A.

GENERAL INFORMATION

GENERAL INFORMATION ON GEIGER -MULLER TUBES

Geiger-Muller radiation counter tubes (G.M.Tubes) are intended to detect alpha particles, beta
particles, gamma or X-radiation.
AGM. tube is a gas-filled device which reacts to individual ionizing events, thus enabling them
to be counted.
AGM. Tube consists of basically an electrode at a positive potential (anode) surrounded by a
metalcylinder at a negative potential (cathode). The cathode forrms part of the envelope or is
enclosed in a glass envelope. lonizing events are initiated by quanta or particles, entering the
tube either through the windoworthrough the cathode and colliding with the gas molecules.
The gas filling consists of a mixture of one or more rare gases and a quenching agent.
Quenching is the termination of the ionization current pulse in a G.M.tube. Effective quenching in
GM. Tube is determined by the combination of the quenching gas properties and the value of
the anode resistor.

The capacitance of a G.M. Tube is that between anode and cathode, ignoring the
capacitive effects of general connections.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS:

Starting Voltage (Vs):

This is the lowest voltage applied to a G.M. Tube at which pulses just appear across
the anode resistor (see Fig. 4) and unit starts counting.
Plateau:
This is the section of the GM characteristic curve constructed with counting rate
versus applied voltage (with constant irradiation) over which the counting rate is
substantially independent of the applied voltage. Unless otherwise stated, the plateau is
measured at a counting rate of a approximately 200 counts. (i.e. 200 CPS)

Plateau Threshold Voltage (V1):

This is the lowest applied voltage which corresponds to the start of the plateau for the
stated sensitivity of the measuring circuit. See Fig. 4.

Plateau Length :
This is the range of applied voltage over which the plateau region extends. See Fig. 4.
 Upper Threshold Voltage (V2):
This is the higher voltage up to which plateau extends, beyond
with increase in applied which count rate increases
voltage.
Plateau Slope:
This is the change in counting rate over the plateau length, expressed in % per volt. See
Fig4.

Recommended Supply Voltage (Vo): (Operating Voltage)

This is the supply voltage at which the GM.Tube should preferably be used. This voltage is
normally chosen to be in the middle of the plateau. See Fig.4.

Background : (BG)
This is the countingrate measured in the absence of the radiation source. The BG is due to
cosmic rays and any active sources in the experimental room.

NOTES:
Dead Time (Ta):
This is the time interval, after the initiation of a discharge resulting in a normal pulse, during
which the G.M.Tube is insensitive to further ionizing events. See Fig.5.
Resolution (resolving) time (TR)
This is the minimum time interval between two distinct ionizing events which enables both
to be counted independently or separately. See Fig.5.
Recovery Time (Tre):
This is the minimum time interval between the initiation of a normal size pulse and the
initiation of the next pulse of normal size. See Fig.5.

Anode resistor:
indicated in the
Normally the tube should be operated with an anode resistor of the value
only decreases
measuring circuit, or higher. Decreasing the value of the anode resistor not
below the limiting value
the dead time but also the plateau length. Adecrease in resistance
may affect tube life and lead to its early destruction.

anode resistor should be connected directly to the anode connector of the tube to
The load
leads will not excessively increase the capacitive
ensure that parasitic capacitances of
tube. An increase in capacitive load may increase the pulse amplitude, the pulse
on the
addition, the plateau will be shortened
duration, the dead time and plateau slope. In tube, but lower values are
as high as 20 pF may destroy the
appreciably. Shunt capacitances
also dangerous.
 Vs = Slarting Voitaga
$40 V2-V1) Plataau length
Vo Operaling Voltage
V1 =Lower threshold voltage
120 V2 =Upper threshold voltago

COUNTSN---4----+
SEC

N,
Discharge
region
60

40

20

Vs V1 550 V VO 850 V V2 750 V

230 V

VOLTAGE

FIG 4:TYPICAL G.M. TUBE CHARACTERISTICS

Tr Rise time
Td Dead time
TR Resolution time
TIME BASE Tre Recovery time

GMPULSE
OUT
Mnimum Signal
detecded by circuit

Specific percentage
of max Slgnal

T,

OUTPUT SEEN ON AN
FIG 5 : TYPICAL G.M. TUBE PULSE
OSCILLOSCOPE
 Maximum Counting Rate :
dead time). For continuous
The Maximum counting rate is approximately 1/Ta (TA= is adjusted to a value in
Stable operation, it is recommended that the counting rate
the linear part of the counting rate/dose rate curve.
Tube sensitivity at extremely high dose rates :
will produce the
Atdose rates exceeding the recommended maximum, a G.M.Tube
and the
maximum number of counting pulses per second, limited by its dead time
circuit in which it is incorporated.
indicated counting rate
However, due to the characteristics of a specific circuit, the
may fall appreciably, even to zero.
maximum for window tubes, or
If dose rates exceeding 10 times the recommended
it is advisable to use a
100 times for cylinder tubes, are likely to be encountered,
circuit that continuously indicates saturation.

Dead Time Losses

period known as the
After every pulse, the tube is temporarily insensitive during a
during this period are not
dead time (Ta). Consequently, the pulses that occur
NxTa of the time,
COunted. At a counting rate of Ncount/s the tube will be dead during
so that approximately NxNxTd of the counts will be lost.
to dead time must be <1%, N should be
In an experiment if the inaccuracy in counts due inaccuracy of 1% is reached
less than 1/(100 >X Td)counts. Example: If Ta- 20 usec, an
at a counting rate of approximately 500counts/sec.

Background:
The most important sources of background are:
cosmic radiation.
a. Gamma radiation from the environment and from
b. Mesons from cosmic radiation
impurities of the materials from which the detector
C. Beta particles from contamination and
itself is made.
the detector and the counting circuit that do not
d. Spontaneous discharge or pulses in
originate from radiation (Electronic noise).
experimental data, the gamma contribution accounts for approximately
From published
background and a further 25% (approximately) is due to cosmic mesons. For
70% of the
tube applications, the background may be reduced to an acceptable
the majority of G.M. most of the gamma contribution is
the tube with lead or steel. Thus
level by shielding
values given in the data in counts per minute are derived from averages
eliminated. The
over a long duration.
 LIFE:

Storage life:
If stored in acool dry place, free form continuous or severe vibration, there is
hardly any deterioration in the tube's characteristics. Astorage life of years is not
unusual.

Warning:
Generally, life end of a G.M.tube is indicated by an increasing slope and a shorter
plateau. For older tubes, operation is recommended at the first third of the plateau.

Operational life:
The operational life of a G.M. Tube is expressed in counts (discharge).
Theoretically the quenching gas, ionized during a discharge, should be re
combined between discharges. However, minute quantities wll be chemically bound,
lead to a gradual reduction of
no longer taking part in the quenching process. This will
increased counting rate. This
the plateau length and for agiven working voltage to an
tube rendering it useless.
willculminate in a continuous state of discharge of the
the ambient temperature during
Apart from the accumulated number of counts registered,
At temperature above 50°C, changes
operation is of prime importance to the life of the tube.
gas mixture may occur, possibly reducing the total number of counts attainable. Short
in the should not prove harmful,
approximately 70°C
periods of operation (not exceeding 1h) up to
increasing temperature.
but life willprogressively decrease with
circumstances, the quenching gas may get exhausted
Thus, depending on application and
theoretically last for many years.
in as little as a few hours or
guaranteed unconditionally foraspecified period
reasons, G.M. Tubes cannot be
For these
of time.
 NUCLEONIX

O Absorbed dose: The energy transferred to a material by ionising radiation per unit
mass of the material.
Unit: Jkg1; Name of unit: Gray(see also Rad)
O Activity: Measurement of quality of radiative material. It is the number of nuclear
transformations or isomeric transitions per unit time.
Unit: s-: Name of unit : Becquerel(see also Curie)
O Alphadecay: A radioactive conversion accompanied by the emission of an alpha
particle. In alpha decay the atomic number is reduced by 2 and the mass number by
4. Alphadecay occurs, with a few exceptions, only for nuclides with a proton number
exceeding 82.

O Alpha radiation: Radiation that consists of high energy helium (He) nuclei emitted
during alpha disintegration of atomic nuclei. Alpha particles possess discrete initial
energies (line spectra) which are characteristic of the emitting nuclide.

Becquerel (Bq): Name of the derived Sl unit of activity. One Becquerel represents a
rate of radioactive decay equal to one disintegration per second.

1 Bq 27x1012Ci 27Pci
1 KBq 27x10-9 Ci 27nCI
1 MBq 27x10-6 Ci 274CI
1GBq 27x103 Ci 27mCI
1TBg 27 Ci 27CI

O Beta decay: Radioactive conversion aCcompanied by the emission of a beta particle,

i.e. anegatively charged electron (b decay) or a positively charged electronatomic
(b* decay).When a negatively charged electron is emitted, a neutron in the
nucleus is converted to a proton with the simultaneous emission of an antineutrino,
sothat the proton number Z is increased by 1. When a positively charged electron
(positron) is emitted, aproton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron with
simultaneous emission ofa neutrino, so that the proton number Z is decreased by 1.
positive electrons which are
O Beta Radiation: Radiation that consists of negative or
followed by
emitted from nuclei undergoing decay. Since the decay energy (or, if it is divided
statistically
gamma radiation, the decay energy less that photon energy) is spectrum of beta
between beta particles and neutrinos (or anti neutrinos), the energy
characteristic of the
radiation is continuous, extending form zero to amaximum value
generally termed the "beta end
nuclide concerned. The maximum beta energy is
point energy of the nuclide'".

OBremsstrahlung: Radiation that results

from the acceleration/ deceleration of
charged particles in the Coulomb field of atoms.

Curie(Ci): Name for derived unit of activity. One Curie corresponds to 3.7 x 1010
O transitions per second 1Ci=3.7 x 1010 s1,
nuclear disintegrations or isometric
 NUCLEONIX

1Ci 37 GBq
1 mCi 37 MBq
1 uCi = 37 KBq
1nCi = 37 Bq
1pCi =
37 mBq

equivalent.
O Dose: See absorbed dose, exposure value, and dose
the
radiation protection for the radiation dose. It is
O Dose equivalent: A term used in quality factor.
product of absorbed dose times the
Unit: Jkg1: Name of unit: Sievet (see also Rem)
time.
O Dose rate: Dose absorbed per unit
positively charged
Electron radiation: Particle emission consisting of negatively or
O
electrons.
ions of one polarity
The ratio of the amount of electric charge of the
O Exposure dose: radiation and the mass of the air.
that are formed in air by ionising
Unit: C.kg; (see also Roentgen).
atomic nucleus decaying
Radiation: Photon radiation emitted by an excited energies
O Gamma
state. Gamma radiation has a line spectrum with photon
to a lower energy concerned. Gamma and X-rays are
both
which are specific to the nuclide distinguished only by their mode of
electromagnetic radiations, and they are
generation.
corresponds
The SI unit of absorbed radiation dose. 1Gray of absorbed dose
O Gray:
to 1 joule of energy per kilogram of mass.
1 Gray = 100 Rad
reduces the intensity of initial
O Half-thickness: The thickness of material layer that
radiation by a factor of two.
gas.
O lonising radiation: Radiation that consists of particles capable of ionising a

Olsotopes: Nuclides with the same atomic number but different atomic weights.
(Mass numbers).

o Mass per unit area: Product of the density of a material and its thickness.
ONuclide: Generic term for neutral atoms that are characterized by a specific number
of neutrons N and protons Z in the nucleus.
 lsi NUCLEONIX

O Quality factor: A
factor which in
types of radiations and energies onradiation
people.
protection allows for the effects of different
O Rad (Radiation Absorbed Dose): An old unit used to
dose. 1Rad of absorbed dose measure absorbed radiation
mass (=100 ergs of energy per corresponds
gram of
to 0.01 joule of energy per
kilogram of
All measurements of absorbed dose mass).
level of radiation. 1R is equivalent to depend on the absorbing medium as well as the
0.871 Rad in air.

O RBE (Relative Biological

Effectiveness) :
The biological effect of radiation
on the radiation concerned. To depends, the not only on the energy absorbed, but also
illustrate,
different from the effect of 1Gray of neutrons. effect of 1 Gray of X-ray will be quite
for this variation and may be considered as a The RBE is an attempt to compensate
radiation. weighting factor for different type of
RBE (for radiation of Energy E) is defined as the
ratio;
producing a given biological effect) divided by (dose of (Dose E200 keV gamma rays
of
effect). energy producing the same

O Radioactivity: The property which certain nuclides have of emitting radiation as a

result of spontaneous transitions in their nuclei.

O Rem: Roentgen Equivalent Man): The rem is an early unit used

of a measure the effect
given type of radiation on living tissue, including compensation for the type of
radiation involved.

Rem dose = Rad dose X RBE

O Roentgen-R: Anold unit used to measure radiation by its ability to ionise air. One
Roentgen is that amount of radiation which releases a charge of 258 micro coulomb
per kilogram of air. This measure is a specific quantity of radiation, but does not relate
to the absorption by materials.
O Sievert (Sv): This Is the S unit used to measure the effect of a given type of radiation
on Iiving tissue, including compensation for the type of radiation involved. 1 Sievert =
100 Rem.

O H*(10):
(Normally pronounced "H-Star-Ten")
applicable to strongly penetrating radiation
Tnis Is the Ambient Dose Equivalent and is definition is complex
Inenvironmental and area monitorina, The exact to the effect of the radiation at a
generally
(derihed in lCRUReport 39), but relates
depth of 10mm. in human tissue.