Professional Documents
Culture Documents
clinical practice
Infectious Mononucleosis
Katherine Luzuriaga, M.D., and John L. Sullivan, M.D.
This Journal feature begins with a case vignette highlighting a common clinical problem.
Evidence supporting various strategies is then presented, followed by a review of formal guidelines,
when they exist. The article ends with the authors’ clinical recommendations.
A 16-year-old, previously healthy girl presents with a several-day history of fever, sore
throat, and malaise. She appears very tired and has a temperature of 39°C. A physical
examination is remarkable for diffuse pharyngeal erythema with moderately en-
larged tonsils and the presence of several enlarged, tender anterior and posterior cer-
vical lymph nodes. How should this case be managed?
Infectious mononucleosis is a clinical syndrome that is most commonly associated From the Department of Pediatrics and
with primary Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) infection. EBV is a gamma herpesvirus with Program in Molecular Medicine (K.L.,
J.L.S.) and the Office of the Vice Provost
a double-stranded DNA genome of about 172 kb.1 Natural EBV infection occurs in for Research (J.L.S.), University of Massa-
humans only and results in a lifelong infection. Although the overwhelming majority chusetts Medical School, Worcester. Ad-
of cases of infectious mononucleosis occur during primary EBV infection, infectious dress reprint requests to Dr. Luzuriaga at
the University of Massachusetts Medical
mononucleosis syndromes have also been reported in chronically infected persons School, 373 Plantation St., Suite 318,
after T-lymphocyte depletion with monoclonal antibodies against CD3.2 Worcester, MA 01605, or at katherine
Seroepidemiologic surveys indicate that over 95% of adults worldwide are in- .luzuriaga@umassmed.edu.
fected with EBV. In industrialized countries and higher socioeconomic groups, N Engl J Med 2010;362:1993-2000.
half the population has primary EBV infection between 1 and 5 years of age, with Copyright © 2010 Massachusetts Medical Society.
another large percentage becoming infected in the second decade. Primary EBV
infections are rare in the first year of life, presumably because of high maternal
seroprevalence and the protective effect of passively transferred maternal anti-
bodies. In developing countries and lower socioeconomic groups, most EBV infec-
An audio version
tions occur in early childhood. Primary infections in young children are often
of this article
manifested as nonspecific illnesses; typical symptoms of infectious mononucle- is available at
osis are uncommon.3 NEJM.org
Infectious mononucleosis most commonly affects those who have primary EBV
infection during or after the second decade of life. Because economic and sanitary
conditions have improved over past decades, EBV infection in early childhood has
become less common, and more children are susceptible as they reach adolescence.
For example, rates of seroprevalence among children 5 to 9 years of age in urban
Japan dropped from over 80% in 1990 to 59% from 1995 to 1999.4 The overall
incidence of infectious mononucleosis in the United States is about 500 cases per
100,000 persons per year, with the highest incidence in the age group of 15 to 24
years. A total of 30 to 75% of college freshmen are seronegative for EBV.5 Each
year, approximately 10 to 20% of susceptible persons become infected; infectious
mononucleosis develops in 30 to 50% of these persons. There are no obvious annual
cycles or seasonal changes in incidence, and there is no apparent predisposition
on the basis of sex.
Pathogenesis of Infectious Mononucleosis splenic rupture (in 0.5 to 1% of cases) and upper
EBV transmission occurs predominantly through airway obstruction (in 1% of cases) due to lym-
exposure to infected saliva, often as a result of phoid hyperplasia and mucosal edema.
kissing and less commonly by means of sexual Although primary EBV infection is rarely fatal,
transmission.6 The incubation period, from the fulminant infection may occur. EBV is a common
time of initial exposure to the onset of symptoms, infectious trigger of hemophagocytic lymphohisti-
is estimated at 30 to 50 days. Lytic infection of ton- ocytosis, which is clinically characterized by pro-
sillar crypt epithelial cells, B lymphocytes, or both longed fever, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomeg
results in viral reproduction and high levels of aly, rash, hepatic dysfunction, and cytopenia.21,22
salivary shedding,7,8 which decrease over the first In a recent Japanese nationwide survey,23 the inci-
year of infection but persist for life.9 Latently in- dence of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis was
fected memory B lymphocytes circulate systemi- estimated at 1 case in 800,000 persons; half of
cally and serve as lifelong viral reservoirs10,11; such all cases were associated with EBV. EBV-associat-
lymphocytes transiently express only a highly re- ed hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis was ob-
stricted set of EBV genes,12 and thus are largely served in infants, children, and adults, but 80% of
inapparent to immune-surveillance cells. Vigorous the cases occurred in children 1 to 14 years of age.
responses to EBV by CD4+ and CD8+ T lympho- Genetic defects in cellular cytotoxicity pathways
cytes are expanded in patients with infectious and aberrant regulation of inflammatory respons-
mononucleosis.13-15 Evidence suggests that these es have been identified in some infants and chil-
cellular immune responses limit primary EBV in- dren with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.21
fection and control chronic infection but may also Male patients with the X-linked lymphoprolif-
contribute to the symptoms of infectious mono erative syndrome appear normal until primary
nucleosis.8,16 EBV infection occurs, resulting in very severe or
fatal infectious mononucleosis. Hypogammaglob-
Natural History and Complications ulinemia, B-lymphocyte lymphoma, or both often
of Infectious Mononucleosis develop in survivors. The gene responsible for the
The majority of patients with infectious mononu- X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome (SH2D1A,
cleosis recover without apparent sequelae. Pub- the SH2 domain–containing 1A gene) has been
lished descriptions of the natural history of infec- identified; it encodes a 128–amino-acid protein,
tious mononucleosis vary, owing to differences in which plays an important role in signal-transduc-
study populations, criteria for the diagnosis of in- tion pathways in T lymphocytes.24 A mutation in
fectious mononucleosis, and methods used. Pro- SH2D1A prevents normal activation-induced cell
spective studies17-19 indicate that most clinical and death, resulting in uncontrolled proliferation of
laboratory findings resolve by 1 month after di- CD8+ T lymphocytes.25
agnosis, but cervical adenopathy and fatigue may
resolve more slowly. Though persistent fatigue (for S t r ategie s a nd E v idence
6 months or longer) with functional impairment
has been described, most patients resume usual Diagnosis
activities within 2 or 3 months.7,18 Sore throat and malaise or fatigue are the most
Infectious mononucleosis may be associated common presenting symptoms of infectious
with several acute complications.20 Hematologic mononucleosis.18,26 Pharyngitis (usually subacute
complications, observed in 25 to 50% of cases of in onset), fever, and lymphadenopathy constitute
infectious mononucleosis, are generally mild and the classic triad of presenting signs.27 Palatal pete-
include hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, chiae, periorbital edema, and rash are less com-
aplastic anemia, thrombotic thrombocytopenic mon. Splenomegaly is variably detected (in 15 to
purpura or the hemolytic–uremic syndrome, and 65% of cases) on examination but is present in
disseminated intravascular coagulation. Neuro- most cases on ultrasonography. Vaginal ulcers may
logic complications, which occur in 1 to 5% of be present in female patients.28
cases, include the Guillain–Barré syndrome, facial- Pharyngitis accounts for up to 6% of all outpa-
nerve palsy, meningoencephalitis, aseptic men- tient visits.29 Features that may be useful in dis-
ingitis, transverse myelitis, peripheral neuritis, tinguishing pharyngitis due to infectious mono-
cerebellitis, and optic neuritis. Other rare but po- nucleosis from pharyngitis from other causes are
tentially life-threatening complications include summarized in Table 1.
Associated Diagnosis
Pathogen Affected Age Group Season† and Distinguishing Feature‡
Respiratory viruses
Rhinovirus All Fall and spring Common cold
Coronavirus Children Winter Common cold
Influenza virus All Winter and spring Influenza
Adenovirus Children, adolescents, and Summer (outbreaks) Pharyngoconjunctival fever
young adults and winter
Parainfluenza virus Young children Any Fever, cold, croup
Other viruses
Epstein–Barr virus Adolescents and adults Any Infectious mononucleosis (80%)
Cytomegalovirus Adolescents and adults Any Heterophile antibody–negative mononucle-
osis (5 to 7%)
No or mild pharyngitis, anicteric hepatitis
Herpes simplex virus Children Any Gingivostomatitis
Coxsackievirus A Children Summer Herpangina, hand–foot–mouth disease
Human immunodeficiency virus Adolescents and adults Any Heterophile antibody–negative (<1%)
Mucocutaneous lesions, rash, diarrhea
Human herpesvirus 6 Adolescents and adults Any Heterophile antibody–negative (<10%)
Bacteria
Group A streptococci School-age children, adoles- Winter and early spring Scarlatiniform rash, no hepatosplenomegaly
cents, and young adults
Group C and group G streptococci School-age children, adoles- Winter and early spring Scarlatiniform rash
cents, and young adults
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum Adolescents and young adults Fall and winter Scarlatiniform rash
Corynebacterium diphtheriae Fall and winter Tonsillar, pseudomembrane myocarditis
Neisseria gonorrhoeae Adolescents and adults Any Tonsillitis
Mycoplasma pneumoniae School-age children, adoles- Any Pneumonia, bronchitis
cents, and young adults
Parasites
Toxoplasma gondii Adolescents and adults Any Heterophile antibody–negative (<3%)
Small, nontender anterior lymphadenopathy
Infection with group A streptococci is the most able to screen patients who have suspected infec-
common bacterial cause of pharyngitis, account- tious mononucleosis for group A streptococcal in-
ing for 15 to 30% of pharyngitis cases in children fection with the use of a throat swab and rapid
and 10% of cases in adults; its highest incidence antigen testing or culture. Although cases of con-
is among children 5 to 15 years of age. Distin- comitant group A streptococcal infection and in-
guishing infection with group A streptococci from fectious mononucleosis have been reported, their
infectious mononucleosis is important, since anti- true frequency is uncertain, since a positive rapid
microbial therapy is warranted in cases of phar- test or culture in a patient with infectious mono-
yngitis from group A streptococcal infection to nucleosis may indicate colonization. Morbilliform
prevent acute rheumatic fever, reduce suppurative rashes are common in patients with infectious
complications, and reduce infectivity; therapy may mononucleosis treated with amoxicillin or ampi-
also modestly alleviate clinical symptoms and cillin (occurring in up to 95% of patients with
shorten the clinical course.30,31 Thus, it is reason- such drug exposure) and other β-lactam antibi-
porting this approach are limited. A Cochrane re- closporine, and corticosteroids), with stem-cell
view 41 evaluated seven randomized, clinical trials transplantation for cases that are refractory to
that compared the effectiveness of corticosteroids medical treatment.47 The X-linked lymphoprolif-
with that of placebo (four trials) or other inter- erative syndrome can be diagnosed prenatally,
ventions (three trials) for control of symptoms. and early bone marrow transplantation is recom-
Most of the studies were small (24 to 94 subjects), mended to correct this disorder.
and the substantial variability among the diag-
nostic criteria, corticosteroid regimens, analytic EBV Infection and Autoimmune Disorders
methods, and outcome measures precluded direct or Cancer
comparisons. Two studies42,43 showed significant Associations have long been recognized between
early improvement (12 hours after administration) EBV infection and Burkitt’s lymphoma or nasopha-
of sore throat among corticosteroid recipients as ryngeal carcinoma. A history of symptomatic in-
compared with placebo recipients; however, the fectious mononucleosis has also been associated
effects were not sustained at a follow-up visit. One with an increase in the risk of multiple sclerosis
trial44 showed a shorter duration of fever in corti- by a factor of two48 and of EBV-positive Hodgkin’s
costeroid-treated patients than in placebo recipi- lymphoma by a factor of four.49,50 Further work
ents. Overall, the authors concluded that there is necessary to elucidate the role of EBV in these
was insufficient evidence of a clinically relevant disorders.
benefit to recommend corticosteroid treatment;
they also noted a lack of information regarding the Guidel ine s
potential adverse effects of treatment.41
Clinical experience suggests that corticoste To our knowledge, there are no professional-soci-
roids may be helpful in the management of more ety guidelines for the evaluation and management
severe complications of infectious mononucleosis, of infectious mononucleosis.
including upper-airway obstruction, hemolytic
anemia, and thrombocytopenia, although ran- C onclusions a nd
domized, clinical trials evaluating their efficacy R ec om mendat ions
are limited.
Infectious mononucleosis should be suspected in
Vaccines against EBV Infection adolescents and young adults (10 to 30 years of
Efforts are being made to develop an EBV vaccine. age), such as the patient described in the vignette,
In a recent phase 2, randomized, placebo-controlled who present with sore throat and malaise. Com-
trial of a glycoprotein-350–subunit vaccine, vac- mon signs include fever, lymphadenopathy, and
cine recipients were not protected against acquir- pharyngitis. Laboratory studies that support a di-
ing infection, but were less likely to have symptoms agnosis of EBV-associated infectious mononucle-
of infectious mononucleosis during primary EBV osis include absolute and atypical lymphocytosis
infection, as compared with patients who were not and a positive heterophile antibody test. In cases
vaccinated.45 in which the diagnosis is unclear, EBV-specific se-
rologic testing may be used to definitively diag-
Treatment of Lymphoproliferative Disorders nose primary EBV infection. Treatment is largely
Associated with Primary EBV Infection supportive; antiviral therapy is not recommended,
A detailed discussion of the management of the and corticosteroids are not indicated for uncom-
rare disorders hemophagocytic lymphohistiocy- plicated cases. The majority of patients with in-
tosis and the X-linked lymphoproliferative syn- fectious mononucleosis recover without sequelae
drome is beyond the scope of this article. Briefly, and return to normal activities within 2 months
in a retrospective study of 20 cases of EBV-asso- after the onset of symptoms. Since the majority
ciated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, treat- of the population is EBV-positive, special precau-
ment with etoposide was associated with reduced tions against transmission are not necessary.
mortality.46 Prospective trials are currently eval- Dr. Luzuriaga reports receiving consulting fees and grant
uating treatment strategies for acute hemophag support from Tibotec. No other potential conflicts of interest
ocytic lymphohistiocytosis (ClinicalTrials.gov relevant to this article are reported.
We thank Adair Seager, M.D., and Hongbo Yu, M.D., Ph.D., of
numbers, NCT00426101 and NCT00334672); these the Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Med-
trials involve chemotherapy (i.e., etoposide, cy- ical School, Worcester, for the photomicrograph in Figure 1.
References
1. Luzuriaga K, Sullivan JL. Epstein-Barr 14. Catalina MD, Sullivan JL, Bak KR, Lu- manifestations of Epstein-Barr virus in-
virus. In: Richman DD, Whitley RJ, Hayden zuriaga K. Differential evolution and sta- fections. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2009;11:449-
FG, eds. Clinical virology. 3rd ed. Wash- bility of epitope-specific CD8(+) T cell re- 56.
ington, DC: ASM Press, 2009:521-36. sponses in EBV infection. J Immunol 2001; 29. Alcaide ML, Bisno AL. Pharyngitis
2. Keymeulen B, Vandemeulebroucke E, 167:4450-7. [Erratum, J Immunol 2001; and epiglottitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am
Ziegler AG, et al. Insulin needs after CD3- 167:6045.] 2007;21:449-69. [Erratum, Infect Dis Clin
antibody therapy in new-onset type 1 dia- 15. Precopio ML, Sullivan JL, Willard C, North Am 2007;21:847-8.]
betes. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2598-608. Somasundaran M, Luzuriaga K. Differen- 30. Bisno AL, Gerber MA, Gwaltney JM Jr,
3. Grose C. The many faces of infectious tial kinetics and specificity of EBV-specif- Kaplan EL, Schwartz RH. Practice guide-
mononucleosis: the spectrum of Epstein- ic CD4+ and CD8+ T cells during primary lines for the diagnosis and management
Barr virus infection in children. Pediatr infection. J Immunol 2003;170:2590-8. of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Clin
Rev 1985;7:35-44. 16. Clute SC, Watkin LB, Cornberg M, et Infect Dis 2002;35:113-25.
4. Takeuchi K, Tanaka-Taya K, Kazu al. Cross-reactive influenza virus-specific 31. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Cooper RJ,
yama Y, et al. Prevalence of Epstein-Barr CD8+ T cells contribute to lymphoprolif- Hoffman JR. Principles of appropriate an-
virus in Japan: trends and future predic- eration in Epstein-Barr virus-associated tibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults.
tion. Pathol Int 2006;56:112-6. infectious mononucleosis. J Clin Invest Ann Intern Med 2001;134:506-8.
5. Crawford DH, Macsween KF, Higgins 2005;115:3602-12. 32. Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
CD, et al. A cohort study among university 17. Buchwald DS, Rea TD, Katon WJ, vention, National Center for Infectious
students: identification of risk factors for Russo JE, Ashley RL. Acute infectious Diseases. Epstein-Barr virus and infectious
Epstein-Barr virus seroconversion and in- mononucleosis: characteristics of patients mononucleosis. (Accessed May 3, 2010, at
fectious mononucleosis. Clin Infect Dis who report failure to recover. Am J Med http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/ebv
2006;43:276-82. 2000;109:531-7. .htm.)
6. Thorley-Lawson DA. Epstein-Barr vi- 18. Macsween KF, Higgins CD, McAulay 33. Vidrih JA, Walensky RP, Sax PE, Freed-
rus: exploiting the immune system. Nat KA, et al. Infectious mononucleosis in berg KA. Positive Epstein-Barr virus het-
Rev Immunol 2001;1:75-82. university students in the United Kingdom: erophile antibody tests in patients with
7. Balfour HH Jr, Holman CJ, Hokanson evaluation of the clinical features and con- primary human immunodeficiency virus
KM, et al. A prospective clinical study of sequences of the disease. Clin Infect Dis infection. Am J Med 2001;111:192-4.
Epstein-Barr virus and host interactions 2010;50:699-706. 34. Walensky RP, Rosenberg ES, Ferraro
during acute infectious mononucleosis. 19. Rea TD, Russo JE, Katon W, Ashley MJ, Losina E, Walker BD, Freedberg KA.
J Infect Dis 2005;192:1505-12. RL, Buchwald DS. Prospective study of the Investigation of primary human immuno-
8. Hadinoto V, Shapiro M, Greenough natural history of infectious mononucleo- deficiency virus infection in patients who
TC, Sullivan JL, Luzuriaga K, Thorley- sis caused by Epstein-Barr virus. J Am test positive for heterophile antibody. Clin
Lawson DA. On the dynamics of acute Board Fam Pract 2001;14:234-42. Infect Dis 2001;33:570-2.
EBV infection and the pathogenesis of in- 20. Jenson HB. Acute complications of 35. Case Records of the Massachusetts
fectious mononucleosis. Blood 2008;111: Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucle- General Hospital (Case 11-2009). N Engl J
1420-7. osis. Curr Opin Pediatr 2000;12:263-8. Med 2009;360:1540-8.
9. Hadinoto V, Shapiro M, Sun CC, Thor- 21. Filipovich AH. Hemophagocytic lym- 36. Cohen JI. Clinical aspects of Epstein-
ley-Lawson DA. The dynamics of EBV phohistiocytosis (HLH) and related disor- Barr virus infection. In: Robertson ES, ed.
shedding implicate a central role for epi- ders. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Epstein-Barr virus. Norfolk, England: Cais-
thelial cells in amplifying viral output. Program 2009:127-31. ter Academic Press, 2005:35-54.
PLoS Pathog 2009;5(7):e1000496. 22. Maakaroun NR, Moanna A, Jacob JT, 37. Putukian M, O’Connor FG, Stricker P,
10. Hochberg D, Souza T, Catalina M, Albrecht H. Viral infections associated with et al. Mononucleosis and athletic partici-
Sullivan JL, Luzuriaga K, Thorley-Lawson haemophagocytic syndrome. Rev Med Vi- pation: an evidence-based subject review.
DA. Acute infection with Epstein-Barr vi- rol 2010;20:93-105. Clin J Sport Med 2008;18:309-15.
rus targets and overwhelms the peripheral 23. Ishii E, Ohga S, Imashuku S, et al. Na- 38. Jenson HB. Virologic diagnosis, viral
memory B-cell compartment with resting, tionwide survey of hemophagocytic lym- monitoring, and treatment of Epstein-Barr
latently infected cells. J Virol 2004;78: phohistiocytosis in Japan. Int J Hematol virus infectious mononucleosis. Curr In-
5194-204. 2007;86:58-65. fect Dis Rep 2004;6:200-7.
11. Souza TA, Stollar BD, Sullivan JL, Lu- 24. Sayos J, Wu C, Morra M, et al. The 39. Balfour HH Jr, Hokanson KM, Schach
zuriaga K, Thorley-Lawson DA. Peripheral X-linked lymphoproliferative-disease gene erer RM, et al. A virologic pilot study of
B cells latently infected with Epstein-Barr product SAP regulates signals induced valacyclovir in infectious mononucleosis.
virus display molecular hallmarks of clas- through the co-receptor SLAM. Nature J Clin Virol 2007;39:16-21.
sical antigen-selected memory B cells. Proc 1998;395:462-9. 40. Hoshino Y, Katano H, Zou P, et al.
Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:18093-8. 25. Nagy N, Klein E. Deficiency of the Long-term administration of valacyclovir
12. Hochberg D, Middeldorp JM, Catalina proapoptotic SAP function in X-linked reduces the number of Epstein-Barr virus
M, Sullivan JL, Luzuriaga K, Thorley-Law- lymphoproliferative disease aggravates Ep- (EBV)-infected B cells but not the number
son DA. Demonstration of the Burkitt’s stein-Barr virus (EBV) induced mononu- of EBV DNA copies per B cell in healthy
lymphoma Epstein-Barr virus phenotype cleosis and promotes lymphoma develop- volunteers. J Virol 2009;83:11857-61.
in dividing latently infected memory cells ment. Immunol Lett 2010;130:13-8. 41. Candy B, Hotopf M. Steroids for symp-
in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 26. Ebell MH. Epstein-Barr virus infec- tom control in infectious mononucleosis.
101:239-44. tious mononucleosis. Am Fam Physician Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;3:
13. Callan MF, Tan L, Annels N, et al. Di- 2004;70:1279-87. CD004402.
rect visualization of antigen-specific CD8+ 27. Hurt C, Tammaro D. Diagnostic eval- 42. Klein EM, Cochran JF, Buck RL. The
T cells during the primary immune re- uation of mononucleosis-like illnesses. Am effects of short-term corticosteroid thera-
sponse to Epstein-Barr virus in vivo. J Exp J Med 2007;120(10):911.e1-911.e8. py on the symptoms of infectious mono-
Med 1998;187:1395-402. 28. Leigh R, Nyirjesy P. Genitourinary nucleosis pharyngotonsillitis: a double-
blind study. J Am Coll Health Assoc 1969; vaccine for infectious mononucleosis: histiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007;
17:446-52. a phase 2, randomized, double-blind, pla- 48:124-31.
43. Roy M, Bailey B, Amre DK, Girodias cebo-controlled trial to evaluate the safe- 48. Thacker EL, Mirzaei F, Ascherio A. In-
JB, Bussières JF, Gaudreault P. Dexameth ty, immunogenicity, and efficacy of an Ep- fectious mononucleosis and risk for mul-
asone for the treatment of sore throat in stein-Barr virus vaccine in healthy young tiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. Ann Neu-
children with suspected infectious mono- adults. J Infect Dis 2007;196:1749-53. rol 2006;59:499-503.
nucleosis: a randomized, double-blind, 46. Imashuku S, Kuriyama K, Sakai R, et 49. Hjalgrim H, Askling J, Rostgaard K,
placebo-controlled, clinical trial. Arch Pe- al. Treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-asso- et al. Characteristics of Hodgkin’s lym-
diatr Adolesc Med 2004;158:250-4. ciated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocy- phoma after infectious mononucleosis.
44. Bolden KJ. Corticosteroids in the tosis (EBV-HLH) in young adults: a report N Engl J Med 2003;349:1324-32.
treatment of infectious mononucleosis: from the HLH study center. Med Pediatr 50. Lünemann JD, Münz C. EBV in MS:
an assessment using a double blind trial. Oncol 2003;41:103-9. guilty by association? Trends Immunol
J R Coll Gen Pract 1972;22:87-95. 47. Henter JI, Horne A, Aricó M, et al. 2009;30:243-8.
45. Sokal EM, Hoppenbrouwers K, Van- HLH-2004: diagnostic and therapeutic Copyright © 2010 Massachusetts Medical Society.
dermeulen C, et al. Recombinant gp350 guidelines for hemophagocytic lympho-