arrived in France following the abolition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Third
Partition in 1795.
j. Re-entered the war as an ally of France after signing the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.
k. Officially neutral, although participated in many engagements.
References
1. Lynn, John A. "Recalculating French Army Growth during the Grand Siecle, 1610-1715." French
Historical Studies 18, no. 4 (1994): 881-906, p. 904. Only counting frontline army troops, not naval
personnel, militiamen, or reserves; the National Guard alone was supposed to provide a reserve
of 1,200,000 men in 1789.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 15/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
Further reading
Blaufarb, Rafe. The French army 1750–1820: Careers, talent, merit (Manchester University Press,
2021).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 16/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
Clodfelter, M. (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and
Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-
0786474707.
Atkinson, Charles Francis; Hannay, David McDowall (1911). "French Revolutionary Wars" (https://
en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/French_Revolutionary_Wars). In
Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
pp. 171–205.
Bell, David A. The first total war: Napoleon's Europe and the birth of warfare as we know it
(Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014).
Bertaud, Jean-Paul. The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of
Power (1988), a major French study
Black, Jeremy. British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783–93 (1994)
Blanning, T. C. W. The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1801. (1996) excerpt and text search (h
ttps://www.amazon.com/French-Revolutionary-Wars-1787-1802-Modern/dp/0340569115/)
Bryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 1793–1802 (1942); on Britain
Bryant, Arthur. Years of victory, 1802–1812 (1942); on Britain
Clausewitz, Carl von (2018). Napoleon's 1796 Italian Campaign. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray
and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2676-
2
Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in Italy
and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence,
Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-3025-7
Clausewitz, Carl von (2021). The Coalition Crumbles, Napoleon Returns: The 1799 Campaign in
Italy and Switzerland, Volume 2. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle.
Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-3034-9
Connelly, Owen. The wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 1792–1815 (2006)
Crawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 9: War and Peace in an Age of
Upheaval, 1793–1830 (1965), comprehensive global coverage by experts
Doughty, Robert, and Ira Gruber, eds. Warfare in the Western World: volume 1: Military operations
from 1600 to 1871 (1996) pp. 173–94
Dupuy, Trevor N. and Dupuy, R. Ernest. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History (2nd ed.
1970) pp. 678–93
Esdaile, Charles. The French Wars 1792–1815 (2002) 113pp excerpt and text search (https://ww
w.amazon.com/French-Wars-1792-1815-Lancaster-Pamphlets-ebook/dp/B000P2XH9Y/), ch 1
Forrest, Alan. Soldiers of the French Revolution (1989)
Forrest, Alan. "French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)" in Gordon Martel, ed. The Encyclopedia
of War (2012).
Forrest, Alan. Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society During the Revolution and
Empire (1989)
Forrest, Alan. Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire (2002)
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The French Revolutionary Wars (Essential Histories) (2013) excerpt
and text search (https://www.amazon.com/French-Revolutionary-Wars-Essential-Histories-ebook/
dp/B00DSLXXKM/)
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, ed. The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History (3 vol. 2006)
Gardiner, Robert. Fleet Battle And Blockade: The French Revolutionary War 1793–1797 (2006),
naval excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Fleet-Battle-Blockade-Revolutionary-179
3-1797/dp/1845600118/)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 17/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
Griffith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802 (1998) excerpt and text
search (https://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/);
military topics, but not a battle history
Knight, Roger. Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 1793–1815 (2013)
Lavery, Brian. Nelson's Navy, Revised and Updated: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–
1815 (2nd ed. 2012)
Lefebvre, Georges. The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799 (1964).
Lynn, John A. The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation And Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary
France, 1791–94 (1984)
Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon (2014), a major biography
Rodger, A.B. The War of the Second Coalition: 1798 to 1801, a strategic commentary (1964)
Ross, Steven T. Quest for Victory; French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (1973)
Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe (1969)
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1982). Napoleon's Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the
Austrian Army 1792–1814.
Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French
Revolution and Napoleon," Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1988) 18#4 pp. 771–93 in JSTOR
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824)
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (Oxford University Press,
1996); advanced diplomatic history; pp. 100–230
Schneid, Frederick C.: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (http://nbn-resolving.de/ur
n:nbn:de:0159-20101025334), European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History,
2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
Scott, Samuel F. From Yorktown to Valmy: The Transformation of the French Army in an Age of
Revolution (University Press of Colorado, 1998)
In French
Attar, Frank, La Révolution française déclare la guerre à l'Europe. ISBN 2-87027-448-3
Attar, Frank, Aux armes citoyens ! Naissance et fonctions du bellicisme révolutionnaire. ISBN 2-
0208-8891-2
External links
von Guttner, Darius. The French Revolution (https://www.academia.edu/9869783/The_French_Re
volution) [1] (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283319192_The_French_Revolution)
(2015).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 18/19
9/9/21, 12:22 AM French Revolutionary Wars - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars 19/19