Runoff

A schematic description of hydrologic cycle (Zhaofei Liu et al. 2017)

 Runoff and its components
Runoff-draining or flowing off of precipitation/water from a
catchment area through a surface channel.
Overland flow-after initial losses (interception plus
depression storage) incl. infiltration, the excess precipitation
moves over the land surface to reach smaller channels,
called overland flow. The water that reaches the stream
channel of a basin in this manner is called surface runoff.
This flows through several smaller channels, join bigger
channels, finally reach the basin outlet.
Interflow/through flow/storm seepage/quick return
flow/subsurface flow -a part of the precipitation that
infilters, obstructed by any impervious layer and returns to
the surface channel …. Types – prompt and delayed.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
 Runoff - i) Direct runoff ii) Base flow
Direct/surface runoff - occurs immediately after the
precipitation. This includes surface runoff, snow-melt,
prompt interflow, channel precipitation.
Base/groundwater/dry-weather- infiltered water
undergoes deep percolation to recharge the GW
storage, and finally reaches the surface channel
after a long time, is called …

Excess Rainfall = Rainfall – Interception - Depression storage –

(Runoff) Infiltration
= Rainfall – Initial loss – Infiltration
= Rainfall – Potential Infiltration
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
 precipitation

evapotranspiration
influent channel

infiltration t ov
to ground water hro erl
percolation ugh and
f
low flo
w
water table evaporation

ground water base flow

effluent channel

Natural flow - streamflow unaffected by human

intervention.
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅0 observed flow − 𝑉𝑟 return flow + 𝑉𝑑 diverted flow
+ 𝐸 net evaporation losses, as affected by reservoir
+ 𝐸𝑋 (net export of water from the basin) ±
+ Δ𝑆.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
 RUNOFF MECHANISM/PROCESS
Runoff can occur only when the rate of precipitation exceeds
the soil infiltration rate after the demands for interception and
surface storages are fulfilled.
▪ When precipitation occurs, a part of rainfall/precipitation is
intercepted by vegetation/obstruction. Interception by dense
covers of forest or shrubs may be as much as 25% of the
precipitation;
▪ After the interception amount is met, some part is stored in
depressions on the ground surface known as depression
storage;
▪ Some part is infiltrated and absorbed by the soil, and then,
starts percolating to recharge groundwater;
▪ When soil is saturated/infiltration exceeds and the depressions
are filled, a thin static layer of surface detention builds up as
temporary storage over the soil surface, which in movement
forms overland flow;
▪ Overland flow or runoff begins, which flows through smaller channels, then
join bigger channels, finally reach the basin outlet. The depth of the water
layer continues to build up on the surface until the runoff rate is in
equilibrium with the rate of precipitation less other losses.
Schematic diagram
of runoff process

Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET

Bank storage - the portion of runoff in a rising flood in a
stream absorbed by the
permeable boundaries,...
Channel storage or valley storage - as the depth of flow
increases with the increase in flow, a certain quantity of water is
stored temporarily within the channel, called channel/valley
storage.
HWL
bank storage
Channel or valley
LWL
storage

seepage lines

If the ground water table is below the water level of the stream,
the seepage from the stream feeds the ground-water - influent
streams.
If ground water table is above water surface, the groundwater
feeds the streams - effluent streams.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
 Factors Affecting Runoff
i) Storm characteristics – type of storm and season,
intensity, duration, areal distribution, frequency,
direction of storm movement, and so on.
ii) Climatic factors – temperature, humidity, wind
velocity, pressure variation.
iii) Catchment characteristics – size, shape, slope,
altitude, topography, geology, land use, orientation,
type of drainage net, proximity to ocean or
mountain, and so on.
iv) Storage characteristics – depressions, pools/lakes,
streams, check dams, upstream reservoirs, swamps,
ground water storage in pervious deposits.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
 http://coolgeography.co.uk/A-
level/AQA/Year%2012/Rivers_Floods/Hydro
Dr. M Alauddin graphs/Hydrographs.htm; 04/03/2018
CED, DUET
 Runoff Computation
➢ to study the economics of the WR project and
to fix the pattern of demands.
• Two methods of runoff computation:
(a) Indirect method (using equations/charts)
(i) Regression analysis
(ii) Empirical relations
(iii) Rational method
(iv) Infiltration method
(v) Using hydrograph
(b) Direct method (doing measurements)

Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET

 (i) Regression Analysis
Two methods of regression – (i) Graphical and (ii)
Analytical method
a) Graphical method
- a curve is traced by eye approximation such that
it passes nearly through the mean of the spread
of all points.
- knowing the value of x, the corresponding value
of y can be read from the graph.
(b) Analytical method
- to fit a curve such that the sum of squares of
departures of observed points from the fitted
function is the minimum.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
i(b) Analytical method …
For N sets of (xi, yi) observations, the line, y = a +
bx, should be so selected that error function,
𝑁
2
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑦𝑜𝑖 − 𝑦𝑒𝑖 should be minimum.
𝑖=1
To evaluate the regression constants a and b, we
substitute yei in the equation by a + bxi,
𝑁
2
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑦𝑜𝑖 − 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1

Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET

i(b) Analytical method …
Since Se should be minimum, differentiating the
equation w.r.t a and b, and equating to zero,

𝑦 − 𝑁𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑥=0 𝑦 = 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑥

𝑥𝑦 − 𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥2 = 0 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑥2

From the above two equations,

(Σy) − 𝑏(Σ𝑥) 𝑁 Σ𝑥𝑦 − (Σ𝑥)(Σ𝑦)

𝑎= 𝑏=
𝑁 𝑁 Σ𝑥 2 − (Σ𝑥)2

Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET

 i(b) Analytical method …
The parameters that decide goodness of fit of the
curve are the standard error of estimate (See)
and correlation coefficient (r):
𝑁
1 2
𝑆𝑒
𝑆𝑒𝑒 = 𝑦𝑜𝑖 − 𝑦𝑒𝑖 =
𝑁 𝑁
𝑖=1

𝑁 Σ𝑥𝑦 − (Σ𝑥)(Σy)
𝑟=
[𝑁 Σx 2 − Σx 2 ][𝑁 Σy 2 − Σy 2 ]

𝑟 → 1 indicates a close linear relationship. In hydrology, the

value of r should be greater than 0.60.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET
i(b) Analytical method …
If a linear relationship cannot be fitted, a quadratic
parabola can be used as the fitting curve,
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
Three normal equations are:
𝑦 = 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 2
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥 2 + 𝑐 𝑥 3
𝑥2𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑏 𝑥3 + 𝑐 𝑥4
For large catchments, there may have exponential
correlation as, 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑃𝑛
The regression constants m, n can be determined transforming
the equation into linear form taking log on both sides.
Whichever fitting gives 𝑟 → 1 , that curve fitting is adopted.
Dr. M Alauddin CED, DUET