UNIT-V LATTICES AND BOOLEAN

ALGEBRA

• Partial Ordering.
• Posets.
• Lattices as Posets.
• Properties of Lattices.
• Lattices as Algebraic Systems.
• Sub Lattices.
• Direct product and homomorphism.
• Some special Lattices.
• Boolean Algebra.
 Partial Ordering

A relation 𝑹 on a set 𝑨 is called a partial

ordering or partial order relation, if 𝑹 is
reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive.
(i.e) 𝑹 is a partial order relation on 𝑨 if it has the
following three properties.
• 𝐚𝐑𝐚 for every 𝐚 ∈ 𝐀
• 𝐚𝐑𝐛 and 𝐛𝐑𝐚 ⟹ 𝐚 = 𝐛
• 𝐚𝐑𝐛 and 𝐛𝐑𝐜 ⟹ 𝐚𝐑𝐜
 Poset

A set 𝑨 together with a partial order

relation 𝑹 is called a partially ordered set
or poset.

Example :

The greater than or equal to ≥ relation is

a partial ordering on the set of integers 𝒁,
Since

𝒂 𝒂 ≥ 𝒂 for every integer 𝒂

(i.e) ≥ is reflexive.

𝒃 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≥ 𝒂 ⟹ 𝒂 = 𝒃

(i.e) ≥ is anti symmetric

𝒄 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≥ 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒂 ≥ 𝒄

(i.e) ≥ is transitive.

Hence, 𝒁 , ≥ is a poset.
1. Show that 𝑵 ,≤ is a partially ordered set
where 𝑵 is set of all positive integers and ≤ is
defined by 𝒎 ≤ 𝒏 iff 𝒏 − 𝒎 is a non-negative
integer.

Solution :
To prove 𝑵 , ≤ is a partially ordered set, we have
to prove the relation ≤ is reflexive, anti
symmetric and transitive.
(i) As 𝒂 − 𝒂 = 𝟎 which is a non-negative integer,
𝒂 ≤𝒂
Therefore, ≤ is a reflexive.
(ii) Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂

𝒃 − 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒂 − 𝒃 ≥ 𝟎

This is possible only if 𝒃 − 𝒂 = 𝟎 = 𝒂 − 𝒃

Therefore, 𝒂 = 𝒃

(i.e) ≤ is anti symmetric.

(iii) Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄

𝒃 − 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒄 − 𝒃 ≥ 𝟎

𝒄 −𝒃+𝒃 −𝒂 ≥𝟎
 𝒄 −𝒂 ≥𝟎

𝒂 ≤𝒄

(i.e) 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄

Therefore, ≤ is transitive.

Hence, 𝑵 , ≤ is a partially ordered set.

2. If 𝑹 is the relation on the set of integers such
that 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 if and only if 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒎 for some
positive integer 𝒎 , show that 𝑹 is a partial
ordering.

Solution :

(i) As 𝒂 = 𝒂𝟏
𝒂 ,𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
Therefore, 𝑹 is reflexive.
(ii) Assume 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹

Then 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒎 and 𝒂 = 𝒃𝒏 , where 𝒎 and 𝒏

are positive integers.

𝒂 = 𝒂𝒎 𝒏

𝒂 = 𝒂𝒎𝒏

𝒎𝒏=𝟏

(i.e) 𝒎 = 𝟏 and 𝒏 = 𝟏

Therefore, 𝒂 = 𝒃

Hence, 𝑹 is anti symmetric.

(iii) Assume 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑹
Then 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒎 and 𝒄 = 𝒃𝒏 where 𝒎 and 𝒏 are
positive integers.
𝒄 = 𝒃𝒏
𝒄 = 𝒂𝒎 𝒏

𝒄 = 𝒂𝒎𝒏
𝒄 = 𝒂𝒌 where 𝒌 is a positive integer.
⟹ 𝒂 ,𝒄 ∈ 𝑹
Therefore, 𝑹 is transitive.
As 𝑹 is reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive, 𝑹
is a partial order relation.
3. Let 𝑹 be a relation on a set 𝑨. Then define
𝑹−𝟏 = 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨 × 𝑨/ 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹 . Prove that if
𝑨 , 𝑹 is poset then 𝑨 , 𝑹−𝟏 is also a poset.

Solution :

Given 𝑹 is a partial order relation.

(i) 𝑹 is reflexive ⟹ 𝒂 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹

Then its inverse 𝒂 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹−𝟏

⟹ 𝑹−𝟏 is reflexive.

(ii) 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹−𝟏 and 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹−𝟏

Their inverse 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹

Since 𝑹 is anti symmetric, 𝒂 = 𝒃
⟹ 𝑹−𝟏 is also anti symmetric.
(iii) 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹−𝟏 and 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑹−𝟏
Their inverses 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒄 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹
Since 𝑹 is transitive 𝒄 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
⟹ 𝒄 ,𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
Therefore, its inverse 𝒂 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑹−𝟏
(i.e) 𝑹−𝟏 is transitive.
Hence 𝑨 , 𝑹−𝟏 is also a poset.
 Hasse Diagrams for Partial Orderings

The simplified form of the digraph of a partial

ordering on a finite set that contains
sufficient information about the partial
ordering is called a Hasse diagram.

The Hasse diagram representing a partial

ordering can be obtained from its digraph by
removing all the loops, by removing all edges
that are present due to transitivity and by
drawing each edge without arrow so that
its initial vertex is below its terminal
vertex.
1. Draw the Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒
and ≤ is a relation such that 𝒙 ≤ 𝒚 if and only if
𝒙|𝒚 .

Solution : The Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒

is given by
24

12

2 3
2. Draw the Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐
and ≤ is a relation such that 𝒙 ≤ 𝒚 if and only if
𝒙|𝒚 .

Solution :

The Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐 is given

12
by

4 6

2 3

1
3. Draw the Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟐𝟒 , | where 𝑺𝟐𝟒
denotes the set of positive divisors of 𝟐𝟒 and |
denotes the relation “division”.

Solution :
𝑺𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒

The Hasse diagram for 𝑺𝟐𝟒 , | is given by

 24

8 12

4 6

2 3

1
4. Obtain the Hasse diagram of 𝑷 𝑨𝟑 , ⊆ where
𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 .

Solution :

Given 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑
𝑷 𝑨𝟑
= ∅ , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟏 ,𝟐 , 𝟏 ,𝟑 , 𝟐 ,𝟑 , 𝟏 ,𝟐,𝟑

The Hasse diagram of 𝑷 𝑨𝟑 , ⊆ is given by

 {1,2,3}

{1,2} {1,3} {2,3}

{1} {2} {3}

{φ}
Greatest Member :

If there exists an element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑷 such

that 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 for all 𝒃 ∈ 𝑷, then 𝒂 is called the
greatest member of the poset 𝑷 , ≤ .

Least Member :

If there exists an element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑷 such that

𝐚 ≤ 𝒃 for all 𝒃 ∈ 𝑷, then 𝒂 is called the least
member of the poset 𝑷 , ≤ .
Maximal Member :

When 𝑷 , ≤ is a poset, an element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑷

is called a maximal member of 𝑷, if there
is no element 𝒃 ∈ 𝑷 such that 𝒂 < 𝒃.

Minimal Member :

When 𝑷 , ≤ is a poset, an element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑷 is

called a minimal member of 𝑷, if there is
no element 𝒃 ∈ 𝑷 such that 𝐛 < 𝒂.
Note :
1. The maximal, minimal, the greatest and
least member of a poset can be easily
identified using the Hasse diagram of the
poset. They are the top and bottom
element in the diagram.
2. A poset can have more than one maximal
member and more than one minimal
member whereas the greatest and least
member, when they exist, are unique.
Upper Bound :
When 𝑨 is a subset of a poset 𝑷 , ≤ and if 𝒖 is
an element of 𝑷 such that 𝒂 ≤ 𝒖 for all
elements 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 , then 𝒖 is called an upper
bound of 𝑨.
Lower Bound :
When 𝑨 is a subset of a poset 𝑷 , ≤ and if 𝐥 is
an element of 𝑷 such that 𝐥 ≤ 𝒂 for all
elements 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨, then 𝐥 is called a lower bound
of 𝑨.
 Least Upper Bound

The element 𝒙 is called the least upper

bound (LUB) or supremum of the subset 𝑨
of a poset 𝑷 , ≤ , if 𝒙 is an upper bound
that is less than every other upper bound
of 𝑨.
 Greatest Lower Bound

The element 𝐲 is called the greatest lower

bound (GLB) or infimum of the subset 𝑨 of
a poset 𝑷 , ≤ , if 𝐲 is a lower bound that is
greater than every other lower bound of 𝑨.
 Lattices

A partially ordered set 𝑳 ,≤ in which

every pair of elements has a least upper
bound and a greatest lower bound is called
a lattice.
The 𝑳𝑼𝑩 of a subset 𝒂, 𝒃 ⊆ 𝑳 is denoted by
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 or 𝒂 ⊕ 𝒃 or 𝒂 + 𝒃 or 𝒂 ∪ 𝒃 and is called
the join or sum of 𝒂 and 𝒃.

The 𝐆𝐋𝐁 of a subset 𝒂, 𝒃 ⊆ 𝑳 is denoted by

𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 or 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 or 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 or 𝒂 ∩ 𝒃 and is called
the meet or product of 𝒂 and 𝒃.
1. Draw the Hasse diagram representing the
partial ordering 𝑨 ,𝑩 ;𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 on the power set
𝑷 𝑺 where 𝑺 = 𝒂 ,𝒃 ,𝒄 . Find the maximal,
minimal, greatest and least elements of the poset.

Solution :
Given 𝑺 = 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄
𝑷 𝑺
= ∅ , 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒂 ,𝒃 , 𝒂 ,𝒄 , 𝒃 ,𝒄 , 𝒂 ,𝒃 ,𝒄
The Hasse diagram is given by

{a,b,c}

{a,b} {a,c} {b,c}

{a} {b} {c}

{φ}
1. The element 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 does not precede
any element of the poset and hence it is
the only maximal element of the poset.

2. The element ∅ does not succeed any

element of the poset and hence it is the
only minimal element.
3. All the elements of the poset are related
to 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 and precede it. Hence 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄
is the greatest element of the poset.

4. All the elements of the poset are related

to ∅ and succeed it. Hence ∅ is the
least element of the poset.
2. Let 𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 and the
relation 𝑹 be divisor on 𝑫𝟑𝟎 . Find
(i) all the lower bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(ii) the 𝒈𝒍𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(iii) all upper bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(iv) the 𝒍𝒖𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(v) Draw the Hasse diagram.
Solution :

Given 𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎

The Hasse diagram is given by

30

6 10 15

2 3 5

1
(i) All the lower bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 are 𝟏

and 𝟓.

(ii) The 𝒈𝒍𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 is 𝟓.

(iii) All the upper bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 is 𝟑𝟎.

(iv) The 𝒍𝒖𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 is 𝟑𝟎.

3. Determine whether the poset
represented by the Hasse diagram given
below are lattices.
f

c d

a
Solution :
The poset represented by the Hasse
diagram is a lattice, since every pair of
elements of this poset have both least
upper bound and greatest lower bound.
 Lattice as Algebraic System

A lattice is an algebraic system 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧

with two binary operations ∨ and ∧ on 𝑳
which satisfy the commutative, associative
and absorption law.
Commutative Law :
For any 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳, we have
(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂
Associative Law :

For any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳, we have

(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄
Absorption Law :

For any 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳, we have

(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒂
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒂
If 𝒂 , 𝒃 are not related (non comparable)
avb

a b

a^b
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒂 𝒂 ≤𝒂∨𝒃
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒃 𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
Also 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
If 𝒂 , 𝒃 are related (comparable)
b

Then, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = smaller among 𝒂 , 𝒃

𝒂 𝒃 = larger among 𝒂 , 𝒃
4. Let 𝑳 , ≤ be a lattice. For any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳, prove
that 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 ⟺ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ⟺ 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 where ∗ and
denote the operations of meet and join
respectively.

Solution :
Given for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳,
𝒂 ≤𝒃 ⟺𝒂∗𝒃=𝒂⟺𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
In otherwords,
1. 𝐚 𝒃 = 𝒃 iff 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
2. 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝐚 iff 𝐚 ≤ 𝐛

3. 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝒂 iff 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃

(1) Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃

𝒃 ≤ 𝒃 (By refexive)

𝒂 𝒃≤𝒃 ------ (1)

𝒃 ≤𝒂 𝒃 ------ (2) (By definition of 𝑳𝑼𝑩)

From (1) and (2), by antisymmetric, we have

𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
Conversely,

If 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃 ------- (3)

𝒂 ≤𝒂 𝒃

𝒂 ≤𝒃 [By (3)]

(2) Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃

𝐚 ≤ 𝒂 (By refexive)

𝐚≤𝒂∗𝒃 ------ (4)

𝐚 ∗ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ------ (5) (By definition of 𝐆𝐋𝐁)

From (4) and (5), by antisymmetric, we
have

𝒂 ∗𝒃=𝒂

Conversely,

If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ------- (6)

𝒂 ∗𝒃 ≤𝒃

𝒂 ≤𝒃 [By (6)]
(3) Let 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂

𝒃 𝒂 ∗𝒃 =𝒃 𝒂

𝒃 𝒃 ∗𝒂 =𝒂 𝒃 [By Commutative law]

𝒃=𝒂 𝒃 [By Absorption law]

(i.e) 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃

Conversely, let 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃

𝒂 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 =𝒂∗𝒃

𝒂 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 [By Absorption law]

(i.e) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂.
5. State and prove the distributive inequalities
of a lattice.

Solution :
Statement :
Distributive Inequality :

If 𝑳 , ≤ is a lattice, then for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳

(i) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 ≥ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄
Proof :
(i) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 ≥ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄
By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒂
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒃 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 ------------(1)
By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have
𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒂
𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒄 ≤𝒃 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 ------------(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 ≥ 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄
By definition of 𝑳𝑼𝑩, we have
𝒂 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have
𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ------------ (3)
By definition of 𝑳𝑼𝑩, we have

𝒂 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒄

By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have

𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒄 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒄

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 ------------ (4)

From (3) and (4), we have

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
6. State and prove modular inequality of a
lattice.

Solution :
Statement :
Modular Inequality :

If 𝑳 , ≤ is a lattice, then for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳,

𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 iff 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄.
Proof :
Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
Then 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒄 ----------- (1)
By distributive inequality, we have

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 [By (1)]

Conversely,

Assume 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄

𝒂 ≤𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒄

(i.e) 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄

Hence, proved.
7. State and prove isotonic inequality of a
lattice.

Solution :
Statement :
Isotonic inequality :
If 𝑳 , ≤ is a lattice, then for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳,
𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 ⟹ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 and
𝒂 𝒄 ≤𝒃 𝒄
Proof :
We know that
In a lattice,
𝒂 ≤𝒃 ⇔𝒂∗𝒃=𝒂 ⇔𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 ………..(A)
Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 and 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 ……… (1)
Now, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄
[By Associative law]
𝐚 ∗𝐜 ∗ 𝐛 ∗𝐜 =𝐚 ∗ 𝐛∗𝐜 ∗𝐜

[By Commutative law]

= 𝒂 ∗𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ∗𝒄

[By Associative law]

=𝒂 ∗𝒄

[By (1) and Idempotent law]

By (A), we have

𝒂 ∗𝒄 ≤𝒃 ∗𝒄
𝒂 𝒄 𝒃 𝒄 =𝒂 𝒄 𝒃 𝒄
[By Associative law]
𝐚 𝐜 𝐛 𝐜 =𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐜
[By Commutative law]
= 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒄
[By Associative law]
=𝒃 𝒄
[By (1) and Idempotent law]
By (A), we have
𝒂 𝒄 ≤𝒃 𝒄.
 Distributive Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ is called a distributive

lattice, if for any element 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳

𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄

and 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
 Modular Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ is called a modular

lattice, if for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳,

𝒂 ≤ 𝒄, then

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄.
1. Examine whether the lattice given in the
following Hasse diagram is distributive or
not.
1

a b c

0
Solution :

To prove 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝟎
=𝒂 ………..…(1)
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝟏 ∧𝟏
=𝟏 ……………(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≠ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
Therefore, the lattice is not a distributive
lattice.
2. Show that cancellation laws are valid in
distributive lattice.

Solution :

Cancellation Law :

If 𝑳 ,∗ , is a distributive lattice and if

𝒂 ∗𝒃=𝒂 ∗𝒄 and 𝒂 𝒃=𝒂 𝒄 for all
𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳 , then 𝒃 = 𝒄.
Proof :

Given 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ………..(1)

𝒂 𝒃=𝒂 𝒄 ……….(2)

𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 =𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒄 [By (2)]

=𝒄 ∗ 𝒄 𝒂

[By Commutative law]

𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒄 …………..(3)

[By Absorption law]

Also 𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒄 ∗𝒂 𝒄 ∗𝒃
= 𝒂 ∗𝒄 𝒃 ∗𝒄
[By Commutative law]
= 𝒂 ∗𝒃 ⊕ 𝒃 ∗𝒄 [By (1)]
= 𝒃 ∗𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄
[By Commutative law]
=𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 𝒄
[By Distributive law]
𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 =𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 [By (2)]

=𝒃 ∗ 𝒃 𝒂

[By Commutative law]

𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 ………… (4)

[By Absorption law]

From (3) and (4), we have

𝒃 = 𝒄.
3. Prove that every distributive lattice is
modular. Is the converse true ? Justify your
claim.

Solution :

Let 𝑳 ,∗ , be a distributive lattice.

We have to prove that 𝑳 ,∗ , is a modular

lattice.

(i.e) To prove that for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳

𝒂 ≤ 𝒄, 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄
Since 𝑳 is a distributive lattice, for any
𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳, we have
𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 𝒄
If 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 , then 𝒂 𝒄=𝒄
Therefore, 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄
Thus, the modularity condition is satisfied
Hence, 𝑳 is a modular lattice.
The converse is not true.
For example, the diamond lattice is modular
but not distributive.
 Bounded Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 is said to have a lower bound

denoted by 𝟎, if 𝟎 ≤ 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳.

Similarly, 𝑳 is said to have an upper bound

denoted by 𝟏, if 𝒂 ≤ 𝟏 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳.

The lattice 𝑳 is said to be bounded lattice

if it has both a lower bound 𝟎 and an upper
bound 𝟏.
The bounds 𝟎 and 𝟏 of a lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ , 𝟎 , 𝟏
satisfy the following identities, which are seen
to be true by the meanings of ∨ and ∧.

For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳, 𝒂 ∨ 𝟏 = 𝟏 ; 𝒂 ∧ 𝟏 = 𝒂 and

𝒂 ∨𝟎=𝒂; 𝒂 ∧𝟎=𝟎

Since, 𝒂 ∨ 𝟎 = 𝒂 and 𝒂 ∧ 𝟏 = 𝒂, 𝟎 is the identity

of the operation ∨ and 1 is the identity
element of the operation ∧.

Since, 𝒂 ∨ 𝟏 = 𝟏 and 𝒂 ∧ 𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝟏 and 𝟎 are the

zeros of the operations ∨ and ∧ respectively.
 Complement of an element

If 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ , 𝟎 , 𝟏 is a bounded lattice and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳, then

an element 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳 is called a complement of 𝒂 if
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝟏 and 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝟎.

Since 𝟎 ∨ 𝟏 = 𝟏 and 𝟎 ∧ 𝟏 = 𝟎 , 𝟎 and 𝟏 are

complements to each other.

When 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝟏, we know that 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝟏 and when

𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝟎 , 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 = 𝟎 . Hence when 𝒃 is the
complement of 𝒂, then 𝒂 is the complement of 𝒃.
 Complemented Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ , 𝟎 , 𝟏 is called a
complemented lattice if every element
of 𝑳 has at least one complement.
1. If 𝑺𝟒𝟐 is the set of all divisors of 𝟒𝟐 and 𝑫 is
the relation “divisor of” on 𝑺𝟒𝟐 . Prove that
𝑺𝟒𝟐 , 𝑫 is a complemented lattice.

Solution :
𝑺𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟕 , 𝟏𝟒 , 𝟐𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐
The Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟒𝟐 is given by
42

6 14 21

2 3 7

1
The zero element of the lattice is 𝟏 and
unit element of the lattice is 𝟒𝟐.
𝟏 ∨ 𝟒𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟏 ∧ 𝟒𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟐 ∨ 𝟐𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟐 ∧ 𝟐𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟒 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟑 ∧ 𝟏𝟒 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟔 ∨ 𝟕 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟔 , 𝟕 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟔 ∧ 𝟕 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟔 , 𝟕 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
Now 𝟏′ = 𝟒𝟐

𝟐′ = 𝟐𝟏

𝟑′ = 𝟏𝟒

𝟔′ = 𝟕

𝟕′ = 𝟔

𝟏𝟒′ = 𝟑

𝟐𝟏′ = 𝟐

𝟒𝟐′ = 𝟏

Since every element of 𝑫𝟒𝟐 has a complement,

𝑺𝟒𝟐 , 𝑫 is a complemented lattice.

2. If 𝑫𝟒𝟓 denotes the set of all divisors of 𝟒𝟓 under
divisibility ordering, find which elemenets have
complements and which do not have
complements.

Solution :
𝑫𝟒𝟓 = 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟗 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟒𝟓

The Hasse diagram of 𝑫𝟒𝟓 is given by

 45

9 15

3 5

The zero element of the lattice is 𝟏

and unit element of the lattice is 𝟒𝟓.
𝟏 ∨ 𝟒𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟒𝟓 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟏 ∧ 𝟒𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓 (≢ 𝟏)
𝟑 ∧ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑 (≢ 𝟎)
𝟗 ∨ 𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟗 , 𝟓 = 𝟒𝟓 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟗 ∧ 𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟗 , 𝟓 =𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)

Now 𝟏′ = 𝟒𝟓
𝟓′ = 𝟗
 𝟗′ = 𝟓

𝟒𝟓′ = 𝟏

The elements 𝟑 and 𝟏𝟓 do not have

complements.

But the elements 𝟏 , 𝟓 , 𝟗 and 𝟒𝟓 have

complements.
 Totally Ordered Set OR Chain

A partial order relation ≤ on a set 𝑨 is

called a total order or linear order, if for
every 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨 either 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 or 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂.

If ≤ is a total order on 𝑨, then the poset

𝑨,≤ is called a totally ordered set or
chain.
1. Show that every totally ordered set is a
lattice.

Solution :

Let 𝑿 , ≤ be a chain and 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑿

Then we have either 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 or 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂

Case (i) :

Assume that 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃

Clearly, 𝒃 is an upper bound of 𝒂 and 𝒃

If 𝒄 is an upper bound of 𝒂 and 𝒃, we have

𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 and 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄

Thus, 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 for every upper bound 𝒄 of 𝒂 and

𝒃.

Hence, 𝒃 is the least upper bound of 𝒂 and 𝒃.

(i.e) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒃

Similarly, 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒂.
Case (ii) :

Assume that 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂

Then we can prove that 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒂 and

𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒃.

Thus, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 and 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 exists for all 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑿.

Hence 𝑿 , ≤ is a lattice.
2. Prove that every chain is a distributive
lattice.

Solution :

Let 𝑳 , ≤ be a chain and 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳

Consider the following possible cases

𝒊 𝒂 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒄
𝒊𝒊 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃
𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂
𝒊𝒗 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
𝒗 𝒄 ≤𝒂 ≤𝒃
𝒗𝒊 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
𝒊 𝒂 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒄
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒂 …..(1)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝒂 …..(2) c
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄 b
Also,
a
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒃=𝒃 …..(3)
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒃 …..(4)
From (3) and (4), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒊𝒊 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒃=𝒂 …..(5)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝒂 …..(6)
b
From (5) and (6), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄 c
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒄=𝒄 …..(7) a
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒄 …..(8)
From (7) and (8), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒄 …..(9)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒄 …..(10) a
From (9) and (10), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
c
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒃=𝒂 …..(11)
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒂=𝒂 …..(12)
b
From (11) and (12), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒊𝒗 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒃 …..(13)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝒂 …..(14)
c
From (13) and (14), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
a
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒃=𝒂 …..(15)
b
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒂 …..(16)
From (15) and (16), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒗 𝒄 ≤𝒂 ≤𝒃
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒃=𝒂 …..(17)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒂 …..(18)
b
From (17) and (18), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
a
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒄=𝒂 …..(19)
c
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒃 ∧𝒂=𝒂 …..(20)
From (19) and (20), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒗𝒊 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒃=𝒃 …..(21)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒃 …..(22)
a
From (21) and (22), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
b
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒄=𝒂 …..(23)
c
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒂=𝒂 …..(24)
From (23) and (24), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
3. Show that every chain is modular.

Solution :

Let 𝑳 , ≤ be a chain.

Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳 and 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄

As 𝑳 is a chain either 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 or 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃

Assume that 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄

Then 𝒄 is an upper bound of 𝒂 and 𝒃

So, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 and 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃
Thus in this case,

𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄

Assume 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃

Then by transitive property of ≤, we have

𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 and

𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒄

while, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒄
In this case also, we have

𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄

Thus whenever, 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄, the modular equation

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 is satisfied.

Hence, 𝑳 , ≤ is a modular lattice.

 Sub Lattice

A non-empty subset 𝑴 of a lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ is

called a sublattice of 𝑳, iff 𝑴 is closed under
both the operation ∨ and ∧.

(i.e) if 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴, then 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴 and 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴

From the definition, it is obvious that the

sub lattice itself is a lattice with respect to ∨
and ∧.
If 𝑺𝒏 is the set of all divisors of the positive
integer 𝒏 and 𝑫 is the relation of „division‟
, prove that 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 is a lattice. Find also
all the sub-lattices of 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 that contain
𝟔 or more elements.

Solution :
𝑺𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎

The Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟑𝟎 is given by

 30

6 10 15

2 3 5

1
𝟐 ∨ 𝟑 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟑 = 𝟔
𝟐 ∧ 𝟑 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟑 = 𝟏
𝟏𝟎 ∨ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟎 ∧ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟓
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟑 ∧ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏
𝟓 ∨ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟓 ∧ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 =𝟓
𝟐 ∨ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟐 ∧ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐
Similarly every pair of elements has LUB and
GLB.

Hence, 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 is a lattice.

The sub lattices of 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 containing 𝟔 elements
are 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 ,

𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟑𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 ,

𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟑𝟎 and 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎
 Lattice Homomorphism

If 𝑳𝟏 ,∨ , ∧ and 𝑳𝟐 , ,∗ are two lattices, a

mapping 𝒇 ∶ 𝑳𝟏 → 𝑳𝟐 is called a lattice
homomorphism from 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 if for any
𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳𝟏 ,

𝒇 𝒂 ∨𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 𝒇 𝒃

𝒇 𝒂 ∧𝒃 =𝒇 𝒂 ∗𝒇 𝒃
If a homomorphism 𝒇 ∶ 𝑳𝟏 → 𝑳𝟐 of two
lattices 𝑳𝟏 , ∨ , ∧ and 𝑳𝟐 , , ∗ is
bijective (i.e) one-one, onto then 𝒇 is called
an isomorphism. If there exists an
isomorphism between two lattices, then
the lattices are said to be isomorphic.
 Complete Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ is said to be complete

lattice if every non empty subset has a
least upper bound and a greatest lower
bound.
1. Give an example of a lattice that is not
complemented.
Ans : 𝑺𝟒𝟓 , | and 𝑺𝟕𝟓 , 𝑫 .
2. Give an example of a distributive lattice
but not complemented.
Ans : 𝟏 ,𝟐 ,𝟒 ,≤ .
3. Give an example of bounded lattice
which is distributive and
complemented.
Ans : 𝑷 𝑺 ,∪,∩ , 𝑫𝟕𝟎 , | and 𝑺𝟒𝟐 , 𝑫 .
 Boolean Algebra

A Lattice which is complemented and

distributive is called a Boolean Algebra.

Alternatively, Boolean Algebra can be

defined as follows:
 If B is a nonempty set with two binary
operations + and . , two distinct elements 0
and 1 and a unary operation ′ ,then B is
called a Boolean algebra if the following
properties hold.
For all 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 in B
𝑩𝟏 : Identity laws
𝒂+𝟎=𝒂
𝒂 .𝟏 = 𝒂
𝑩𝟐 ∶ Commutative laws

𝒂+𝒃=𝒃+𝒂

𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃. 𝒂

𝑩𝟑 : Associative laws

𝒂+ 𝒃+𝒄 = 𝒂+𝒃 +𝒄

𝒂. 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒄
𝑩𝟒 : Distributive laws

𝒂 + 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒄

𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒄

𝑩𝟓 : Complement laws

𝒂 + 𝒂′ = 𝟏

𝒂. 𝒂′ = 𝟎
Note :

1. We have switched over to the symbols +

and . instead of ∨ (join) and ∧ (meet) used in

the study of Lattices. The operation + and

. , that will be used hereafter in Boolean

algebra, are called Boolean sum and

Boolean product respectively.

2. If B is the set *𝟎, 𝟏+ and the operations +,
. , ′ are defined for the elements of B as
follows.

𝟎 + 𝟎 = 𝟎
𝟎 + 𝟏 = 𝟏 + 𝟎 = 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟏.
𝟎. 𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝟏. 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎′ = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏′ = 𝟎.
 Then the algebra { B,+,.,′,0,1} satisfies
all the five properties given above and is the
simplest Boolean algebra called a two-
element Boolean algebra.

Additional properties of Boolean algebra :

If { B,+,.,′,0,1} is a Boolean algebra, the

following properties hold good. They can be
proved by using the basic properties of
Boolean algebra listed in the definitions.

1. Idempotent law :

𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝒂 for all 𝐚 ∈ 𝑩

2. Dominance law :

𝒂 + 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂. 𝟎 = 𝟎 for all 𝐚 ∈ 𝑩

3. Absorption law :

𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 + 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩
4. Demorgan‟s law :

𝒂 + 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ . 𝒃′

𝒂. 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ + 𝒃′ ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩

5. Double complement or Involution law :

(𝒂′)′ = 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑩

6. Zero and one law :

(𝟎)′ = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟏)′ = 𝟎

1. Prove that Demorgan‟s law hold good for a
complemented distributive lattice 𝑳 , ∧ , ∨ .
(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ and (ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ .

Proof : (i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]

= 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
[By Commutative law]
 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′

[By Associative law]

= 𝒃 ∨𝟏 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝟏

[By complement law]

=𝟏 ∧𝟏 [By dominance law]

=𝟏 [By Idempotent law]

(i.e) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ = 𝟏 ……. (1)

Now, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′
= 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]
= 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒂′
[By Commutative law]
= 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒂′
[ By Associative law]

= 𝟎 ∧ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝟎 ∧ 𝒂′ [By Complement law]

 =𝟎 ∨𝟎 [By Dominance law]

=𝟎 [By Idempotent law]

(i.e) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 ………… (2)

From (1) and (2), we have 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ is the

complement of 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃

Hence, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ .
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′

[By Distributive law]

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒂′

[By Commutative law]

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒂′

[By Associative law]

 = 𝟏 ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝟏 ∨ 𝒂′
[By complement law]
=𝟏 ∧𝟏 [By dominance law]
=𝟏 [By Idempotent law]
(i.e) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ = 𝟏 ……. (3)
Now
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′

= 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]
= 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′

[By Commutative law]

= 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′

[By Associative law]

= 𝒃 ∧𝟎 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝟎

[By Complement law]

=𝟎∨𝟎

[By Dominance law]

 =𝟎 [By Idempotent law]

(i.e) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 ………… (4)

From (3) and (4), we have 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ is the

complement of 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃

Hence, 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ .
2. If 𝒂 ,𝒃 are any two elements in a
complemented distributive lattice 𝑳 , show
that the following are equivalent:
𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 , 𝒂′ 𝒃 = 𝟏 , 𝒃′ ≤ 𝒂′ .

Solution :

Let 𝑳 be a complemented distributive lattice.

For 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳, the following are equivalent.

(i) 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , (ii) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 , (iii) 𝒂′ 𝒃=𝟏,

(iv) 𝒃′ ≤ 𝒂′ .
It is enough to prove that
𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒗 ⟹ (𝒊)
To prove : 𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊
Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
Then 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
𝒂 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′
[By distributive law]
 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ 𝟎 =𝟎 [By complement law]
𝐚 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 [By Identity law]
Therefore, 𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊
To prove : 𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊𝒊
Let 𝐚 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎
Taking complement on both sides, we have
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ ′ = 𝟎′
𝒂′ 𝒃′ ′
= 𝟏 [By demorgan‟s law]
𝒂′ 𝒃=𝟏
Therefore, 𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊𝒊 .
To prove : 𝒊𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒗
𝒂′ 𝒃 = 𝟏
𝒂′ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟏 ∗ 𝒃′
𝒂′ ∗ 𝒃′ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃′
[By Distributive law and Identity law]

𝒂′ ∗ 𝒃′ 𝟎 = 𝒃′ [By Complement law]

𝒂′ ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃′ [By Identity law]
𝒃′ ∗ 𝒂′ = 𝒃′ [By Commutative law]
𝒃′ ≤ 𝒂′
Therefore, 𝒊𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒗
To prove : 𝒊𝒗 ⟹ 𝒊
Let 𝒃′ ≤ 𝒂′
Then 𝒃′ ∗ 𝒂′ = 𝒃′
𝒂′ ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃′ [By Commutative law]
Taking complement on both sides, we have
𝒂′ ∗ 𝒃′ ′ = 𝒃′ ′

𝒂′ ′ 𝒃′ ′ = 𝒃 [By Demorgan‟s law]

𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
𝒂 ≤𝒃
Therefore, 𝒊𝒗 ⟹ 𝒊
Hence, the following statements are equivalent.
3. Prove that 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 , the set of all positive divisors
of a positive integer 𝟏𝟏𝟎, is a Boolean algebra and
find all its sub-algebras. Also find the set of atoms
of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 .

Solution : 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐, 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟓𝟓, 𝟏𝟏𝟎

The Hasse diagram of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is given by

110

10 22 55

2 5 11

1
The zero element of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is 𝟏 and unit
element of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is 𝟏𝟏𝟎.
𝟏 ∨ 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟏 ∧ 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟐 ∨ 𝟓𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟐 ∧ 𝟓𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟓 ∨ 𝟐𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟓 , 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟓 ∧ 𝟐𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟓 , 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟏𝟎 ∨ 𝟏𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
10 ∧ 𝟏𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
Now 𝟏′ = 𝟏𝟏𝟎

𝟐′ = 𝟓𝟓

𝟓′ = 𝟐𝟐

𝟏𝟎′ = 𝟏𝟏

𝟏𝟏′ = 𝟏𝟎

𝟐𝟐′ = 𝟓

𝟓𝟓′ = 𝟐

𝟏𝟏𝟎′ = 𝟏

Since every element of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 has a complement,

𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is a complemented lattice.

We know that 𝑷 𝑺 ,∪ ,∩ is a distributive
lattice where 𝑺 = 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄

From the Hasse diagram, 𝑷 𝑺 ,∪ ,∩ is

same as 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 .

(i.e) 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is a distributive lattice.

Since, 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is a complemented and

distributive lattice, 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is a Boolean
algebra.
The sub algebras of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 are

𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓𝟓 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟓 , 𝟐𝟐 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 ,

𝟏 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏 , 𝟐, 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟓𝟓, 𝟏𝟏𝟎 .

The atoms of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 are 𝟐, 𝟓 and 𝟏𝟏.

4. In a complemented and distributive lattice,
prove that complement of each element is
unique.

Solution :

Let 𝒂 ∈ 𝑩 be any element.

If possible let 𝒃 and 𝒄 are complements of

the element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑩.
Then 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟏 and 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝟎 ……..(1)
𝒂 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 and 𝒂 . 𝒄 = 𝟎 ……..(2)
Now 𝒃 = 𝒃 . 𝟏 [By Identity law]
𝐛 =𝒃. 𝒂+𝒄 [By (2)]
𝒃 = 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒄 [By distributive law]
𝒃 = 𝒂 .𝒃 + 𝒃.𝒄 [By commutative law]
𝒃 = 𝟎 + 𝒃 .𝒄 [By (1)]
𝒃 = 𝒂 .𝒄 + 𝒃.𝒄 [By (2)]
 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒄 [By distributive law]

𝒃 = 𝟏 .𝒄 [By (1)]

𝒃=𝒄 [By Identity law]

Hence, 𝒃 = 𝒄.

Therefore, in a complemented and

distributive lattice, a complement of each
element is unique.
 Sub Algebra

If 𝑪 is a non empty subset of a Boolean

algebra such that 𝑪 itself is a Boolean
algebra with respect to the operations of 𝑩,
then 𝑪 is called a sub algebra of 𝑩.

It is obvious that 𝑪 is a subalgebra of 𝑩 iff

𝑪 is closed under the operations of 𝑩 ,
namely + ,⋅ , ′ and contains the element 𝟎
and 𝟏.
 Boolean Homomorphism

If 𝑩 , + ,⋅ , ′, 𝟎 , 𝟏 and 𝑪 ,∪ ,∩ , − , 𝜶 , 𝜷 are two

Boolean algebras, then a mapping 𝒇 ∶ 𝑩 → 𝑪
is called a Boolean homomorphism, if all
the operations of Boolean algebra are
preserved (i.e) for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩,

𝒇 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∪ 𝒇 𝒃 , 𝒇 𝒂 .𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∩ 𝒇 𝒃 ,

𝒇 𝒂′ = 𝒇 𝒂 , 𝒇 𝟎 = 𝜶 and 𝒇 𝟏 = 𝜷, where 𝜶
and 𝜷 are the zero and unit element of 𝑪.
 Isomorphic Boolean Algebras

Two Boolean algebras 𝑩 and 𝑩′ are said to

be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one
correspondence between 𝑩 and 𝑩′ with
respect to the three operations (i.e) there
exists a mapping 𝒇 ∶ 𝑩 → 𝑩′ such that
𝒇 𝒂+𝒃 =𝒇 𝒂 +𝒇 𝒃 ,
𝒇 𝒂 .𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 .𝒇 𝒃 ,
and 𝒇 𝒂′ = 𝒇 𝒂 ′
 Atom

Let 𝒂 and 𝒃 are two elements in a lattice.

The element 𝒃 is said to be a cover of 𝒂 if
𝒂 < 𝒃 ((i.e) 𝒂 ≠ 𝒃 and 𝒂 < 𝒃) and there is no
element 𝒄 in the lattice such that 𝒂 < 𝒄 and
𝒄 < 𝒃.
If 𝒃 covers the element 𝒂, we write 𝒂 ≺ 𝒃.
An element which covers the element 𝟎
(lower bound of the lattice) is said to be an
atom of the lattice.
1. Simplify the Boolean expression 𝒙 + 𝒚 ′
𝒙𝒚 ′ .

Solution :

𝒙+𝒚 ′ 𝒙 𝒚 ′ = 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒙′ + 𝒚′

[By Demorgan‟s law]

= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒙′ + 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒚′

[By Distributive law]

= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ + 𝒙′ . 𝒚′

[By Idempotent law]

= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ [By Idempotent law]

2. Simplify the Boolean expression
𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ using Boolean identities.

Solution :

𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′

= 𝒂′ + 𝒂 . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ [By distributive law]

= 𝒂 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ [By Commutative law]

= 𝟏. 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ [By Complement law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ [By Identity law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒃′ . 𝒂′ . 𝒄′ [By Commutative law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒄′ [By distributive law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒄 + 𝒄′ [By distributive law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝟏 [By Complement law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒃′ . 𝒂′

[By Identity law and Distributive law]

= 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ + 𝒃′ . 𝒄 [By Commutative law]

3.If 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑺 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔 and 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝒂, 𝒃 ,
𝟔
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒂′ = . Show that
𝒂

𝑺 , + ,∗ ,′ , 𝟏 , 𝟔 is a Boolean algebra.

Solution : The Hasse diagram is

6

2 3

1
𝟏 and 𝟔 are the zero and unit element of
𝑺 , + ,∗ ,′ , 𝟏 , 𝟔
If 𝒂 represents any of the elements 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔 of 𝑺

Clearly, 𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝒂, 𝟏 = 𝒂

and 𝒂. 𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂, 𝟔 = 𝒂

Hence, Identity laws hold hood.

𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏, 𝟐 = 𝟐 ; 𝟏. 𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏, 𝟐 = 𝟏

𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟏 = 𝟐 ; 𝟐. 𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟏 = 𝟏

Therefore, Commutative laws is verified.

Let 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔 ∈ 𝑺
𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝟐 + 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑, 𝟔 = 𝟐 + 𝟔 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟔 = 𝟔
𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝟔 + 𝟔 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟔, 𝟔 = 𝟔
𝟐. 𝟑. 𝟔 = 𝟐 + 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑, 𝟔 = 𝟐. 𝟑 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟑 = 𝟏
𝟐. 𝟑 . 𝟔 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝟏. 𝟔 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏, 𝟔 = 𝟏
Therefore, Associative law is verified.
Let 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔 ∈ 𝑺
𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟔 = 𝟐 + 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑, 𝟔 = 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟑 = 𝟔
𝟐 + 𝟑 . 𝟐 + 𝟔 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟑 . 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟔 = 𝟔. 𝟔 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟔, 𝟔 = 𝟔
𝟐. 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝟐. 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑, 𝟔 = 𝟐. 𝟔 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟔 = 𝟐
𝟐. 𝟑 + 𝟐. 𝟔 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟑 + 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟔 = 𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏, 𝟐 = 𝟐
Therefore, Distributive law is verified.
 𝟔
𝒂+ 𝒂′ = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝒂 , 𝒂′ = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝒂 , = 𝟔 (≡ 𝟏)
𝒂

𝟔
𝒂. 𝒂′ = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂 , 𝒂′ = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂 , = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝒂

Therefore, Complement laws hold good.

Thus all the five axioms of Boolean algebra

hold good.

Hence, 𝑺 , + ,∗ ,′ , 𝟏 , 𝟔 is a Boolean algebra.