“FORGETTI

NG”
FORGETTING:

Forgetting is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an
individual's long-term memory. It is a common psychological trait in human beings. The reason
why we forget things is because of unconscious at times or because we do not want to hold back
to those memories that are disturbing to us.

Forgetting or memory failure is also essential to remembering important information. Because, it

filters out the unnecessary thoughts or memories. The ability to forget inconsequential details
about experiences, people, and objects helps us avoid being burdened and distracted by trivial
stores of meaningless data.

Forgetting permits us to form general impressions and recollections. For example, our friends
consistently look familiar to us is because we’re able to forget their clothing, facial blemishes,
and other transient features that change from one occasion to the next. Instead, our memories are
based on a summary of various critical features—a far more economical use of our memory
capabilities.
The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus
about a hundred years ago. Using himself as the only participant in his study

As the figure indicates, the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first nine hours, particularly in the
first hour. After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines little, even after the passage
of many days. There is almost always a strong initial decline in memory, followed by a more
gradual drop over time. Furthermore, relearning of previously mastered material is almost always
faster than starting from scratch

WHY WE FORGET:

One reason we forget is that we may not have paid attention to the material in the first place—a
failure of encoding. For example, if you live in the United States, you probably have been
exposed to thousands of pennies during your life. Despite this experience, you probably don’t
have a clear sense of the details of the coin. Consequently, the reason for your memory failure is
that you probably never encoded the information into long-term memory initially. Obviously, if
information was not placed in memory to start with, there is no way the information can be
recalled.
Decay is the loss of information through nonuse. On the other hand, memory traces, the physical
changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned, simply fade away over time.
Often there is no relationship between how long ago a person was exposed to information and
how well that information is recalled. If decay explained all forgetting, we would expect that the
more time that has elapsed between the initial learning of information and our attempt to recall it,
the harder it would be to remember it because there would be more time for the memory trace to
decay. Yet people who take several consecutive tests on the same material often recall more of
the initial information when taking later tests than they did on earlier tests.

Because decay does not fully account for forgetting, memory specialists have proposed an
additional mechanism: interference. In interference, information in memory disrupts the recall
of other information. To distinguish between decay and interference, think of the two processes
in terms of a row of books on a library shelf. In decay, the old books are constantly crumbling
and rotting away, leaving room for new arrivals. Interference processes suggest that new books
knock the old ones off the shelf, where they become inaccessible.
Finally, forgetting may occur because of cue-dependent forgetting, forgetting that occurs when
there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory. For example, you
may not be able to remember where you lost a set of keys until you mentally walk through your
day, thinking of each place you visited. When you think of the place where you lost the keys—
say, the library—the retrieval cue of the library may be sufficient to help you recall that you left
them on the desk in the library. Without that retrieval cue, you may be unable to recall the
location of the keys.

Most research suggests that interference and cue-dependent forgetting are key processes in
forgetting. We forget things mainly because new memories interfere with the retrieval of old
ones or because appropriate retrieval cues are unavailable, not because the memory trace has
decayed.

CAUSES OF FORGETTING:

There are 5 notable causes for forgetting. They are: 1. Faulty Memory Process, 2. Interference,

3. Retrieval Problems, 4. Motivated Forgetting, 5. Amnesia.

1. Faulty Memory Process: Sometimes we listen to many details but we encode only portion of
the information in the form of gist- and not the actual words or details, and the same will be
stored. Constructive process at work during the process of encoding distorts what is stored in
memory and we remember the distortions. At that time we think we forget, because what we
remember is not an accurate representation of what has really happened. Here our memory does
not match events as they actually occurred.

2. Interference: Interfering of different time based events is what creates dilemma of

interference.
3. Retrieval: Retrieval is necessary for recall. Some retrieval cues and reconstructive processes
help in this process. These retrieval cues or remainders, direct the memory search to the
appropriate part of the LTM section. Without appropriate retrieval cues, the sought- for items
stored in LTM may not be found. This leads to forgetting.

4. Motivated Forgetting: This is a kind of forgetting in which the individual intentionally

forgets. However, the information stored can be retrieved and brought back to memory, but the
individual does not want those memories. So he will repress them. It may be observed that
generally people remember pleasant experiences than unpleasant ones.

5. Amnesia: The term amnesia refers to loss of memory. It is a kind of memory disorder which
occurs from a loss of what has already been stored.

THEORIES OF FORGETTING:

Forgetting is a universal phenomenon. It appears in every human being in some degree. The
concern about the causes of forgetting as to how and why it happens has led to extensive
research and development of some theories. Some of the important theories are:

1. The Trace Decay Theory: It is learnt that the memory traces are responsible for our memory.
These traces are also called as engrams. The memory traces are formed in our neurological
systems. If the learnt processes are not used for a long time, the traces get faded. Hence, it is the
lapse of time that is responsible for forgetting according to this theory.

2. Theory of Inhibition or Interference: If the learnt material is to remain in memory for a long
time it has to form memory traces in our brain. All our learning and experiences create memory
traces. When more and more memory traces are formed, some overlapping of traces takes place
resulting in the obliteration and interference. Here one learning will interfere or inhibits the
memory process of other learning.

3. The Repression Theory: Repression is a defensive mechanism. As explained by Freud in his

theory of psychoanalysis, the painful experiences and forbidden wishes are pushed into
unconscious and the individual does not want to remember them.
Though they try to come to conscious level they are pushed back or avoided consciously. This is
a purposeful or motivated forgetting. We forget those memories which we do not want to
remember. For example, a student does not want to remember the name of a teacher who has
severely “punished him in his school days.

PROACTIVE AND RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: THE BEFORE AND AFTER

OF FORGETTING:

Proactive interference is the kind of interference in which information learned earlier disrupts
the recall of newer material.

Retroactive interference is that kind of interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of
information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material.

One way to remember the difference between proactive and retroactive interference is to keep in
mind that proactive interference progresses in time—the past interferes with the present—
whereas retroactive interference retrogresses in time, working backward as the present interferes
with the past.

Although the concepts of proactive and retroactive interference illustrate how material may be
forgotten, they still do not explain whether forgetting is caused by the actual loss or modification
of information or by problems in the retrieval of information. Most research suggests that
material that has apparently been lost because of interference can eventually be recalled if
appropriate stimuli are presented.

MEMORY DYSFUNCTIONS:

Memory disorders are the result of damage to neuroanatomical structures that hinders the
storage, retention and recollection of memories. Memory disorders can be progressive, including
Alzheimer's disease, or they can be immediate including disorders resulting from head injury.

Alzheimer’s disease is an illness characterized in part by severe memory problems. It is a

progressive, degenerative and fatal brain disease, in which cell to cell connections in the brain
are lost. The causes of Alzheimer’s disease are not fully understood. Increasing evidence
suggests that Alzheimer’s results from an inherited susceptibility to a defect in the production of
the protein beta amyloid, which is necessary for the maintenance of nerve cell connections.
When the synthesis of beta amyloid goes awry, large clumps of cells form, triggering
inflammation and the deterioration of nerve cells in the brain.

NEUROSCIENCE IN DAILY LIFE: ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AND BRAIN

DETERIORATION:
Alzheimer’s is the fourth leading cause of death among adults in the United States, affecting an
estimated 5 million people. In the beginning, Alzheimer’s symptoms appear as simple
forgetfulness of things such as appointments and birthdays. As the disease progresses, memory
loss becomes more profound, and even the simplest tasks—such as using a telephone—are
forgotten. Ultimately, victims may lose their ability to speak or comprehend language, and
physical deterioration sets in, leading to death. Alzheimer’s disease is one of a number of
memory dysfunctions. Another is amnesia, memory loss that occurs without other mental
difficulties.

Amnesia is an abnormal mental state in which memory and learning are affected out of all
proportion to other cognitive functions in an otherwise alert and responsive patient. There are
two forms of amnesia: Anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is
that in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event. And, Anterograde
amnesia is that in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury.

Anterograde amnesia show difficulty in the learning and retention of information encountered
after brain damage. A victim who receives a blow to the head and is unable to remember
anything from his or her past. In reality, amnesia of this type, known as retrograde amnesia, is
quite rare. For example, although people suffering from retrograde amnesia may be unable to
recall friends and family members, they still may be able to play complicated card games or knit
a sweater quite well.

Amnesia is also a result of Korsakoff’s syndrome, a disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics,
leaving some abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story.

BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY IN FORGETTING:

Whatever may be the effects or consequences of forgetting, everyone would like to improve their
memory. And for that, they can follow a systematic series of steps to gain positive results in this
regard. The steps are:

1. Using the keyword technique

2. Rely on organization cues
3. Take effective notes
4. Practice and rehearse
5. Do not believe claims about drugs that improve memory

And, that is how through such series of learning and awareness, a conscious psychological base
can be developed to better retain memories and overcome the problems associated to forgetting

THE END