Proof of the Babylonian Middle Chronology

and related chronological interconnections

William Austin, Ph.D.
Mar. 15, 2017

Abstract: A recent tree-ring and radiocarbon analysis has come out in favor of the
Babylonian Middle Chronology.1 This paper supports that conclusion with a proof that
Babylonian King List A2 and the Synchronistic Chronicle3 place the fall of Babylon
within the 1620-1593 BC reign of the Sealand king Gulkishar. The exact reign of
Gulkishar was discovered while I was working on a different problem, a search for a
Mesopotamian culture that counted time in seasons rather than years. This appeared to be
how age is recorded in the biblical narrative from Abraham through Moses.4 The same
method of counting time explains the previously enigmatic 368-year duration of the First
Sealand Dynasty on Babylonian King List A. The correct translation is undoubtedly 368
seasons or 184 years. Then all Sealand kings synchronize to Assyria’s kings via the
Synchronistic Chronicle. A cascade of chronological synchronizations follow, confirming
the Assyrian Low Chronology, the Babylonian Middle Chronology, and several key dates
in the Egyptian chronology.5 Most importantly, previously unknown interconnections
between Mesopotamian, Egyptian and early Hebrew history are brought to light.

I. The Chronology of the First Sealand Dynasty

Though a definitive proof of the Babylonian Middle Chronology is presented in this
paper, that was an ancillary discovery during a search for evidence of a Mesopotamian
culture that counted time in seasons rather than years. This unusual practice has been
found. It is the method of recording the previously enigmatic chronologies of the First
Sealand Dynasty and the Kassite Dynasty on Babylonian King List A. The same method
of recording time is used in the biblical narrative of Abraham through Moses. Lifetimes
reported for this era seem impossibly long, but they are not. Rather, the Hebrew method
of counting time was misunderstood. With their lifetimes corrected, non-canonical
Hebrew histories connect the chronology of Abraham through Moses to both Assyrian
kings and Egyptian pharaohs. Neither the minimalist nor fundamentalist view of biblical
historicity is supported. Therefore I’ll begin with something less controversial, a
corrected chronology of the First Sealand Dynasty.
The Sealand Dynasty ruled land south of Babylon bordering the Persian Gulf. The
names and reigns of eleven Sealand kings are recorded on Babylonian King List A. Other
archaeological finds synchronize Sealand kings to external history: The first Sealand
king, Iluma-ilu, is also attested in the Chronicle of Early Kings.6 He was a contemporary
of Babylonian kings Samsu-iluna and Abi-eshu, the son and grandson of Hammurabi.
Thus Iluma-ilu’s reign should span the accession of Abi-eshu (1712 BC, Middle

1
Sturt W. Manning, Carol B. Griggs et al, July 13, 2016. Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-
Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millenium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology.
PloS ONE 11(7) e0157144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157144
2
British Museum BM33332. English translations in ANET (1955: 272) and Rogers (1912: 201).
3
Istanbul Assur 14616c. English translation in ANET (1955: 271-72).
4
A translation error could arise if a word later translated as ‘year’ was at one time ambiguous, and
meant ‘season’ to early Hebrews and Sealand kings.
5
Canaanite campaign of Sety I in 1293 BC; Canaanite campaign of Merneptah in 1209 BC;
accession of Siptah in 1194 BC; chancellor Bay killed in 1180 BC (year 5 of Ramesses III),
reign of Ramesses X, 1107-1104 BC. All confirm the conventional Egyptian chronology, now
anchored to the exact Assyrian chronology.
6
British Museum items BM 26472 and BM 96152. English translation in Grayson (2000: 152-56).
Chronology). The sixth Sealand king, Gulkishar, is attested as king of Babylon in two
cases, on a boundary stone and in a glass-making text (Saggs, 2000: 114). This requires
that Gulkishar ruled at least briefly in Babylon after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty in
1595 BC. The last Sealand king, Ea-gamil, is listed on the Synchronistic Chronicle as a
contemporary of Assyrian king Erishu III (1536-1524, minimum), as is the first Kassite
Dynasty king, Gandash.
When J. A. Brinkman published “Mesopotamian Chronology of the Historical Era,”
he could not simultaneously satisfy all of the above constraints. Commenting on the
reigns recorded on Babylonian King List A, Brinkman stated, “it is possible that some of
these numbers, especially the longer reigns, should be reduced.”7
Table 1 shows that Brinkman was wrong in this case. The numbers recorded for the
Sealand kings are correct, but the reigns are recorded in seasons, two in every year.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
seasons years reign Sealand king Assyrian king years reign*
60 30 /1717-1687/ Iluma-ilu
55 271 /2 /1687-1660 Itti-ili-nibi
36 18 1659-1642 Damki-ilishu Adasi [et. al.] 6 1644-1639
15 7 1 /2 1641-1634/ Ishkibal Belu-bani 10 1638-1629
27 131 /2 /1634-1621 Shushshi Lubaja 17 1628-1612
55 271 /2 1620-1593/ Gulkishar Sharma-Adad (I) 12 1611-1600
- - [briefly] […]-en[…] Ip?-tar-Sin 12 1599-1588
50 25 /1593-1568/ Peshgal-daramash Bazaja 28 1587-1560
28 14 /1568-1554/ A-a-dara-kalama Lullaja 6 1559-1554
26 13 /1554-1541/ Akur-ul-anna Kidin-Ninua 14 1553-1540
7 3 1 /2 /1541-1538 Melam-kurkura Sharma-Adad (II) 3 1539-1537
9 41 /2 1537-1533/ Ea-gamil Erishu (III) 13 1536-1524
368 184 11 [or 12] kings *extended Assyrian Low Chronology
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Table 1: absolute chronology of the Sealand Dynasty and contemporary Assyrian kings.

In table 1, the column on the far left is the numerical reign recorded on Babylonian
King List A.8 This is the number of seasons. The next column is converted to years. The
third column is the absolute reign, counted up through the Kassite Dynasty from the end
of that dynasty in 1155 BC. When applicable, a backslash is used to denote a year split
between two kings.
On the Synchronistic Chronicle, nine Sealand kings from King List A are paired with
contemporary Assyrian kings. These nine pairs are shown line by line in table 1. The
requisite synchronizations are satisfied in every case. An illegible Sealand king between
Gulkishar and Peshgal-daramash appears only on the Synchronistic Chronicle. This king
may have reigned only briefly, such that his reign was zero in the king list total. Zero
would be the appropriate integer for a king whose reign began and ended within a season
already credited to the previous king.
On the right side of the table, Assyrian reigns are assigned by extension of the
Assyrian Low Chronology, in which the first year of Ashur-uballit I is 1353 BC (Kuhrt,
1995: 351). The reigns of two kings between Ashur-uballit I and Erishu III are left blank
on the Assyrian King List (Glassner, 2004: 141). This impasse has been overcome by

7
See endnote 5 in Brinkman (1977: 346).
8
Reigns in table 1 are from the translation of Rogers (1912: 201). ANET (1955:272) has the same
total, 368, with Itti-ili-nibi = 56 and Shushshi.= 26.

2
assuming that a deliberate blank space denotes zero. That is an alternative to not listing
the king at all. If this assumption is wrong, Erishu III can only go higher, but that is
unlikely because even a two-year rise on the Assyrian side would break the requisite
synchronization of Melam-kurkurra to Sharma-Adad II.
I’ve shown the solution first, but it is important to explain the problems that have
been solved. Babylonian King List A begins with a damaged record of the Amorite
(First) Dynasty of Babylon, followed by a complete record of the First Sealand Dynasty,
with both the individual reigns of all 11 kings and a total, 368, which agrees with the
individual reigns. The Sealand Dynasty list is followed by a damaged list of the Kassite
Dynasty, comprised of 36 kings whose reigns totaled either 756 or 576.9 The total can’t
be verified because the reigns of 19 kings are lost.
The Chronicle of Early Kings records that Babylonian kings Samsu-iluna and Abi-
eshu both sought to defeat the first Sealand king Iluma-ilu, but did not succeed. The
Synchronistic Chronicle places Assyrian king Erishu III contemporary to both the last
Sealand king, Ea-gamil, and the first Kassite king, Gandash. This was problematic
because the end of the Kassite Dynasty is confidently 1155 BC (Brinkman, 1977: 338).
The combined total for the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties was thought to be 368 + 576
years. If counted end-to-end, Iluma-ilu would have come to the throne three to four
centuries before his reported contemporaries Samsu-iluna and Abi-Eshu. To avoid this
contradiction, the assumption had been that the Kassite Dynasty began before the Sealand
Dynasty ended,10 but this ignored the Synchronistic Chronicle.
The far better solution, which preserves the accuracy of the Synchronistic Chronicle,
is to presume that both the Sealand Dynasty and the Kassite Dynasty counted time in
seasons. Then the higher total for the Kassite Dynasty, 756 seasons, spans 378 years,
1533-1155. The Sealand Dynasty total, 368 seasons, spans 184 years, 1717-1533. In this
hypothesis, the chronology of the Sealand Dynasty does not float. It rests on top of the
Kassite Dynasty, with both fixed to the year. The Synchronistic Chronicle’s critical
pairing of Melam-kurkura to Sharma-Adad II then rules out the Assyrian High
Chronology, leaving only the Low Chronology (12 years lower). With the Assyrian Low
Chronology, nine of nine Sealand kings are paired with their Assyrian contemporaries.
This leaves little room for doubt that the Synchronistic Chronicle did accurately pair the
Sealand and Assyrian kings. By not ignoring that record, the absolute chronology of the
Sealand Dynasty has been solved.
The 60-season reign of Iluma-ilu is then 30 years, 1717-1687, and must overlap the
reigns of Samsu-iluna and Abi-eshu as required by the Chronicle of Early Kings. This
rules out all but the Babylonian Middle Chronology (accession of Abi-eshu in 1712 BC).
The Fall of Babylon in the Middle Chronology is 1595 BC. Gulkishar’s attestations as
king of Babylon are possible in the last three years of his reign, 1595-1593 BC. This is
one of two critical synchronizations. The other is Sealand king Melam-kurkura with
Assyrian king Sharma-Adad II. They were contemporary only in 1539 and 1538 BC.
There is very little margin for error, yet no errors are found.

9
Rogers (1912: 201) has 756. ANET (1955: 272) has 576. The difference is a 12 verses a 9 in the
sexagesimal multiplier of 60 position.
10
For example, Kuhrt (2004: 334-38) gives 1729-1155 as the duration of the Kassite Dynasty, but
presumes that Kassite kings did not rule in Babylon until c.1530, and the Sealand Dynasty wasn’t
defeated until the 15th century. This contradicts the synchronization of 16th century Assyrian
king Erishu III with both Ea-gamil (the last Sealand king) and Gandash (the first Kassite king).

3
 In short, one stunningly simple assumption solves multiple problems. The absolute
Sealand Chronology precisely bridges the Babylonian Middle Chronology to the
Assyrian Low Chronology. The Assyrian High Chronology (12 years higher) is ruled out,
as is the Babylonian High Chronology (56 years higher) and the Babylonian Low
Chronology (46 years lower). In another approach to the same problem, a recent
radiocarbon and tree-ring analysis has ruled out all but the Babylonian Middle
Chronology and one alternative, the Middle-Low Chronology, which is shifted just 8
years lower.11 Even this small shift is ruled out by the Sealand Chronology. Gulkishar
could not be attested as king in Babylon if the fall of Babylon was 8 years lower.

II. The chronology of Abraham through Moses

Part I of this paper has established that a culture in Mesopotamia counted time in
seasons. This tradition has been traced to the Kassites of Babylonia. The Kassites can
likewise be traced, via this unusual tradition, to the Sealand Dynasty of the early second
millennium BC. Now consider the patriarchs of the Hebrew Bible. I had long suspected
that the incredible ages reported for the Hebrew patriarchs in Genesis and Exodus were in
some way mistranslated. Methuselah would not have been remarkably old if his lifetime
was 969 lunar months (78 1/4 years). But lunar months did not explain the reported age of
Abraham’s wife Sarah, who gave birth to Isaac at 90 (Genesis 17:17). Now, both the
proper translation and the ethnicity of the Hebrews has come to light. Sarah could have
given birth at 45 years old, if she was a Kassite aged 90 seasons. That’s still very old to
have a child. But that is consistent with the story. Sarah’s late pregnancy came as a
surprise to both Sarah and Abraham. At 45 years, she was just at the age where giving
birth is highly unlikely, but not impossible.
Having established that the Hebrews were Kassites who counted time in seasons, it
should not be a surprise that previous attempts to align the Hebrew patriarchs to external
history have met with much skepticism among archaeologists and Egyptologists. Rightly
so, because there was no possibility of a coherent match to external history without
correcting the impossibly long lifetimes reported for the patriarchs.
In contrast, table 2 is a successful synchronization of the biblical narrative from
Abraham through Moses to external history. Notable events in the lives of the patriarchs
consistently and precisely synchronize to Egyptian history. I do not claim that the
biographies of Abraham through Moses are wholly accurate. I do propose that the ages
recorded in these biographies are accurate, because that can be tested.
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Abraham 871 /2 years 1361-1273 First covenant in reign of Horemheb
Isaac 90 years 1311-1221 Contemporary of Sety I
Jacob 731 /2 years 1281-1207 Moved to Rameses in reign of Ramesses II
Joseph 55 years 1235-1180 Was “father to pharaoh” in reign of Siptah
generation of Kohath period of judges in Canaan
generation of Amram period of judges in Canaan
Moses 60 years 1144-1084 Fled to Midian in reign of Ramesses IX
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Table 2: absolute chronology of Abraham through Moses.

A floating chronology can be constructed and securely anchored to identifiable kings

of Assyria and Egypt. These kings are not named in the Bible, but can be identified
largely through non-biblical records. Several ancient histories of the patriarchs include

11
Manning, et al. (footnote 1). http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157144

4
references to contemporary events in the outside world. The chronology of table 2 is
neither tenuous nor speculative, as will be demonstrated below.
The chronology of table 2 cannot be accurate unless the Hebrews kept written
records, as any oral history will inevitably degrade with each retelling. Prior to the
Christian era there were several variants of the Book of Genesis in use. The Book of
Jubilees,12 or Lesser Genesis, is one. It is reported in Jubilees 12:27 that Abraham took
“the books of his fathers” to Canaan. Jubilees 45:16 reports that when Jacob died he gave
“all his books and the books of his fathers to Levi his son that he might preserve them.” If
these reports are true, one must abandon the notion of simple shepherds passing down an
increasingly inaccurate oral history that became the Book of Genesis. Abraham and his
ancestors kept written records.
Further evidence that the Hebrew patriarchs were capable of keeping accurate
chronological records is found in Preparation for the Gospel, by Eusebius (PfG). In book
9, Eusebius quotes three separate reports that Abraham taught astronomy or astrology to
those he met after settling in Canaan. Astronomy, predicting the motion of the celestial
bodies, requires an accurate method of recording long intervals of time.
a) Nicolaus of Damascus reported that Abraham taught arithmetic and “the facts of
astronomy” to the most learned of the Egyptians (PfG 9.16.8).
b) Eupolemus reported that Abraham taught “the changes of the sun and the moon” to
the Phoenicians, and he later “introduced astronomy” to the Egyptian priests at
Heliopolis (PfG 9.17.4).
c) Artapanus reported that Abraham taught “astrology” to the king of Egypt (PfG
9.18.1). The Book of Jubilees describes Abraham doing just that – trying to predict
the future by reading the stars. “Abram sat up throughout the night on the new
moon… in order to see the what would be the character of the year with regard to
the rains” (Jubilees 12:16).
The above claims about Abraham also give a rough estimate of when Abraham lived.
Since he taught astronomy to the Phoenicians, one can place Abraham’s arrival in Canaan
after Phoenicia became a political entity in c.1500 BC. Since Abraham taught astrology to
the king of Egypt, one should place Abraham’s arrival in Canaan not later than the first
pharaoh known to be familiar with constellations. That pharaoh is Sety I (1294-1279),
who decorated the ceiling of his tomb with an elaborate star chart.13 Thus Abraham’s
arrival in Canaan should fall within the approximate limits 1500 -1300 BC.
A refinement of the above estimate is found in a reference to Assyria during the life
of Abraham. Genesis 14 describes four kings joining forces in an attack on Sodom.
Among them are king Amraphel of Shinar (Babylonia) and king Chedorlaomer of Elam.
Josephus explains the alliance. All four kings were part of the Assyrian army. “At this
time, when the Assyrians had the dominion over Asia, the people of Sodom were in a
flourishing condition… and then the army of the Assyrians came upon them, under their
commanders Amraphel, Arioch, Chedorlaomer, and Tidal” (Antiquities of the Jews
1.9.1). The kings of Elam and Babylonia were both vassals of Assyria. There are few
times when this was possible. Within the interval 1500-1300 BC, Assyria was not a major

12
Book of Jubilees quotes are from the 1913 English translation by R. H. Charles in Apoocrypha
and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/index.htm
13
Marshall Clagett, 1989. Ancient Egyptian Science, p. 234

5
power until the reign of Ashur-uballit I (1353-1318), who is considered the founding king
of the Middle Assyrian Empire.14
Another connection to external history is found in Genesis 47:11, which states that
upon his arrival in Egypt, Abraham’s grandson Jacob settled in the “district of Rameses.”
Though some see a conflict with the construction of Rameses in Exodus 1:11, the
simplest explanation for this phrase is that Rameses was (already) Pi-Ramesse, the 19th
Dynasty capitol founded by Ramesses II, son of Sety I. This further limits when Abraham
could have lived. In addition to the constraint that Abraham must teach astronomy in
Egypt not later than Sety I, Jacob’s arrival in Egypt must be on the other side Sety I, not
earlier than Ramesses II. Caught in the middle, Abraham’s son Isaac should be roughly
contemporary to Sety I.
If one looks beyond the Christian canon, determining when Isaac lived is surprisingly
easy. With little room to wiggle, the synchronization of Isaac to Sety I is now obvious in
Chronography, a world history compiled by Gregory Bar Hebraeus.15 Citing records
from the library of Maraghah, Hebraeus reports that two kings ascended the throne in the
days of Isaac: Setis in Egypt, and Aris in Assyria. “And in the days of Isaac the fifth king
of the Assyrians rose up – Aris; [he reigned] thirty years. And the fifteenth king of the
Egyptians, Setis; [he reigned] nineteen years” (Chronography 1:43).
Sety I is the only sensible match to Setis, not just because of the similar name, but
even more convincingly because pharaoh Sety I was the 15th king of the Egyptian New
Kingdom,16 and king Setis was the 15th king of the Egyptians. The above quote, if
correct, is sufficient to place Isaac contemporary to Sety I, anchoring the floating Hebrew
chronology to external history. I say “if correct” to allow for error in the record by
Hebraeus. But the possibility of error dwindles as one synchronization leads to another.
Setis is actually the only case in which the name of a king recorded by Hebraeus is
clearly recognizable, but there are other ways to identify kings. With Setis identified as
Sety I, there is an obvious choice for Aris, the 5th king of Assyria. The reign of Sety I fell
completely within the reign of Adad-nirari I (1295-1264). Thus Aris is best matched to
Adad-nirari. In that case Hebraeus named the first kings of Assyria as shown in table 3.17
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Kings of Assyria As recorded on the Reign
As reported by Hebraeus Assyrian King List (Low Chronology)
1st Belus Eriba-Adad I 1380-1354
2nd Ninus Ashur-uballit I 1353-1318
3rd Semiramis Enlil-nirari 1317-1308
4th Zmaros Arik-den-ili 1307-1296
5th Aris Adad-nirari 1295-1264
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Table 3: First five kings of Assyria’s Middle Empire

It is not obvious that the names given by Hebraeus match Assyrian kings. Semiramis

14
John L.McLaughlin 2012. The Ancient Near East p. 8
15
Bar Hebraeus’ Chronography, quotes are from the 1932 English translation by Ernest A. Wallis
Budge https://archive.org/details/BarHebraeusChronography
16
Counted from Ahmose, Sety I is the 16th pharaoh of the New Kingdom, but only the 15th king.
Queen Hatsephut was a usurper entirely within the reign of Thuthmosis III. Hebraeus does not
mention a queen.
17
Reigns listed follow the Assyrian Low chronology of Kuhrt (1995: 351)

6
is especially suspect, because she was a queen who does not appear on the Assyrian King
List. The numbering is also suspect, because as previously mentioned, Ashur-uballit I is
generally considered the first king of the Middle Assyrian Empire, not his lesser-known
father Eriba-Adad I. However, Belus and Ninus also appear in Eusebius’ Chronicle, with
additional clues regarding their identity. Little was known about Belus either, and there
were two kings named Ninus. Both the second and the last king of Assyria had that name.
“[Castor states] First we described the kings of the Assyrians starting with Belus, but
since the length of his reign has not been passed down with certainty, we have merely
recorded his name. We have begun the chronology with Ninus and ended it with the other
Ninus…In this fashion the entire duration of the kingdom can be shown clearly”
(Chronicle, g81-g82).18
Though the choice for Assyria’s first king may be debatable, the last king of Assyria
is known with certainty. He was Ashur-uballit II.19 Therefore, Ninus must be a corruption
of the name Ashur-uballit. The earlier Ninus is the earlier Ashur-uballit. Despite their
unfamiliar names, Belus and Ninus match none but Eriba-Adad I and Ashur-uballit I.
The identification of Belus as Eriba-Adad I, in combination with the earlier proof that
the Sealand Chronology confirms the Assyrian Low Chronology, leads to a precise date
in the life of Abraham. Hebraeus reports that Abraham was age 15 seasons when Belus
died. “And when Abraham was fifteen years of age he entreated God and drove away the
karkase (ravens? locusts?) which were destroying the country of the Chaldeans… At this
time Belus died, and a second king rose up in Assyria, viz. his son Ninus...”
(Chronography 1:38).
If this record is correct, Abraham was 15 seasons or 71/2 years old when Eriba-Adad I
died in 1354 BC. This anchors the floating chronology from Abraham through Moses.
The absolute chronology of table 2 is built as follows. From their biographies in Genesis:
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph respectively lived 175, 180, 147 and 110 seasons,
corresponding to 871/2, 90, 731/2 and 55 years. Abraham was born 7 1/2 years before 1354,
which is 1362 or early 1361 BC. The latter will be chosen, as it gives the best match
farther forward. Abraham was age 100 seasons or 50 years when Isaac was born (Gen.
17:17). That places the birth of Isaac in 1311 BC. Isaac was age 60 seasons or 30 years
when Jacob was born (Gen. 25:26). That places the birth of Jacob in 1281 BC. Jacob’s
age when Joseph was born is not explicitly stated in Genesis. The Book of Jasher,20
another variant of Genesis, says 91 seasons or 45 1/2 years (Jasher 31:21). Rounded to 46,
Joseph was born in 1281– 46 = 1235 BC.
Moses was born in the third generation after Joseph. At 30 ± 10 years per generation,
that’s 90 ± 30 years after 1235, which is 1145 BC ± 30. An initial estimate is important
because the exact year that Moses was born is found via an unverified tally spanning
many generations. That tally, 430 seasons, must be reasonable. In Exodus 12:40, as
Moses was departing Egypt, it is reported that the length of time the Israelite people lived
in Egypt was 430 seasons. The Septuagint says “Egypt and Canaan,” which is in better
agreement with Galations 3:17, where Paul states that 430 seasons had elapsed from

18
Eusebius’ Chronicle. from the 2008 English Translation by Robert Bedrosian
www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_chronicon_02_text.htm
19
Kathryn A. Bard, (ed.) 2005. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt p. 152
20
The Hebrew text Sefer ha Yasher, published in Venice in 1625, with a printer’s preface claiming
that the original had been discovered in Jerusalem during the Roman conquest of that city in 70
AD. Quotes are from the 1887 English translation titled The Book of Jasher, published by J. H.
Parry & Co. http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/apo/jasher/

7
when promises were spoken to Abraham until the Israelites were given the Law (by
Moses). The starting point of this interval is more specific in Bar Hebraeus’
Chronography. Hebraeus reports that Abraham was age 85 seasons in the first year of the
promise. “And when he was eighty and five years old, that is to say in the first year of the
promise concerning Egypt, he begot Ishmael by Haghar” (Chronography, 1:39). From
this record it is clear that the promise, shortly before Ishmael was born, is the first
covenant described in Genesis 15:8. It was of sufficient importance that time was counted
forward from that date for centuries.
The date of this promise can be counted forward from the death of Eriba-Adad I in
1354 BC. At that time Abraham was age 15 seasons. At the time of the promise, he was
age 85 seasons. The difference is 70 seasons or 35 years. Thus the promise concerning
Egypt was made in 1354 - 35 = 1319 BC. The pharaoh at that time was Horemheb (1323-
1295). The promise concerning Egypt was likely a land grant by Horemheb. With the
date of the promise established, one can count either 430 seasons to the year that Moses
departed Egypt, or 350 seasons to the year Moses was born. That count is reported by
Hebraeus. “After Kohath came Amram his son. He was seventy-five years old when he
begot Moses in the three hundred and fiftieth year of the promise” (Chronography 1:48).
The 350th year of the promise is 175 years after 1319 BC. The birth of Moses was
then in 1319 – 175 = 1144 BC. This agrees well with the earlier estimate for three
generations after Joseph. Hebraeus also states that Moses was age 80 seasons when he
departed from Egypt. “And when Moses was eighty years old, that is to say, in the four
hundred and thirtieth year of the promise, he was commanded by God to take the
Hebrews out from Egypt” (Chronography 1:52).
To calculate the year Moses departed from Egypt, one can either count 80 seasons
from the birth of Moses, or 430 seasons from the year of the promise. In either case the
departure from Egypt is in 1104 BC. Moses lived an additional 40 seasons, or 20 years,
and died on Mt. Nebo in 1084 BC. This completes the chronology presented in table 2.
But it is unverified beyond Abraham and Isaac without further connections to external
history.
III. Connecting the patriarchs to external history: Moses
It’s difficult to connect the chronology of the Hebrew patriarchs to external history
with the Bible alone. Bar Hebraeus’ Chronography and the Book of Jasher are much
better records for that purpose. For example, Exodus 1:15 reports that Moses fled from
the pharaoh to Midian, but doesn’t give the age of Moses or the name of the pharaoh. The
Book of Jasher gives more detail. Moses fled to Midian when he was age 66 seasons
(Jasher 76:12). That’s 33 years old. Therefore, counted from his birth in 1144 BC, Moses
fled to Midian in 1111 BC. Hebreaus reports that Moses fled to Midian at the time of a
“famous war of the Chaldeans with the Phoenicians” (Chronography 1:51). Chaldean is a
general term for Mesopotamian. This war would be famous because Phoenicia was part
of the Egyptian empire throughout most of the New Kingdom, and thus sheltered from a
Mesopotamian attack.
The first Mesopotamian king known to have marched to the Phoenician coast was
Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076). In one inscription he boasts of marching to
Lebanon and collecting tribute from the kings of Biblos, Sidon and Arvad. On his return
he marched through Hatti and collected more tribute. 21 In another inscription, a year-by-

21
Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076): Expeditions to Syria, the Lebanon, and the Mediteranean Sea,
English translation in ANET (1955: 274-75)

8
year account of his campaigns through the end of year 5, he describes reaching the
country of the Arameans and then Hatti, in regnal year 4. 22 This was the same journey
that passed through Phoenicia. The reign of Tiglath-pileser is known to the year.23 The
Phoenician campaign of his 4th regnal year was in the summer of 1111 BC. That is an
exact match to the year that Moses fled to Midian, as derived from Bar Hebraeus’
Chronography and the Book of Jasher.
The Hebrew chronology has now been linked to the Assyrian chronology at two
points separated by more than two centuries: first when Abraham was 71/2 years old in
1354 BC, and again when Moses was 33 years old in 1111 BC. There is no discrepancy.
Whether one follows the Hebrew chronology or the Assyrian chronology, the interval is
243 years. It was not previously recognized that Hebrews kept chronological records as
accurate as the Assyrians. It has now been proven to be true. Hebrews simply used a
different time unit.
Next consider the Egyptian chronology. Again the Book of Jasher provides records
that are easiest to test. The pharaoh from whom Moses fled was afflicted with leprosy
from the sole of his foot to the crown of his head (Jasher 76:25). That pharaoh, called
Melol, died in the 206th season of the Israelites in Egypt (Jasher 77:2). His son Adikam
reigned just 4 seasons (Jasher 77:1). Moses departed Egypt at the end of the 210th season
of the Israelites in Egypt (Jasher 81:4). As the Egyptian army was drowning in the sea,
Adikam repented and was spared. He is reported to have been plucked from the water by
an angel and cast upon the land of Nineveh (Jasher 81:41).
Ignoring the supernatural, if the above records are historical, the mummy of a
pharaoh whose brief reign ended in 1104 BC will not be found in Egypt, because he was
exiled to Nineveh. That pharaoh is Ramesses X. His reign ended in approximately 1100
24
BC. His mummy was never found and his tomb was never completed. His highest
25
attested year is his 3rd. Adikam came to power within the 206th season of the Israelites
in Egypt, and reigned until the end of the 210th season. In the Egyptian system of
counting from the day of accession, Adikam had reigned more than two years, making a
3rd regnal year of Ramesses X possible. The reign of Ramesses X began in October26 and
the 210th season ended in the spring, thus Ramesses X reigned from the fall of 1107 to
the spring of 1104. This is more precise than was known to Egyptologists. It is recorded
in the Book of Jasher.
The pharaoh from whom Moses fled to Midian would then be Ramesses IX (1125-
1107). He should have leprosy from the sole of his foot to the top of his head. Artapanus
calls the same pharaoh Chenephres and reports that he was afflicted with elephantiasis, 27

22
Inscription of Tiglath-pileser I, English translation in Rawlinson, (1901: 212-29).
23
Tiglath-pileser’s reign is1114-1076, counted via the Assyrian king list from the Bur-Saggile
eclipse on June 15, 763 BC (Glassner 2004: 188)
24
Dodson (2000: 151) reports that the tomb of Ramesses X (KV 18) was barely begun.
25
Hornung (2006: 217), referring to the Theban Necropolis Journal from year 3 of Ramesses X,
states “IV Akhet year 3 is documented in the Giornale, followed by 24/I/Akhet year 1” However,
Hornung assumes that Ramesses X had died before Ramesses XI was attested. The I Akhet year
1 date does not follow IV Akhet year 3. They are side by side with the year 1 entry in the
column that would normally be written in first. That is, an entry dated year 1 of Ramesses XI
was most likely written 3 months before the last entry dated Ramesses X. This would be
possible if Ramesses X had fled into exile (not died) earlier in year 3.
26
Hornung (2006: 216) places the accession of Ramesses X in the interval I Peret 25-27, which
corresponds to Oct. 17-19 in 1104 BC.
27
Preparation for the Gospel 9.27.19 www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_pe_09_book9.htm

9
which is the Greek word for leprosy. The mummy of Ramesses IX is in the Egyptian
museum at Cairo. This claim can be put to the test. From the best available photo I’ve
found on the internet,28 Ramesses IX does appear to have nodular scars on his chin and
thick, deformed earlobes. Both are characteristic of leprosy.

IV. Connecting the patriarchs to external history: Joseph and Jacob

Another claim that should be very easy to test is the report that Joseph was made ruler
of Egypt, though he was never called pharaoh. In Genesis 41:44, the pharaoh grants
Joseph authority to rule on his behalf. “Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, I am Pharaoh, but
without your word no one will lift a hand or foot in all of Egypt.” Later, in Genesis 45:8,
the pharaoh appears to be a child. “God… made me father to Pharaoh, lord of his entire
household and ruler of all Egypt.” In the Book of Jasher, the difference is explained. The
adult pharaoh had died and appointed Joseph to act as regent for his son, Magron. This
occurred in the 32nd season of the Israelites in Egypt.
And it came to pass in the thirty-second year of the Israelites going down to Egypt,
that is in the seventy-first year of the life of Joseph, in that year died Pharaoh king of
Egypt, and Magron his son reigned in his stead. And Pharaoh commanded Joseph
before his death to be a father to his son, Magron, and that Magron should be under
the care of Joseph and under his counsel. And all Egypt consented to this thing that
Joseph should be king over them, for all the Egyptians loved Joseph as of heretofore,
only Magron the son of Pharaoh sat upon his father's throne, and he became king in
those days in his father's stead.
Book of Jasher 58:1-3
There is only one possible choice for a child pharaoh who inherited the throne during
the lifetime of Joseph. He is Siptah (1194-1188), who inherited the throne upon the death
of Sety II in October of 1294 BC.29 Ramesses X became pharaoh in October of 1107 BC,
corresponding to the 206th season of the Israelites in Egypt. The 32nd season is 174
seasons earlier, or 87 years prior to 1107 BC. The accession of Magron was in 1107 + 87
= 1294 BC. The historical Magron is Siptah. The historical Joseph matches one and only
one Asiatic who ruled Egypt as regent to Siptah. Joseph is Chancellor Bay. Though
Siptah’s official regent was queen Twosret, Bay’s tomb in the Valley of Kings and title
“Chancellor of the entire land” suggest that he was the true ruler of Egypt.30 As with the
reign of Ramesses X, there is still some minor disagreement among Egyptologists on the
accession year of Siptah. The Book of Jasher supports 1294 BC.
The Book of Jasher is not always accurate. There are some numerical inconsistencies
that can be attributed to copying errors. The quote above actually has Joseph’s age too
young when he became ruler of Egypt. Joseph was born in 1235 BC. In 1194 BC he was
age 41 years or 82 seasons. The above quote says 71 seasons. But this is not a copying
error; it is a misconception. Joseph was 91 seasons younger than Jacob. The author knew
this and assumed that the Israelites went down to Egypt when Jacob was age 130 seasons,
his age when he met the pharaoh (Genesis 46:9). At that time Joseph was age 130 - 91 =
39 seasons, and 32 seasons later the numbers add up, 39 + 32 = 71. The author’s logic is

28
An undated early photo of Ramesses IX can be viewed at the website entitled The Theban
Royal Mummy Project http://anubis4_2000.tripod.com/mummypics2/Ramesses%20IX.jpg
29
Hornung (2006: 216) places the accession of Siptah in the interval IV Akhet 28 - I Peret 3,
which corresponds to Oct. 13-18 in 1194 BC.
30
Shaw (2003: 296), Dodson (2010: 100)

10
sound, but when the arrival of the Israelites in Egypt is calculated from opposite
directions, something is inconsistent.
Jacob was born in 1281 BC. He and his sons settled in the district of Rameses when
he was 130 seasons or 65 years old. The date was 1281 - 65 = 1216 BC. The pharaoh was
Ramesses II (1279-1212). Now try the opposite direction. The Israelites freed by Moses
departed Egypt in the spring of 1104 BC, after they and their ancestors had endured 210
seasons or 105 years in hard labor (Jasher 81:3). Their arrival in Egypt would have been
in 1104 + 105 = 1209 BC. The pharaoh was Merneptah (1212-1200).
Merneptah was not the pharaoh when Jacob arrived in Egypt, and there was no life of
hard labor awaiting Jacob or his sons. This was a different arrival, under different
circumstances. The Israelites who arrived in 1209 BC entered Egypt just two years before
Jacob died in 1207 BC. They arrived in year 3 or year 4 of Merneptah. This is remarkably
close, if not exactly when Merneptah defeated the people of Israel during his campaign in
Canaan. Merneptah’s victory over Israel is commemorated on a stele dated year 5
(ANET, 1955: 378). Thus the Israelites who endured hard labor must have been prisoners
captured by Merneptah in 1209 BC, and brought to Egypt as slaves.
This requires an explanation. How could Israelites have been enslaved by Merneptah
while Jacob was living in Egypt? Here one must decipher a cryptic allegory. Jacob had
wrestled with God and was given the name Israel (Genesis 32:28). This supernatural
claim is explained by recognition that priests had an incentive to remove references to
earthly superiors and claim that the patriarchs took orders from (their) God. In this case,
Jacob had just returned to Egyptian-held Canaan during the reign of Ramesses II.
Wrestling with God was a contentious negotiation with Ramesses II or his
representatives. In the end, Jacob was given a throne name, Israel, and granted authority
to rule land within the Egyptian empire.
The Bible does reveal that Jacob was a military commander. He took a ridge of land
from the Amorites with his sword and his bow (Genesis 48:22). On his deathbed, Jacob
willed that land to Joseph. Thus Jacob possessed the hereditary right to rule land that he
had conquered in Canaan. That could only be possible if Jacob, now named Israel, was
sharing tax revenue with Egypt. The pharaoh may even have sent settlers to work Israel’s
land in order to increase productivity and tax revenue. These (presumed) laborers would
be the first proto-Israelite settlers in the highlands of Canaan. They were not descended
from Jacob and may not have been particularly fond of Jacob. But during Merneptah’s
reign, they would sensibly be called the people of Israel - people ruled by Jacob.
These early settlers must have rebelled against Egyptian rule in 1209 BC, prompting
Merneptah to strike back with the full force of the Egyptian army. Prisoners were taken
back to Egypt and their descendants were freed by Moses 210 seasons later. “And the
sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in the land of Egypt in hard labor, was
two hundred and ten years” (Jasher 81:3). The children of Israel are not the direct
descendants of Jacob. Children could mean people of lesser importance – commoners.

V. How did previous Bible chronologies go so wrong?

The pharaohs contemporary to Joseph and Moses had not previously been identified
in large part because the order of books in the Bible erroneously places the death of
Moses and Joshua prior to the period of judges. That’s wrong. There are warnings within
the Bible that Moses could not predate the period of judges, such as the mention of Zoan
contemporary to Moses (Num. 13:22), the mention of Rameses contemporary Jacob
(Gen. 47:11), and the record that Nahshon, a contemporary of Moses, lived just five
generations before king David (Num. 2:3 and Ruth 4:20). All are accurate records that

11
place Jacob, not Moses, near the beginning of the period of judges. All these warnings
had been ignored in order to preserve the erroneous belief that proto-Israelite settlements
could not appear in the highlands of Canaan prior to the Exodus. The Exodus brought the
literal descendants of Jacob out of Egypt, including Moses, Aaron, and other Levites.
This was more than a century after the first proto-Israelite settlements were established in
the highlands of Canaan.
Knowing that Jacob lived contemporary to Ramesses II and Merneptah, it is now
apparent that settlement of the Canaanite highlands began during the life of Jacob, most
likely on the ridge of land that he had taken from the Amorites (Gen. 48:22). Merneptah
may have enslaved proto-Israelite settlers who rebelled during the life of Jacob, but they
would soon be replaced. Keeping the land productive was a source of wealth to Egypt.
After Jacob died, Joseph would have inherited and ruled the highland settlements until his
death. The period of judges would follow Joseph’s death. There is a political reason that
judges become necessary after Joseph. The 19th Dynasty had come to an end.
Joseph is a match to chancellor Bay, an Asiatic who ruled Egypt during the reign of
Siptah. An announcement discovered on an ostracon from Thebes reports that “the great
enemy Bay” was killed in year 5 of an unrecorded pharaoh. 31 Joseph died in 1180 BC.
The unrecorded pharaoh was Ramesses III, whose exact reign is then 1184-1153. As with
Ramesses X and Siptah, the Hebrew chronology again bridges the Egyptian chronology
to the Assyrian chronology. Ramesses III was the second pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty.
His father Sethnakhte had fought to rid Egypt of a despised Syrian named Yarsu (he who
made himself). Yarsu was considered a plunderer of Egypt, not a legitimate king, “Yarsu,
a certain Syrian was with them as chief, He set the whole land tributary before him
together; he united his companions and plundered their possessions.”32
Yarsu was a derogatory name for Bay. The Book of Jasher records how chancellor
Bay (Joseph) hid the wealth of Egypt away for his personal use. “And Joseph took all the
silver and gold that came into his hand, about seventy-two talents of gold and silver, and
also onyx stones and bdellium in great abundance, and Joseph went and concealed them
in four parts…” (Jasher 55:31). The Great Harris Papyrus records that Sethnakhte
restored order in Egypt, but does not record that Yarsu was killed. It was Ramesses III
who killed Bay. And certainly it was Ramesses III who appointed the first judge, Othneil.
By killing Bay, Ramesses III had laid claim to the Canaanite highlands. From that
point forward, descendants of Jacob would no longer be allowed to rule. Judges would be
appointed based on their loyalty to Egypt. Seven judges ruled in Canaan before Moses
and the Levites departed Egypt. The eighth judge, Jair, was a descendant of Jacob (1
Chron. 2:2), and he was with Moses on the Exodus. Jair’s conquest of Havvoth Jair in
Gilead is reported in Numbers 32:40-41 and again in Deuteronomy 3:14. Jair is also the
judge of Havvoth Jair in Judges 10:3. Moses had seized land in trans-Jordan, but stopped
short of crossing into Canaan.
Moses is mentioned in Judges 1:16, 1:20 and 3:4. It is clearly stated that Moses died
before the period of judges began. The placement of Jair as the eighth judge directly
contradicts the placement of Moses before the period of judges. One or the other had to
be wrong. The tipping point for me was that neither the ark of God nor Levites are
mentioned prior to Jair. Thus the Exodus had not yet arrived. This placed the Exodus in
the late 20th Dynasty, based on the Bible alone.

31
Ostacon IFAO 1864, French translation in P. Grandet. 2000. L’execution du chancelier Bay,
BIFAO vol. 100, 339-45
32
Harris Papyrus translation in James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 4, § 398.

12
 One final puzzle is 1st Kings 6:1. “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the
Israelites came out of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign… he began to build
the temple of the Lord.” This verse was once thought to give the precise date of the
Exodus. Archaeology has shown that 480 years prior to Solomon’s reign is centuries
prior to the first proto-Israelite settlements in Canaan. Thus all but the most ardent
believers dismiss the number 480 as a copying error. Ironically, it is not.
By the reigns of David and Solomon, time was being counted in years rather than
seasons, but the earlier tradition had not fully died out. The priest Jehoiada died at age
130 in 2nd Chronicles 24:15. To stay within the constraints of the archaeological record,
only the 480th season (latter half of the 240th year) before Solomon’s temple could have
any connection to Israelites in Canaan. But that’s still far too early for Moses and the
Exodus. Read 1st Kings 6:1 again. It says nothing about Moses or the Exodus. It only
reports that Israelites came out of Egypt. Israelites also came out of Egypt for Jacob’s
funeral. It was a grand procession out of Egypt to fulfill Jacob’s dying wish to be buried
in Canaan (Genesis 50:5-9). That last wish is what preserves the accuracy of 1st Kings
6:1. It refers to the Israelites who came out of Egypt for Jacob’s funeral.
Jacob died in 1207 BC, which places construction of Solomon’s temple in 1207 – 240
= 967 BC. In 1928, using records in Tyrrian annals quoted by Josephus, Valerius Coucke
placed construction of Solomon’s temple in 968/67 BC. In 2012, Young and Steinmann
defended and refined Coucke’s date, placing construction of Solomon’s temple in the
spring of 967 BC.33 Thus 1st Kings 6:1 now appears to be a very accurate record, but it
had been misunderstood.
VI. Further interconnections of Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Hebrew history
The difficulty I’ve faced in writing this paper is that a chronology of the Hebrew
patriarchs sheds light on so many topics that much must be left unsaid. Previous
chronologies of Abraham through Moses were so far from the mark that false conclusions
were reached. Many biblical records dismissed as anachronisms are actually historical.
But there is also a pattern of replacing the names of kings and pharaohs with Lord or
God, which contributed to the confusion. Abraham’s unacknowledged superior was
Tutankhamun’s regent, Horemheb, who appears to have hired mercenary armies to
defend Egypt’s territorial frontier. Abraham and his 318 servants (Genesis 14:14) were
called to Canaan for that purpose. As pharaoh, Horemheb granted land to Abraham after
Abraham successfully drove out the army of Chedorlaomer. This was a covenant, not a
gift, because Abraham would be expected to defend that land and collect taxes for Egypt.
It was also Horemheb who destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, likely because the
Canaanite rulers of those cities had refused to abide by a similar covenant. One can
deduce from the narrative in Genesis 18-19 that after speaking with Abraham and not
being convinced that mercy was warranted, Horemheb destroyed both cities by having
archers launch flaming arrows high over the city walls. As the arrows returned to earth,
burning sulfur rained down on Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:24).
Once one understands that Abraham’s lord was Horemheb, further revelations come
to light. When did Philistines first arrive in Canaan? It was thought to be in the reign of

33
See page 226 in Roger C. Young and Andrew E. Steinmann. 2012. Correlation of Select
Classical Sources related to the Trojan War with Assyrian and Biblical Chronologies, Journal
for the Evangelical Study of the Old Testament 1.2, 223-48.

13
Ramesses III.34 Bar Hebraeus reveals that Philistines arrived more than a century earlier,
as foreign troops in Horemheb’s army. This can be deduced from a report that Philistines
waged war in the one hundredth season of the life of Abraham. “Abimelech was a friend
to those of the house of Isaac, and he it was who in the year one hundred of [the life of]
Abraham made war; and the Bible calls him King of Ghadhar (Gerar in Genesis xx. I)
from the name of his city, and here [he is king] of the Philistines…” (Chronography
1:42). There is no mention of where this war was, but Abraham’s age was one hundred
seasons when Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed.35 Thus knowing that Horemheb
destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, Philistines must have served under Horemheb as a
foreign militia in the Egyptian army. Like Abraham, Abimelech was in command of a
mercenary army serving Egypt.
In this manner, Bar Hebraeus’ Chronography and the Book of Jasher cryptically
record real history contemporary to the patriarchs. Knowing the date and circumstances,
the history behind the story comes to light. Within the biography of Abraham, the Book
of Jasher describes the rise to power of a pharaoh named Rikayon, who was an immigrant
from Shinar (Jasher 14:1). Rikayon was first made regent to the child pharaoh Oswiris,
before he himself became pharaoh (Jasher 14:30). That pharaoh can only be Horemheb,
who rose to power as regent to Tutankhamun. Thus Horemheb was not himself a native
of Egypt. He was a fellow Kassite who called upon Abraham to come to Canaan.
Soon after Horemheb died, a very different request was made by pharaoh Sety I. He
called upon Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. There had been a complaint against Abraham,
“he has made a great feast for all the inhabitants of the land, and the Lord he has
forgotten” (Jasher 22:51). Isaac’s age was 37 seasons (Jasher 22:41), which was 1293 BC.
This matches Sety’s year 1 campaign to reassert authority in Canaan. 36 Abraham’s
loyalty to Egypt was being tested.
Hebraeus cites Chaldean records claiming that the pharaohs of the 19th Egyptian
Dynasty were called shepherds (Chronograpy 1:43). Manetho used the same term to
describe the Hyksos kings who had ruled Egypt from Avaris.37 The 19th Dynasty capitol
Pi-Ramesse was built adjacent to the former Hyksos capital Avaris. This makes the 19th
Dynasty a restoration of ethnic Hyksos rule from Avaris, which explains why Sety I
proclaimed his reign a ‘Repeating of Births,’38 and both Sety I and Sety II were named
after Set, the chief deity of the Hyksos.39

34
AssafYasur-Landau. 2014. The Philistines and Aegean Migration at the End of the Late Bronze
Age, p. 316
35
Abraham was age 99 before Sodom and Gomorra were destroyed (Gen. 17:1), and age 100 after
Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed (Gen. 21:5). The only reference to war within that time
interval is the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:24).
36
Gertoux (2016: 147) places the accession of Sety I on June 1, 1294 BC (III Shemu 24) based on
a Sothic rising dated I Akhet 1, year 4, corresponding to July 12, 1291 BC. Sety’s Beth Shan
stele from his first campaign in Canaan is dated III Shemu 10, year 1 (ANET, 1955: 253)
corresponding to May 18, 1293 BC.
37
Manetho called the Hyksos shepherd kings (Against Apion I, 14.) This is not necessarily a
mistranslation of the Egyptian heqa-khase, a phrase meaning only “rulers of foreign lands.”
Prior to the Hyksos era, king Rim-Sin of Larsa called himself a “faithful shepherd” or
“righteous shepherd” ( http://.cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/HTML/T10K10.htm ) in his date
formulae for years 24-30. Thus shepherd could refer to foreign rulers specifically from southern
Mesopotamia.
38
John A. Wilson. 1951. The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 240
39
Anthony S Mercatante. 1995. Who’s Who in Egyptian Mythology, p. 69

14
 This is only a sample of what the exact Hebrew chronology has brought to light. A
short paper is not enough for such a far-reaching discovery. For years I have tried and
failed to open a dialog with scholars knowledgeable enough to comprehend what I’ve
found. The assumption has been that the Hebrew patriarchs are mythical and it is absolute
folly to search for their “true role” in ancient history. That assumption is false. The
minimalist mindset was based on a woefully inaccurate chronology of Abraham through
Moses. Now that an accurate Hebrew chronology has been derived and synchronized to
the conventional Egyptian chronology, the historicity of the patriarchal narrative must be
evaluated anew.

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Bibliography:
ANET: James B. Pritchard (ed.). 1955. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to
the Old Testament.
Austin, William R. 2015. Before the Exodus. ASIN: B00XZKT3R8
Brinkman, J. A. Brinkman 1977. Mesopotamian Chronology of the Historical
Period, appendix to A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a
Dead Civilization.
Dodson, Aidan. 2000. Monarchs of the Nile
Dodson, Aidan. 2010. Poisoned Legacy: The Fall of the 19th Egyptian Dynasty
Gertoux, Gerhard. 2016. The Trojan War: Chronological, Historical and
Archaelogical Evidence
Glassner, Jean-Jacques. 2004. Mesopotamian Chronicles
Grayson, A. Kirk. 2000. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles
Hornung, Erik. Rolf Kraus and David A. Warburton (eds.). 2006. Ancient
Egyptian Chronology
Kuhrt, Amélie. 1995. The Ancient Near East, c. 3000 – 330 BC, vol. I.
Leick, Gwendolyn. 2009. The Babylonian World.
Rawlinson, Sir H., et al. 1901. Babylonian and Assyrian Literature
Rogers, Robert W., 1912, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament
Saggs, H. W. F. 2000. Babylonians
Shaw, Ian (ed.). 2003. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt

15