Gigomo, Marc Anthony F. Week No.

6-8
BTMT1-A MXT133B
PROGRESS CHECK
Instruction: Write your answers in any size of bond paper (typewritten/handwritten) and follow the progress
check answer sheet format (to be sent by your instructor). You may put illustration or drawings in your answers
in the applicable items for additional points.
1. What is the difference between vacancies and self-interstitial?
The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one normally occupied from which
an atom is missing. All crystalline solids contain vacancies and, in fact, it is not possible to create such a
material that is free of these defects. The necessity of the existence of vacancies is explained using
principles of thermodynamics; in essence, the presence of vacancies increases the entropy (i.e., the
randomness) of the crystal. A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded into an interstitial
site, a small void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied . A self-interstitial introduces
relatively large distortions in the surrounding lattice because the atom is substantially larger than the
interstitial position in which it is situated. Consequently, the formation of this defect is not highly probable,
and it exists in very small concentrations, which are significantly lower than for vacancies

2. Why is impurities added in solids?

A pure metal consisting of only one type of atom just isn’t possible; impurity or foreign atoms will always
be present, and some will exist as crystalline point defects.

3. What are the types of impurity point defects found in solid? Describe each.
Substitutional solid solution is when the atoms of solute substitute for the atoms of the solvent in its lattice,
the solution is known as Substitutional solid solution. The solute may incorporate into the solvent crystal
lattice substitutionally by replacing a solvent particle in the lattice. Interstitial solid solution is when the
atoms of the solute occupy the interstitial spaces in the lattice of the solvent, it is known as Interstitial
solid solution. If the size of the solute is less than 40% that of solvent, interstitial solid solution may be
formed. The solute may incorporate into the solvent crystal lattice interstitially, by fitting into the space
between solvent particles.
4. What are the Dislocations–Linear Defects? Briefly describe each.
A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned. One
type of dislocation is represented in an extra portion of a plane of atoms, or half-plane, the edge of which
terminates within the crystal. This is termed an edge dislocation; it is a linear defect that centers on the
line that is defined along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms. This is sometimes termed the dislocation
line, which, for the edge dislocation in, is perpendicular to the plane of the page. Within the region around
the dislocation line there is some localized lattice distortion.
 5. What are the interfacial defects? Briefly describe each.
• External Surfaces- One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along which the
crystal structure terminates. Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest
neighbors, and are therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions. The bonds
of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to a surface energy, expressed in units of
energy per unit area (J/m2 or erg/cm2).
• Grain Boundaries- Another interfacial defect, the grain boundary, was introduced in Section 3.14
as the boundary separating two small grains or crystals having different crystallographic
orientations in polycrystalline materials. A grain boundary is represented schematically from an
atomic perspective. Within the boundary region, which is probably just several atom distances
wide, there is some atomic mismatch in a transition from the crystalline orientation of one grain to
that of an adjacent one.
• Phase Boundaries- Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials (Section 9.3), wherein a
different phase exists on each side of the boundary; furthermore, each of the constituent phases
has its own distinctive physical and/or chemical characteristics. As we shall see in subsequent
chapters, phase boundaries play an important role in determining the mechanical characteristics of
some multiphase metal alloys.
• Twin Boundaries- A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a
specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-
image positions of the atoms on the other side (Figure 4.9). The region of material between these
boundaries is appropriately termed a twin.
6. Give at least two microscopic techniques, show their description/operation and picture of that
techniques/device used.

Microscopic Techniques Description/Operation Picture of the techniques/device used

With optical microscopy, the light

microscope is used to study the
microstructure; optical and
illumination systems are its basic
elements. For materials that are
opaque to visible light (all metals and
many ceramics and polymers), only
the surface is subject to observation,
Optical Microscopy and the light microscope must be
used in a reflecting mode. Contrasts
in the image produced result from
differences in reflectivity of the
various regions of the microstructure.
Investigations of this type are often
termed metallographic, because
metals were first examined using this
technique.
In the past decade and a half, the field
of microscopy has experienced a
revolution with the development of a
new family of scanning probe
microscopes. The scanning probe
microscope (SPM), of which there
are several varieties, differs from
Scanning Probe optical and electron microscopes in
Microscopy that neither light nor electrons are
used to form an image. Rather, the
microscope generates a
topographical map, on an atomic
scale, that is a representation of
surface features and characteristics of
the specimen being examined
7. Briefly explain the difference between self-diffusion and interdiffusion.
The result indicates that copper atoms have migrated or diffused into the nickel, and that nickel has
diffused into copper. This process, whereby atoms of one metal diffuse into another, is termed
interdiffusion, or impurity diffusion. Interdiffusion may be discerned from a macroscopic perspective by
changes in concentration that occur over time, as in the example for the Cu–Ni diffusion couple. There is
a net drift or transport of atoms from high- to low-concentration regions. Diffusion also occurs for pure
metals, but all atoms exchanging positions are of the same type; this is termed self -diffusion. Of course,
self-diffusion is not normally subject to observation by noting compositional changes.

8. Compare interstitial and vacancy atomic mechanisms for diffusion.

One mechanism involves the interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position to an adjacent vacant
lattice site or vacancy, as represented schematically in Figure 5.3a. This mechanism is aptly termed
vacancy diffusion. Of course, this process necessitates the presence of vacancies, and the extent to which
vacancy diffusion can occur is a function of the number of these defects that are present; significant
concentrations of vacancies may exist in metals at elevated temperatures (Section 4.2). The second type
of diffusion involves atoms that migrate from an interstitial position to a neighboring one that is empty.
This mechanism is found for interdiffusion of impurities such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen,
which have atoms that are small enough to fit into the interstitial positions. Host or substitutional impurity
atoms rarely form interstitials and do not normally diffuse via this mechanism. This phenomenon is
appropriately termed interstitial diffusion
9. Cite two reasons why interstitial diffusion is normally more rapid than vacancy diffusion.

• The interstitial atoms are smaller and thus more mobile.

• There are more empty interstitial positions than vacancies; hence, the probability of interstitial
atomic movement is greater than for vacancy diffusion
10. Briefly explain the concept of steady state as it applies to diffusion.
Steady-state diffusion is the diffusion of atoms of a gas through a plate of metal for which the
concentrations (or pressures) of the diffusing species on both surfaces of the plate are held constant.
Instruction: Write your answers in any size of bond paper (softcopy/typewritten) and follow the progress check
answer sheet format (to be sent by your instructor).
1. Give at least three properties of metals and explain why they exhibit those property.

• Solid at room temperature- because their melting point can't be reached at room temperature.
because they have strong intermolecular forces of attraction which cannot be broken at energy
provided at room temperature
• Malleable: they can be shaped- they can be bent and shaped without breaking. This is because they
consist of layers of atoms that can slide over one another when the metal is bent, hammered or
pressed.
• Strong- They have high melting points and boiling points, because the metallic bonding in the
giant structure of a metal is very strong - large amounts of energy are needed to overcome the
metallic bonds in melting and boiling.

2. Why is steel stronger than iron?

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Iron can dissolve very little carbon, and it does that by accepting
carbon atoms within the iron crystal lattice. When steel is heat treated, it is quenched rapidly from a very
high temperature, and excess carbon atoms are trapped in the iron crystal lattice, which distorts the lattice.
This distortion is what hardens the steel alloy. Further heat treatments will allow some of those carbon
atoms to migrate out of the iron lattice and coalesce into separate iron-carbon molecules, thus relaxing the
distortion and reducing the hardness.
3. What is/are the difference between ferrous and non-ferrous materials?
The main difference between ferrous and non-ferrous metals is the presence of iron. Ferrous
metals contain iron while non-ferrous metals do not. Non-ferrous metals have been used for much longer
than ferrous metals.
4. Fill in the table below:
Application with Illustration/Pictures (at least
Item Description
2 picture)
Wire, nail, chain, seam-welded pipes, sheet, plate,
nut, and pipelines.
Typically contain 0.04% to 0.30%
carbon content. This is one of the
largest groups of Carbon Steel. It
covers a great diversity of shapes;
from Flat Sheet to Structural
Beam. Depending on the desired
properties needed, other elements
1. Low Carbon
are added or increased. For
Steel
example: Drawing Quality (DQ) –
The carbon level is kept low and
Aluminum is added, and for
Structural Steel the carbon level is
higher and the manganese content
is increased.

Bolts, axles, crankshafts, gears and railway rails

and tyres.

Typically has a carbon range of

0.31% to 0.60%, and a manganese
content ranging from .060% to
2. Medium 1.65%. This product is stronger
Carbon than low carbon steel, and it is
Steel more difficult to form, weld and
cut. Medium carbon steels are
quite often hardened and tempered
using heat treatment.

Dies, saw blades, anvil faces, chisels, drills, lathe

tools, taps and reamers
Commonly known as “carbon tool
steel” it typically has a carbon
3. High range between 0.61% and 1.50%.
Carbon High carbon steel is very difficult
Steel to cut, bend and weld. Once heat
treated it becomes extremely hard
and brittle.
 Engines (cylinder blocks, liners), transmission
housing, clutch plates and brake drums

Cast iron which contain carbon in

free form, known as Gray cast
iron. It is also known as
commercial cast iron due to mostly
used in commercial purpose. It
contains 3 to 3.5 percentile carbon
4. Gray Iron and rest iron. This cast iron has
low tensile strength, high
compressive strength and no
ductility. It has excellence
machining property. This metal is
designate by FG followed by the
digit show maximum tensile stress.

valves, pump bodies, gears, crankshafts, pistons,

rolls for rolling mills, tubes and door hinges,
automotive engine crankshafts, heavy duty gears,
It is also known as high strength
military and railroad vehicles. Crankshaft,
cast iron. It has high strength. It is Differential housing
obtained from Gray cast iron by
adding small amount of
5. Ductile Iron magnesium to the molten stage. It
is designate by SG followed by the
numbers which indicate tensile
strength and percentage
elongation.
 rollers in rolling mills, connecting rods,
transmission gears, pipefittings, flanges, brake
shoes

Cast iron in which carbon is

present in combined form or in
carbide form known as white cast
iron. White colour is due to
6. White Iron carbide formation. It contains up
to 2.3 percent carbon. It is hard
and not suitable for machining.
This iron has high tensile strength
and a low compressive strength.

bearing caps, steering gear housings, agricultural

equipment, railroad equipment, connecting rods

This cast iron is obtained from

white cast iron by heat treatment
process. It is mostly obtain by
annealing of white cast iron. It has
improved strength and ductility
like steel but can be cast easily. It
7. Malleable
is often used for small castings
Iron
requiring good tensile strength and
the ability to flex without breaking
(ductility). Uses include electrical
fittings, hand tools, pipe fittings,
washers, brackets, fence fittings
etc.
 diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox
housings, brake discs for high-speed trains, and
flywheels

Compacted Graphite Iron, which is

also known as CGI or Vermicular
Graphite Iron, is a form of cast
iron in which the shape of the
graphite particles is between that
8. Compacted of conventional grey iron flakes
Graphite and ductile iron where the graphite
Iron is in spheres. The worm-like
compacted-graphite shape
provides physical properties that
mirror the most beneficial
properties of grey and ductile
irons.

5. Give at least three non-ferrous alloys and fill in the table below.

Application with Illustration/Pictures (at least

Non-ferrous Alloys Description
2 picture)
Copper Copper and copper-based Electrical wire, rivets, gaskets, pitch pans, nails,
alloys, possessing a roofing
desirable combination of
physical properties, have
been utilized in quite a
variety of applications since
antiquity. Unalloyed copper
is so soft and ductile that it
is difficult to machine; also,
it has an almost unlimited
capacity to be cold worked.
Furthermore, it is highly
resistant to corrosion in
diverse environments
including the ambient
atmosphere, seawater, and
some industrial chemicals.
 Aluminum and its alloys Cooking utensils, pressure vessels and piping,
are characterized by a aircraft fuel and oil lines, fuel tanks, appliances,
relatively low density (2.7 rivets, and wire
g/cm3 as compared to 7.9
g/cm3 for steel), high
electrical and thermal
conductivities, and a
resistance to corrosion in
some common
environments, including the
ambient atmosphere. Many
of these alloys are easily
formed by virtue of high
ductility; this is evidenced
Aluminum
by the thin aluminum foil
sheet into which the
relatively pure material may
be rolled. Because
aluminum has an FCC
crystal structure, its
ductility is retained even at
very low temperatures. The
chief limitation of
aluminum is its low melting
temperature [660C
(1220F)], which restricts
the maximum temperature
at which it can be used.
Aircraft and missile industries, photo-engraving,
Perhaps the most
Deoxidizer and desulfurizer in the manufacture of
outstanding characteristic nickel and copper alloys, Magnesium anodes
of magnesium is its density,
provide effective corrosion protection,
1.7 g/cm3, which is the Automotive wheels, housings, transmission cases,
lowest of all the structural
Bicycles and other sporting goods equipment,
metals; therefore, its alloys
Laptops, televisions, cell phones
are used where light weight
is an important
consideration (e.g., in
aircraft components).
Magnesium has an HCP
crystal structure, is
Magnesium relatively soft, and has a
low elastic modulus: 45
GPa (6.5 106 psi). At room
temperature magnesium
and its alloys are difficult to
deform; in fact, only small
degrees of cold work may
be imposed without
annealing. Consequently,
most fabrication is by
casting or hot working at
temperatures between 200
and 350C (400 and 650F).
6. Look for at least three videos related to metal fabrication techniques and fill-in the table below.

Metal Fabrication
Screenshot of the intro/first part of the video and its link
Technique

Drilling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0r978Q7vB8

Punching

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dmj42zD8yEs

Oxy Fuel Cutting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gXuMDxYeqZ4