1.

Operational control or task control is the process of assuring that specific

tasks are carried out effectively and efficiently. The focus of operational
control is on individual tasks or operations. For instance, it is concerned
with scheduling and controlling individual jobs through a shop rather
than with measuring the performance of the shop as a whole. It involves
control over individual items for inventory rather than the management of
the inventor as a whole.

Focus: The focus of operational control is limited to a single task or operation.

Nature: An operational control system is a rational system because the action

to be taken is decided by a set of logical rules.

Time Horizon: The time horizon of operational control tends to be day-to-day.

Type of Data Used: Operational control dam is open non-monetary.

Analogies Techniques: In operational control systems, analogies within

technical, electrical and hydraulic systems are reasonable and useful.

Techniques: Operations Research (OR) techniques are widely applied in

operational control because the activities are programmable.

Role of System: In operational control, on the other hand, the system, itself is
relatively more important because of the degree of involvement of the
managers small.

No. of data sources: The typical operational Control problem uses data from
very few sources.

Source of data: Operational control requires more data from internal sources.

2. In the theory of linear programming, a basic feasible solution is a solution with a minimal
set of non-zero variables. Geometrically, each BFS corresponds to a corner of the
polyhedron of feasible solutions. If there exists an optimal solution, then there exists an
optimal BFS.
3. The queue discipline indicates the order in which members of the queue are
selected for service. It is most frequently assumed that the customers are served on
a first come first serve basis. This is commonly referred to as FIFO (first in, first out)
system. ... Such a system is known as service in random order (SIRO).
5. Independent float is that portion of the total float within which an activity can be
delayed for start without affecting the float of the preceding activities. It is computed
for an activity by subtracting the tail event slack from its total float.
6. The critical path method (CPM) is a step-by-step project management technique for
process planning that defines critical and non-critical tasks with the goal of preventing
time-frame problems and process bottlenecks. ... Create a flowchart or other diagram
showing each task in relation to the others.
 7. A pure strategy provides a complete definition of how a player will play a game. ... In
particular, it determines the move a player will make for any situation they could face.
A player's strategy set is the set of pure strategies available to that player.
8. In game theory and economic theory, a zero-sum game is a mathematical representation
of a situation in which an advantage that is won by one of two sides is lost by the other. If
the total gains of the participants are added up, and the total losses are subtracted, they
will sum to zero.
9. Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with probability. Although there
are several different probability interpretations, probability theory treats the concept in a
rigorous mathematical manner by expressing it through a set of axioms.
10. Mutually exclusive events are events that can't both happen, but should not be
considered independent events. Independent events have no impact on the
viability of other options. For a basic example, consider the rolling of dice. You cannot
roll both a five and a three simultaneously on a single die.
11. Network is a technique used for planning and scheduling of large projects in the fields
of. construction, maintenance, fabrication, purchasing, computer system
instantiation, research. and development planning etc. There is multitude
of operations research situations that can. be modeled and solved as network.

13. Classifications of Operation Research Models.

The various classification schemes of operation Research models are discussed

below:

1.      Classification by degree of abstraction. With then aforesaid liberty in the

definition of a model (i.e. it may or may not be a physical construct) whatever we
sneak or write or read is after all a model. Surely when we speak or write we
describe some event or whatever which though we canot do perfectly well because
of our mastery of the language and the limitations too. For example in the case of a
cricket match commentary the commentator who is modelling the palsy for his
audience is usually under time limitations. All such models are language models.
Business case studies are such models in our4 context

Language models are far more abstract than the concrete model like a globe of the
earth or the model planes mounted in wind tunnels since they (the concrete
models) are at once suggestive of the shape or properties or characteristics sought
after or the modeled entity. However even more abstract than the language models
are the mathematical models (viz., the break even equation or linear programming
formulation of the product mix problem). Because to get the idea of the real life
situation they represent requires mathematical training and on the top of that
considerable concentration.

2.      Classification according to Structure.

(a)    Iconic (physical) Model. Iconic model is a physical representation of some item
either in an idealized form or on a different scale i.e. a representation is an iconic
model to the extent that its properties are the same as possessed by what it
represents. A photograph, cyclograph, a blueprint and a painting are iconic models
of persons or objects. The toy aero plane is an iconic model of a real aero plane, A
globe is an iconic model of the earth, an iconic model is said to be scaled down
when the dimensions of the model are smaller than those of the real object for
example a globe representing the earth or a blueprint representing a floor of a
building. The model is said to be scaled up when it is bigger than the real item in
biology, the structure of a cell may be depicted by an enlarged model for teaching
purposes and similarly an atom in physics.

            Commonly an iconic model represents a static event. Characteristics that are
not considered in the analysis for which the model is constructed are not included
in the model. For example, in the use of a model in the study of the structure of an
atom the colour of the model is irrelevant because this particular fact does not
afford any scientific study of the atom. Models of automobiles used in the study of a
parking problem need is its dimensions i.e., tow dimensions (photo blueprints
maps) or three dimensions (small airplane globe atom). When a model surpasses
the third dimension it is no longer possible to construct it physically.

(b)   Analogue (schematic) Model. It represents a system or an object of the inquiry

by utilizing a set of properties different from what the original system possesses.
After the model is solved the solution is re-interpreted in terms of the original
system. For example an analogue computer is the physical representation of the
variables in a problem. Also graphs are very simple analogues. They represent
properties like force, speed, age, time, etc.., in terms of distance. A graph is well
suited for representing quantitative relationship between any two properties and
predicts how a change in one property effects the other.

            An organizational chart is a common analogue model. It represents the

relationships existing between the various members of the organization. A man
machine chart is also schematic model. It represents a time varying interaction of
men and machines ovier a complete work cycle. A flow process chart is another
schematic model which irepresents the other of occurrence of various events to
make a product. Contour lines on a map are analogue of the flow of electricity
through wires. Similarly demand curves and frequency distribution curves used in
statistics are example of analogue models.

            Simiarly a map is an analogue model which shows roads highways towns and
their inter-relationship. Hence an analogue model represents one set of properties
by another set of properties. Analogue models can represent dynamic situation and
they are customarily used more than iconic models because of their vast capacity to
depict the characteristics of the event under consideration.

(c ) symbolic Models (syn, Mahemaical Models) are those which employ a set of
symbols (i.e. letters numbers etc.) and functions to represent the decision variables
and their relationships to describe the behaviour or the system the symbols used
generally mathematical or logical in character. They are by far the most widely
employed in an O.R. study because of the great deal of complexity associated with
an organization. A symbolic or mathematical model consists of a set of equations
which define and specify the relationship and interactions among various elements
of decision problem under study. The solution of the problem is then obtained by
applying well-developed mathematical techniques to the model.

            The advantages of mathematical models over other types of models may be
summarized as under.

-          Are precise abstract and general rather than restricted

-          Transformation of a model from a verbal to a mathematical from makes far

greater clarification of existing and likely relationships and interactions among
variables.

-          Promote greater case of communication because mathematical terminology

is standardized unlike that of social sciences.

-          Being logical are more objective while verbal constructs lean heavily on
intuition.

-          Analysis that is not feasible through verbal models may be advanced by
mathematical models since they tend themselves to analysis and manipulation by
utilizing the laws of mathematical

Remark. The nature and structure of mathematical models A mathematical model

includes principally there basic set of elements these are:

(i)     Decision variables and parameters. These decision variables are the unknowns
(for decision) which are to determined by solving the model. The parameters are the
known values that relate the decision variables to the constraints and objective
function. The parameters of the model may either be  or probabilistic (stochastic)

(ii)   Constraints. To account for the technological economic and other limitations of
the system the model include constraints (implicit or explicit) that restrict the
decision variables to a range of feasible values.
(iii)  Objective function. The objective function defines the measure of effectiveness
of the system as a mathematical function of the decision variables. An optimal
solution to the model is obtained when the values of the decision variables yield a
best value of the objective function of subject to the constraints. A poor or
inappropriate formulation of the objective function can only lead to a poor solution
to the problem a common example of this occurs when some aspects of the system
are neglected. For example in determining the optimal production level of a certain
product the objective function may reflect only the goals of the production
department while neglecting the goals of marketing and finance in such cases. The
model yields as suboptimal solution which may not serve the best interest of the
entire organization.

3.      Classification by purpose. Models can be classified by purpose. The purpose

of a model may be to describe predict or prescribe.

(a)   Descriptive models. A descriptive model simply describes some aspects of a

situation based on observation survey questionnaire results or other available data
the result of an opinion poll represents a descriptive model. Descriptive models
describe, and predict facts and relationships among the variables of the problem.
These are used to observe and study the performance of a complex system with a
view to understanding it better. No optimal solutions are attempted only the system
parameters are depicted in the form of equations. In a descriptive model. It is
possible to get information as to how one or more factors change as a result of
changes in other factors. They are useful for explanatory and predictive purposes.

(b)   Normative or prescriptive models develop objective decision rules or criteria for

optimal solutions. Some problems lend themselves to prescriptive format. These
are well-structured problems and could be dealt with as if their solution does not
have noticeable reactions on the other components or problems of the system of
which they are a part. Normative models are applicable to repetitive problems. The
solution process of which could be programmed with little managerial involvement.
Linear programming is a normative or prescriptive model, because it prescribes
what the managers outght to do.

4.      Classification by Nature of the Environment.   

(a)   Deterministic Models. In deterministic models, parameters are completely

defined and the outcomes related to particular course of action are certain.
Certainty is the state of nature assumed in deterministic models. In other words,
deterministic models represent completely closed systems and the results of the
models assume single values only. For any given set of input variables the same
output variables always result. Linear programming and Break-even models are
examples of deterministic models.

(b)   Probabilities Models. These models handle those situations in which the

consequence or payoff of managerial actions cannot be predicted with certainty.
These models are the products of are environment of risk and uncertainty. The
input and or the output variables take the form of probability distributions and
assume more than single values. The advantage of  a probabilistic model is that it
offers an evaluation of the likelihood of any event or result. In other words
probabilistic models reflect to some extent the complexity of the real world and the
uncertainty surrounding it. They are probably semi closed models.

5.      Classification according to behavior characteristics.

(a)   Static Models. These models do not consider the impact of changes that takes
place durying the planning horizon i.e. they are independent of time. Also in static
model only one decision is needed for the duration of a given time period. In a static
model, cause and effect are almost immediate and no time lag is allowed.
Alternatively the effects of time are considered linear and as such do not affect the
model output basically. Static models are easier to handle and understand.

(b)   Dynamic models. These models consider time as one of the important variables
and admit the impact of change generated by time. Also in dynamic models, not
one, but a series of interdependent decision, is required during the planning
horizon. The time dimensions has a definite impact on the model so solution, and
on the interpretation of the results.

6.      Classification according to procedure of solution.

(a)   Analytical models. These models have specified mathematical structure and

they can be solved by known analytical or mathematical techniques. For example,
the general linear programming model as well as the special structured
transportation and assignments models is analytical models.

(b)   Simulation and heuristic Models. The development of the ditital computer has
led to the introduction of two other of modelling in O.R. these are (i). Simulation and
(ii). Heuristic models. Simulation modelling has the advantage of being more flexible
than mathematical modelling and hence may be used to represent complex
systems which otherwise cannot be formulated mathematically. On the other hand
simulation has the disadvantage of not yielding general solutions like those
obtained from successful mathematical models.

14. Methodology of Operation Research:

Quantitative basis for decision making is provided to managers by
O.R. it enhances a manager’s ability to make long range plans and
to solve the routine problems of running a enterprise/concern OR is
a systematic and logical approach to provide a rational footing for
taking decisions. Operation research, like scientific research is
based on scientific methodology which involves following steps.

1. Formulating the Problem:

OR is a research into the operation of a man machine
organisation and must consider the economics of the
operation in formulating a problem for O.R. study
analysis must be made of the following major
components:
(i) The environment.

(ii) The objectives.

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(iii) The decision maker.

(iv) The alternative courses of action and constraints out of the

above four component, environment is most comprehensive as it
provides a setting for the remaining three. The operation researcher
shall attend conferences, pay visits, send observation and perform
research work thus succeeds in getting sufficient date to formulate
the problems.

2. Constructing a Model to Represent the System under

Study:
Once the project is approved by the management, the next step is to
construct a model for the system under study. The operation
researcher can now construct the model to show the relations and
interrelations between a cause and effect or between an action and a
reaction.

Now the aim of operation researcher is to develop a model which

enables him to forecast the effect of factors crucial to the solution of
given problem. The proposed model may be tested and modified in
order to work under stated environmental constraints. A model may
also be modified if the management is not satisfied by its
performance.

3. Deriving Solution from the Model:

A solution may be extracted from a model either by conducting
experiments on it i.e., by simulation or by mathematical analysis.
No model will work appropriately if the data is not appropriate.
Such information may be available from the results of experiments
or from hunches based on experience.

The data collection can clearly effect the models output

significantly. Operation researcher should not assume that once he
has defined his objective and model, he has achieved his aim of
solving the problem. The required data collection consumes time to
prepare if date collection errors are to be minimized

4. Testing the Model and the Solution Derived from it:

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As has been pointed out earlier a model is never a perfect

representation of reality. But if properly formulated and correctly
manipulated, it may be useful in providing/predicting the effect of
changes in control variables on overall system effectiveness.
The usefulness or utility of a model is checked by finding out how
well it predicts the effect of these changes. Such an analyse is
usually known as sensitivity analysis. The utility or validity of the
solution can be verified by comparing the results obtained without
applying the solution with the results obtained when it is used.

5. Establishing Controls over the Solution:

The next phase for the operation researcher is to explain his
findings to the management. It may be pointed out that he should
specify those conditions under which the solution can be utilized.

He should also point out weaknesses if any so that management will

know what risks they are taking while employing the model to
generate results. Thus he should also specify the limits with in
which the results obtained from using the model are valid. He
should also define those conditions under which the model will not
work.

6. Implementation of the Solution:

The last phase of the operation research methodology is
implementation of solutions obtained in the previous steps. In
operation research though decision making is scientific but its
implementation involves so many behavioural issues. Therefore the
implementing authority has to resolve the behavioural issues. He
has to sell the idea of utility of O.R not only to the workers but also
to superiors.

The distance between O.R scientist and management may create

huddles thus the gap between one who provides a solution and the
other who wants to utilize it must be eliminated. To achieve this
both the management and O.R scientist should play positive role A
 properly implemented solution obtained through application of O.R
techniques results in improved working conditions and gains the
management support.

17. Essential
features of Queuing Management system in
Operations Research

The essential features of queing management system in operations research are

The Service Mechanism

 A description of the resources needed for service to begin
 How long the service will take (the service time distribution)
 The number of servers available
 Whether the servers are in series (each server has a separate queue) or in parallel
(one queue for all servers)
 Whether preemption is allowed (a server can stop processing a customer to deal
with another "emergency" customer)

Assuming that the service times for customers are independent and do not depend upon
the arrival process is common. Another common assumption about service times is that
they are exponentially distributed.

The Queue Discipline

In the queue structure, the important thing to know is the queue discipline. The queue
discipline is the order or manner in which customers from the queue are selected for
service.
There are a number of ways in which customers in the queue are served. Some of these
are:
(a) Static queue disciplines are based on the individual customer's status in the queue.
Few of such disciplines are:
i. If the customers are served in the order of their arrival, then this is known as
the first-come, first-served (FCFS) service discipline. Prepaid taxi queue at airports
where a taxi is engaged on a first-come, first-served basis is an example of this discipline.
ii. Last-come-first-served (LCFS)-- Sometimes, the customers are serviced in the
reverse order of their entry so that the ones who join the last are served first. For
example, assume that letters to be typed, or order forms to be processed accumulate in a
pile, each new addition being put on the top of them. The typist or the clerk might process
these letters or orders by taking each new task from the top of the pile. Thus, a just
arriving task would be the next to be serviced provided that no fresh task arrives before it
is picked up. Similarly, the people who join an elevator last are the first ones to leave it.
 (b) Dynamic queue disciplines are based on the individual customer attributes in the
queue. Few of such disciplines are:
i. Service in Random Order (SIRO)-- Under this rule customers are selected for
service at random, irrespective of their arrivals in the service system. In this every
customer in the queue is equally likely to be selected. The time of arrival of the customers
is, therefore, of no relevance in such a case.
ii. Priority Service-- Under this rule customers are grouped in priority classes on the
basis of some attributes such as service time or urgency or according to some
identifiable characteristic, and FCFS rule is used within each class to provide service.
Treatment of VIPs in preference to other patients in a hospital is an example of priority
service.