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WHITEPAPER
Microbiological Aspects of Food Preservation
and Safety Methods

CONTENTS
QUICK SUMMARY

1 Introduction

2 Heat Treatment & Preservation

2.1 Time / temperature preservation

2.2 Method of heat treatment and preservation
2.3 Pasteurization
2.4 Commercial sterilization
2.5 Calculation of heat processing time
2.6 D value—the decimal reduction time

3 Food Irradiation This whitepaper addresses the

microbiological aspects of food
3.1 Ultraviolet light (UV) preservation. The most commonly used
3.2 Microwaves preservation methods found in the food
3.3 Ionizing radiation industry are explained and are clearly
3.4 Food irradiation defined, including mode of action,
preservation factors and unit processes to
4 High Pressure Food Treatment
achieve safety.
5 Preservation by Use of Low Temperature
This is an important area of food safety
6 Antimicrobial Effects of Food Dehydration management given that many CCP’s are
covered by these methods. This paper is
7 Chemical Preservation intended for use by those directly
responsible for food safety systems and
programs within a food processing plant
and should underpin existing experience
and knowledge.

Published by Safefood 360, Inc. Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 2

Microbiological hazards are one of the most significant causes of food poisoning. An understand-
ing of these hazards is crucial to understanding how suitable controls may be applied. Modern
food safety has its roots in food preservation methods. Initially these methods were applied to ex-
tend the shelf life of foods, and over time an understanding emerged that many of these methods
had the effect of making food safer for human consumption. Today these methods of preservation
and control are used widely in the global food sector as part of HACCP plans to consistently pro-
duce food for a mass consumption with high quality and safety.
In this whitepaper we will classify the main factors of food preservation and safety, and drill down
into the specific requirements for achieving safe food products. We will look closely at unit process
operations such as heat, irradiation, high pressure, low temperature, freezing, dehydration, modi-
fied packaging and chemicals. A variety of preservation and safety factors and modes of action are
used in modern food production. These are summarized in the following table. Their use and ap-
plication depends on a number of factors including the food product, hazards, legislation, consum-
er and customer demands.

Inactivation of microbial cells includes methods which kill significant numbers if not all microor-
ganisms within the food product and is usually irreversible. Examples of such processes include
heat preservation, radiation and high pressure processing. Inhibition of microbial cells does not
usually affect a lethal kill of all microorganisms but rather inhibits the growth of these microbes.
Restriction refers to the numerous pre-requisites of safe food production that are designed to
maintain microbial hazards at a safe level within the production environment and to prevent their
entry.

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 3

Heat has been used widely in food processing to preserve foods and render them safe for con-
sumption. However, the heat resistance of microbial cells can vary widely and an understanding of
the microbial hazards commonly present in the food is essential. Generally speaking, a time and
temperature profile of 60°C for 10-15 minutes is sufficient to kill yeasts and moulds. Bacterial veg-
etative cells are usually more resistant but are unlikely to survive temperatures greater than 90°C.
Bacterial spores can vary in their resistance, and anything from 1 minute to 20 hours may be re-
quired at a temperature of 100°C. The following table provides an indication of this variation.
The above table provides an excellent insight into the variation that may exist when it comes to
using heat treatment for addressing the hazard posed by spores. Ensuring your food safety control
plan or HACCP system is effective requires a robust hazard identification and analysis which clear-
ly characterises the specific pathogens.

When it comes to heat treatment processes, two factors in combination should be defined, i.e. time
and temperature. The general rule is the higher the temperature (To), the shorter the time neces-
sary to achieve a specific effect, e.g. destruction. If we take the example of Clostridium botulinum
in low acid foods, the following table illustrates this.

In the food industry there are two main methods of heat preservation and treatment:
 Pasteurization
 Commercial sterilization (appertization)

These methods are usually followed by or incorporating a packaging stage. Food may be heated in
the packaging or heated prior to packing after which follows aseptic packaging because of the sen-
sitivity of food. The product can be packaged hot or cold but preferably hot as in ‘hot fill’ or ‘hot-
pack’ processes.

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 4

Pasteurization is widely used across the food industry for the following reasons:
 To kill all pathogens (milk)
 To decrease the microbial load in a heat sensitive food (milk)
 To kill the main spoilage organisms which are not very heat resistant (beverages)
 To kill competing microorganisms (fermented foods)

Figure 1: Plate Heater Exchanger Pasteurizer

In order to maintain the preservation effects additional preservation methods may be required such
as packaging and refrigeration. Milk, for example, requires a high temperature, short time (HTST)
combination of 71°C/15 seconds. More rigorous treatments are actually employed industrially. An
alternative profile or holding method of 62.8°C/30 minutes can be applied. Temperature reduction
to <6°C is applied immediately in all cases. For ice-cream a HTST profile is also applied at 82.2°
C/16-20 seconds. For the holding method, a combination of 71.1°C/30 minutes may be used. Pas-
teurization is also used for wines, beers, fruit juices and dried fruits. In regard to bottle beers, tem-
peratures are limited by the boiling point of alcohol which is 78°C.

Commercial sterilization is a heat treatment which uses moist heat and temperatures usually above
100°C. The main objective is to produce a product stable at ambient temperature for long periods
of time. Small numbers of resistant spores may survive but cannot grow under normal storage con-
ditions for such products. Packaging materials employed in this method include cans (where the
food may be heat treated directly in the can), glass, thermoplastics or tetrapak where food is heated

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 5

pre-packaging. The final shelf life of the product depends on the packaging material and may be
years for some canned products.
The choice of actual processing temperature and time is a
balance between ensuring the food is appertized
(microorganisms and enzymes are inactivated) and the col-
our, flavour, texture and nutritional quality of the food being
maintained. The rate of heat penetration into the food must
be known. The portion that heats most slowly is known as
the cold point and presents the most difficulty in terms of
heat treatment.
Figure 2: Commercial Sterilization Unit

The calculation of heat processing time for canned products requires:

 Thermal death time curve for organisms likely to cause problems, e.g.
Clostridium botulinum
 Knowledge of heat penetration rates in the can, especially the ‘cold point’

The rate of heat penetration into the container depends on:

 Container material
 Size and shape of container
 Initial To of food
 Retort To
 Rotation and agitation of food in retort
 Consistency of contents (liquid, semi-liquid, puree, solid)

Convection heating is more efficient than conduction heating. This is achieved by natural convec-
tion or forced convection (movement of cans). Methods include hydrostatic cookers and coolers
which can be continuous feed retorts.
Thermal death time (TDT) should be calculated and represents the number of minutes required to
destroy a stated number of microorganisms at a specific temperature. The higher the initial number
of cells or spores the longer the time required to reduce the number of survivors to 1 per gram.
The following table indicates typical TDT’s for spores of Clostridium botulinum.
As the temperature increases, the rate of reduction is logarithmic. Therefore, the highest tempera-
ture which will not decrease the organoleptic quality of the food is normally employed. Certain
heating allow the use of temperatures of 130°C without causing destruction of the food, e.g. UHT
milk treated at 135°C for 1-2 seconds.

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 6

The D value is the time required to kill 90% of the microbial population at a specific temperature.
For example, the D 121.1°C for Clostridium botulinum spores is 0.21 minutes. As a safety precau-
tion a 12-D heat treatment is used for Clos. botulinum in low acid foods, i.e. sufficient heat to re-
duce 1012 spores to 1, or 1 spore per can to 1 per 1012 cans. For a 12-D cook you take 12 x 0.21
minutes = 2.52 minutes. For additional safety this is rounded up to 3 minutes which is known as
the ‘Minimum Botulinal Cook’ (3 minutes at 121°C).
Other values encountered in heat processing include the Z value. This is the number of degrees of
temperature required to allow a ten-fold reduction in the time required. It is calculated by estimat-
ing the D values of an organism at a number of temperatures. This data then allows calculation of
heat resistance over a broader range of temperatures.
The F0 Value is the sterilization value and equals D121.1°C (log a – log b) minutes where a = ini-
tial no. of cells and b = final no. of cells:
e.g. F0 value for Clos. botulinum 0.21 (log 1 – log 10-12)
= 0.21 x 12
= 2.52 minutes
F0 value is a measure of the capacity of a heat process to eliminate microorganisms from all points
in a container of food.

This method employs radiation from a particular source. When microorganisms are irradiated con-
stantly the number of survivors declines exponentially with time.
Figure 3: Irradiation Plant

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 7

This may be used to decontaminate:

 Air (most efficient use)
 Liquids in films, e.g. water (long exposure time, expensive, complex)
 Surfaces (long exposure time, limited use)
 Packaging where heat is inappropriate, material must be transparent
to UV or pack must be open
 Solid foods in very thin layers, e.g. sugar

There are a number of disadvantages with using UV. It has very low penetration, and it may cause
rancidity of lipid and its effects may be irreversible.

Unlike other forms of radiation, microwaves act indirectly on microorganisms by generation of

heat through oscillation of water molecules. Cold spots can remain making tempering essential.
Microwave radiation has limited industrial application.

Sources of ionizing radiation include α, β and λ rays, and may also include the use of electrons. An
ion is a charged particle which is not stable. They are highly lethal with varying penetration power.

Radiation source is usually Cobolt-60. λ rays are applied and have a half-life of 5 years with a 1%
loss per month. Units of radiation are measured in Grays (Gy); 1 Gray = absorption of 1 joule/kg.
1000 Grays = 1 kGy
Irradiation is used on a variety of foods and packaging with various objectives. The following table

summarises some of the applications in food.

There are a number of food irradiation processes which are classified in the following table:

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 8

In high pressure processing an equal pressure is applied throughout the food (isostatic). Profiles
for cold isostatic pressure at ambient To include 50 - 600 MPa. Treatment times can vary from 0.5
to 5 minutes. Sealed flexible packs are usually used. Vegetative cells are generally very sensitive to
the effects. Spores are variable but can be highly resistant under some conditions. Viruses have a
high tolerance to pressure.

The food industry uses a number of low temperature methods to achieve preservation of the per-
ishable foods:

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 9

Temperatures above freezing point generally result in metabolic rates of microbes to be slowed
down or stopped. Temperatures below freezing point generally result in metabolic activity being
stopped. Enzymatic reactions are temperature dependent. A rise in temperature (within limits) will
lead to an increased rate and lowering the temperature will decrease the rate. The change in the
reaction rate over a 10 degree change in temperature is known as the temperature coefficient (Q10)
Generally the Q10 of biological systems is 2.
Psychrophiles and psychrotophs are problematic when it comes to effects of low temperature. The
minimum temperature at which an organism has been found to grow is -34°C (a yeast species).
Growth at freezer temperatures if it occurs is extremely slow. Examples of minimum growth tem-
peratures:

Storage temperatures <4°C will generally prevent the growth of food pathogens except Listeria
and Yersinia.

Freezing of foods can cause initial mortality immediately on freezing and depends on the species.
Surviving cells die off gradually, and the rate of death is quickest at temperatures just below freez-
ing point, with the slowest at below -20°C. All cells rarely die off. Defrosting foods must be treated
as fresh products as regards microbiological activity. Endospores and toxins are not affected by
low temperatures. All frozen foods should be defrosted at 4°C to reduce or prevent microbial
growth. The rate of thawing also affects microbial cells – the faster they thaw, the greater the num-
ber of survivors. Repeating freezing and thawing disrupts both the food and microbial cells. It may
be a hazardous procedure if sufficient time is given for growth or survivors.

The typical methods employed include sun drying, mechanical drying and freeze-drying. Certain
food preparation methods of foods may have some antimicrobial effect, e.g. blanching, addition of
preservatives, cooking, fat removal and addition of sugar or other solutes. The moisture contents
of dried foods vary from 2% to 50%; Intermediate moisture foods from 20% to 50% or aw =0.60-
0.85. The drying process per se does not kill microorganisms. Some may be killed but most may be
recovered from dried foods if present prior to drying. Most bacteria and yeasts require aw > 0.90
to grow. Dried foods are not usually susceptible to spoilage. S. aureus is the most xerotolerant of
the pathogens, i.e. grows in aw of 0.86. Rehydration (i.e. the addition of water or adding to other
wet ingredients) enables microorganisms present to re-commence growth.

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Basic Microbiology for Quality Managers 10

Freeze-drying has the least destructive effect on microorgan-

isms and depends on the age of the cells. Reduction of water
activity and subsequent antimicrobial effects also occur on ad-
dition of sugar or salt, but other inhibitory factors are also in-
volved, e.g. high chlorine levels. All microbial cells require wa-
ter to grow but not to survive.
Figure 4: Freeze-drying Unit

There are many substances capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the growth of microorgan-
isms or deterioration of food due to microorganisms. Chemical preservatives may also improve the
organoleptic quality of food. The effects of chemical preservation depend on the type of chemical,
concentration of use, food characteristics and the type, number and previous history of microor-
ganisms in the food.

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