Unit 8A Food and digestion 8A.1 Why we need food 1 @ You need to make new cells in order to grow and for repairing damage. b Three uses for energy in the body are for moving, growth and repair, and Keeping warm. 2 Pupils should use books and the internet to research this subject. 2 Any two from: Ntege has patches of peeling skin and is losing his hair. Other symptoms that can ‘occur are swollen arms and legs and a swollen belly 4 Any two foods from: meat; fish; poultry; eggs; dairy products; and pulses; will improve Ntege's health. 5 Children who do not eat enough protein foods will not reach the size that they might otherwise have done as they need protein to make new cells in, order to grow. 6 a A pregnant woman needs extra protein for her baby to grow. On average, a woman who is not pregnant needs 72 g of protein per day. 7 George's wound healed up because the body made new cells to replace the damaged ones. @ Wounds take longer to heal if a person doesn’t eat enough protein foods because we need proteins to make new cells. If we don't have ‘enough protein, it takes longer to make enough new cells fo heal the wound, 9 Any four energy foods from carbohydrates such as bread, pasta, potatoes and sugary foods, and from fats such as dairy products, egg yolk and meat fat. 10 Energy foods are needed to make cells that help with a child's growth. 11 Lack of energy foods in adults who are no longer growing will leave them with less energy for movement, repair of damaged cells and keeping warm. So they will be lees active, heal more slowly and find it harder to keep warm. They will Use the materials stored in their bodies as an ‘energy source so they will lose weight. 12 When sitting still we need energy for our hearts to beat, for our muscles to help us breathe and for the muscles in the digestive system to contract, Another acceptable answer is that energy is needed for chemical reactions for nerve impulses, 13 The activity of getting dressed fits between the ‘wo activities standing and walking because people get dressed when they are standing and there is also some movement involved, 14 Adam needs to have as much carbohydrate in his body as possible the day before a race in order to provide the energy that he needs throughout the race, 15 We need more energy when standing up for muscle contraction. More muscles are contracted when we are standing than when we are siting down, 16 Some of the effects of scurvy that are noticeable {in the photograph are dry, scaly skin with bleeding gums that are swollen and spongy. 17 a Examples of foods that contain vitamin C are citrus fruits, tomatoes, potatoes, kiwi fruit and, black currants, 'b Examples of foods that contain vitamin A are ‘artols, fresh green vegetables, dairy products, od-liver and liver. Examples of foods that contain vitamin D are dairy products and cod- liver, Note: In sunlight you also make vitamin D in your skin. Examples of foods that contain mineral iron are red meat, liver, chocolate and apricots. € Examples of foods that contain calcium are milk and cheese. Note: Calcium is added to white bread flour. 18 The main nutrient in Sugary Pulls is carbohydrates, 19 ‘The mineral found in Sugary Puffs is Iron, 20 Thiamin (B1) and sbonavin (62) are vitamins found in Sugary Puffs. 21. Lack of thiamin (B1) can lead us to suffer from beri-ber! ~ this is the swelling of the feet and legs. Italso causes loss of appetite, digestive problems ‘and muscle wasting. Lack of riboflavin (B2) causes llcers of the skin, mouth, eyes and genital areas, ‘These symptoms are also associated with the disease pellagra (loss of weight, diarthoea, ensaitis an mental disorder). 22 We need water and fibre in our diets because most of the body is made of water and fibre provides bulk for gut muscles to act on that helps food move through the digestive system more easily and thereby prevents constipation. Note: Fibre also helps to prevent diverticular disease land bowel cancer. 2 A healthy diet Fish provides the most protein. Noodles provide the main energy source. Meat contains most of the proteins and fat. bovag ‘a The cod contains the most water. b The cod contains the most protein, ‘The main nutrient in potatoes is carbohydrate, © The nutrients missing from the cod in the graph are carbohydrates and fibre. 7 Mmapula is growing so she will need to eat more protein and carbohydrates [also accept calcium and vitamin D). Steve will need to eat plenty of carbohydrates for energy (also accept water ‘and minerals),8 The mother will be advised to have a good diet for herself. She needs to eat enough for herself as ‘well as to supply the proteins, carbohydrates, fats, Vitamins, minerals and water that the baby needs. She will need to drink much more water and other liguids than usual. Students may come back ith information on bonding between mother and child, feeding problems or nutritional benefits of breast milk (this fa made up of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, water, calcium, vitamin D, as well as antibodies), 8A.3 Getting nutrients out of your food 1. Minerals, vitamins and some sugars (e.g. glucose) are three substances that you can absorb without having to digest them, ‘The water on the diagram presents the bland 3 The visking tubing represents the digestive system/intestine/gut lining. jucose molecules are small enough to get through the pores in the visking tubing whilst starch molecules are too large to get through. 5 a Vitamins, minerals and glucose molecules can pass into your blood because only small, Soluble molecules can get through the lining of ‘our intestines, b The molecules of fats and proteins cannot pass into your blood because they are too large. 6 Food travels through the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and finally through the anus. 8A.4 How your digestive cystem works 1a The meat on the wooden blocks swallowed by Spallanzani disappeared because enzymes and acid broke the meat down, b This process happened in the stomach. 2 a Molecules produced by the breakdown of fat are fatty acids and glycerol. b Sugars (alucose) are the molecules produced by the breakdown on starch i proteins breaks down s Caer) amino ow a ‘acids 4 Enzymes (also accept amylase or carbohydrates) can be put into the visking tubing to break the starch down into sugar. ‘The sugar is absorbed into the blood. Your saliva breaking down starch fells you that your saliva contains enzymes [carbohydrates/amylase}. 7 The intestine has villi to increase the surface area, but the model has no vill Blood circulates through the intestine wall but the water in the ‘model doesn't circulate. The contents of the intestine are moving, but the contents of the tubing in the model are not. Accept any other sensible answers, but they should point out differences clearly. 8 Enzymes speed up reactions and are affected by temperature and pH. The concentration of enzyme/substrate affects rate of reaction. Enzymes are made of proteins. Accept any sensible answer, ‘a Doctors use endoscopes that contain fibre optics to look inside the stomach for stomach. ulcers. b Doctors take X-rays of & patie’> digestive system in order to diagnose abnormalities of the digestive system. 8A.S After digestion 1. Nutrients that can pass into your blood are vitamins, minerals and sugars such as glucose that have small molecules, 2 Sugars passed into the blood can be used in respiration to release energy or stored in cel later use as glycogen for 3 Muscle cells use lots of sugars because cells break sugars down to release energy. Unit 8B Respiration 88.1 How cells use food 1. Glucose, fats (or fatty acids and glycerol) and proteins (or amino acids} all provide eneray for cells. 2 New cells are needed for growth, replacing cells and repairing wounds. Muscle cells need more glucose than normal when they are more active, e.g. running, ‘swimming, playing football, ete 4 Muscles use glucose when they are working. The high energy drink contains glucose which is absorbed and reaches the muscles quickly during exercise. Bread takes longer to be digested and the sugars It contains take longer to reach the muscles. @ Respiration is the process whereby a chemical reaction in the cells breaks down glucose and. releases energy from the body’s fuel. 6 a Oxygen and food (e.g. glucose) are needed by the cells for respiration. Oxygen and food for respiration are carried in the blood to the cells. ¢ Carbon dioxide and water (not energy} are waste substances produced in respiration,‘8B.2 How oxygen reaches your tissues 1 Bl We take oxygen into our bodies in order to release energy from food. blood tissues air fof tangs fof 10 n 13 4 + cells Al the tissues in the body need blood vessels near them to ensure they get the materials/oxygen and food they need. ‘a Muscles need plenty of blood vessels because they need lots of energy for contraction and movement. b The uterus of a pregnant woman needs plenty Of blood vessels to take oxygen and food materials to the growing baby. a Oxygen and glucose diffuse from your blood into your cells. Carbon dioxide and water diffuse from your Cells into your blood. is the liquid arvund cells: It keeps me cells moist and allows materials like oxygen and glucose to diffuse through it to get to the cells. Waste, like carbon dioxide diffuse in the opposite direction. ‘The heart is mainly made from muscle. ‘The heart needs lots of glucose and oxygen as energy to keep contracting/pumping, ‘The parts of the body that blood goes through in ‘a circular movement from the right side of heart are: right side of heart; arteries; lungs; veins; left side of heart; arteries to cells; veins from body cells; and finally back to the tight side of heart. Blood passes twice through the heart each time it does a full circuit of the body. ‘The wall of the left side of the heart is thicker because it has to pump blood to all the parts of the body. Capillaries have thin walls and therefore substances easily pass in and out of them. ‘There are blood capillaries close to all the cells in ‘your organs so that the cells get oxygen and food materials such as glucose. Harvey cartied out experiments which examined. the circulation in a logical way, whilst in Ancient Greece and Rome ideas were based more on traditional beliefs 15 Harvey couldn't identify capillaries because they ‘were invisible to the naked eye, 16 The microscope was needed before capillaries could be discovered. Ww 18 Modern scientists have learnt the importance of carrying out experiments, making careful observations and measurements. 19 a This question is designed to give students the ‘opportunity to carry out some research. It is an ‘open-ended question. Information found on the Chinese may be more of a general nature than about specific individuals. The Chinese appear to have assumed (going back many centuries) that blood circulates. b This is assuming we are referring to European ideas, since Chinese ideas were different. 8B.3 What happens to oxygen when it reaches the cells 1 glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water 2 Lacking oxygen or glucose can reduce the amount of energy available. 3. The people in the aerobics class are using more energy than the people walking along the street because they are using and contracting their ‘muscles more, Aerobic exercise is vigorous. Lots of oxygen is needed to release energy for the muscles to keep working, 5 Dizziness, exhaustion and nausea are all symptoms of altitude sickness. 6 The climber’s cells are not getting enough oxygen, so both his brain and his muscles are starved of energy. He feels tired. ‘The brain uses lots of oxygen, as muscles do, In the same way that a climber's muscles get tired at high altitude, a pilot's judgement may be impaired if oxygen levels are reduced,8B.4 What happens in your lungs windpipe lungs —heart chest 2. Gas exchange is the process whereby oxygen Inhaled from the air into the lungs diffuses Into the blood and waste carbon dioxide leaves the blood during exhalation to enter into the air. 3 _Its important that gas exchange happens very quickly in order to get the oxygen we need and to get rid of the carbon dioxide, 4 Lungs contain millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli that give the lungs a very large surface area. 5 Gas exchange takes place where blood vessels are ose to the alt. The larger he surface area te more blood is close to the air, so more gas ‘exchange can take place. 6 Capillaries’ thin walls help gases pass quickly between the air in the alveoli and the blood, 7 Substances pass easily in and out of capillaries becauise they have thin walls only one cell thick. 8 Capillaries take blood to the alveoli. The more blood that is taken to the alveoli, the more gas exchange can take place between the blood and, the air. 9 The loss of alveoli means that the surface area is reduced so there is less gas exchange able to take place. 10 Alveoli are most suitable for gas exchange because there are lots of capillaries carrying red blood into the boales cells. 8B.5 Comparing inhaled and exhaled air 1 The liquid on the mirror is water. 2 The liquid comes from the air we breathe out, 3 Exhaled air from warm lungs shows up as water vapour on a cold day because it cools and condenses when it meets the cold external air 4 Carbon dioxide and water are two waste products from aerobic respiration. 5 a Inhaled air contains more oxygen than exhaled b Oxygen is used up in respiration so inhaled air contains more oxygen. 6 Carbon dioxide is more abundant in exhaled air than in inhaled air. 7 The extra gas was made in body cells during respiration. 8 The amount of water vapour in inhaled air depends on how much water there Is in the atmosphere. 9 Muscles are more active while running than during sleep and therefore use up more glucose and oxygen to provide more energy and give off more carbon dioxide. ‘8B.6 Other living things respice too 11a Lime water and hydrogencarbonate indicator can be used to detect carbon dioxide. by Lime water turns milky and hydrogencarbonate Indicator turns yellow when carbon dioxide is present. 2 The lime water in flask B stays clear. 3 The change in the limewater showing that there is carbon dioxide in the air going through flask D came from the woodlice respiration. 4 In the tube with woodlice, the indicator turns yellow. In the tube without woodlice, the indicator stays orange, 5 The conclusion from experiment 1 is that woodlice are giving off carbon dioxide. 6 She had no control to test that it is the maggots that are causing the colour change. Unit 8C Microbes and disease 8C.1 Micro-organisms and how to grow them 1 Viruses, bacteria and fungi are types of micro- organisms, 2 The average bacterium is ten times bigger than the average virus, 3 Viruses are the smallest type of micro-organism. Bacteria and fungi make food rot. 5 [iypeot [Average|siructure [Found [Uses [Diseases Imierobe|size emmy et Viruses ]o.0001 Genetic inside To wit [Common Imarerit iving pests [cold lina eats naenea protein eases Bacteria|0.001 [Siang call |in waver [To make Typhoid, jwait'no. [sot'and yoghurt, [ehotera, ldecaying|ereese food mater sna |povsoning Fungi |O1 [Single celslOn——|To make [arenes " Jartine"|roting bread, foo. iveads food” [beer wine ringworm lane6 Yeast and humans both use oxygen to break down food, both produce carbon dioxide and both need warmth and food to grow. 7 You can tell that yeast cells respire aerobically from the air pipe going into the vat and bubbles of air passing through the yeast mixture. 8 The amount of sugar in dough affects how it rises because the more sugar io added to the yeast mixture the more the dough rises. 9 Carbon dioxide makes dough rise. 10 The hot temperature of baking kills yeast because yeast is a living thing. 11 Penicillin and cortisone are medicines made by fungi 12 We can see bacteria growing on an agar because they grow in colonies of thousands clumped together, 13 The dishes used to grow bacteria are called agar plates because they contain agar for the bacteria to grow on. 14 The worker is wearing a protective mask, hat, Gloves, coat and boots. 15 ‘There are micro-oraanisms on laboratory ‘equipment that would grow on the agar and contaminate the dishes if laboratory equipment wasn't sterilised properly, Unit 8C.2 Micro-organisms and disease 1 A child with chicken pox can breathe out droplets carrying chicken pox viruses into the air where other children can breathe them in and become Infected 2 Its important that you wash your hands before preparing food because you could have micro- ‘organisms on your hands and if you don’t wash your hands properly you could infect the food you are preparing, 3 You can stop food poisoning being spread by flies, by putting lids on bins so flies cannot reach infected food and/or by keeping flles away from fresh food, 4 Bolling water or adding chlorine tablets to water kills micro-organisms and makes water safer for drinking, 5 Amother could pass on a disease to her baby whilst she is pregnant across the placenta or from. her breast milk. 6 200 people died from cholera in the first three days of the epidemic. 7 “This pump is infected and the water isn't safe to drink. Wouldn't you rather walk 10 minutes to get water than die from cholera?” 8 All the evidence pointed to the Broad Street Pump as the source of the cholera epidemic so although John Snow couldn't see the bacteria he knew they was there, Unit 8C.3 Protecting ourselves against disease 1. The tight layers of cells of your skin make it difficult for micro-organisms to get through, 2 Micro-organisms are killed by acid in your stomach, 3 An animal licks its wounds to get saliva on its ‘wounds. The saliva contains enzymes that help the wounds to heal, 4 You are less likely to catch TB If you breathe through your nose because the TB bacteria will, be trapped by hairs and mucus and not get into your lungs. 5 To stop yourself spraying droplets containing virus particles into the air when sneezing, you cover your nose and mouth. 6 Children probably catch more colds than adults because they are very close to other children in a classroom and on the whole they are not as good at covering their mouths and noses when they cough and sneeze. 7 You don’t usually catch the same disease twice because after you have had it once you are immune to it. Your white blood cells have learnt to make the right antibody to destroy the micro- organism that causes the disease. 8 You catch another cold a couple of months after a first one because a different cold virus that you are not immune to causes it 9 A breastfed baby won't catch any disease that its mother has made antibodies to because the mother’s antibodies pass through the breast milk to the baby. 10 Yes I would put mould on a wound because it will help the wound to heal. OR No | wouldn't put mould on a wound I would use a modern antiseptic cream, 11. Bacteria were stopped from growing close to Penicillium through a substance called penicillin 12 Penicillin, unlike most new drugs that are tested and trialled for years before being widely used, was used straight away because It was desperately needed to treat soldiers dying from Infected wounds in the Second World Wat. 13 a 100 people would probably die before penicillin b_15 people would probably die after penicillin, 14 Penicillin was discovered by accident. Luckily Fleming did not just throw away the contaminated plate but knew he had discovered something important, This is sometimes how science knowledge develops. 15 If Mrs Sharples wanted antibiotics to cure her flu, I would tell her that “Antibiotics would not makeany difference to your illness because they only work on bacteria and flu is caused by a virus. This. is why you cannot have any antibiotics.” 16 Students answer as per the vaccinations they have hhad and when they had them. 17 ‘The TB vaccine contains an extract of the bacteria that cause TB so your body thinks it has been Infected and produces antibodies. 18 White bid ces make antibodies ‘White biood cals have ke the Tight antibod “Ta bacteria get two our body ‘whute blood cats produce ‘antibodies straight away Sd you don't become i 19 TB jabs were first introduced as a routine immunisation for all children in 1950. 20 Reasons that a child might not have been immunised against TB are: they may have been. off school for some reason when everyone else had their TB jab; the child's parents may have refused to give permission for the jab; or they may have been living abroad at the age when other children were immunised. Unit 8D Ecological relationships 8D.1 Animals, plants and adaptations 11 Ahabitat is the place where a plant or animal Ives. 2 Organisms adapt to their environments in order to obtain the cosentials for life, for example food, shelter and water. 3a Vertebrates and invertebrates are the two main groups of animals. b Vertebrates have an inside skeleton, 4 a Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are the five groups of vertebrates. b One unique feature of each group is: fish have gills; amphibians can exchange gases (breathe) in air and under water; reptiles have scales; birds have feathers; mammals produce milk. 5 Invertebrates are divided into coelenterates, flatworms, annelid worms, molluscs and arthropods. 6 Xylem and phloem are two types of vascular tissue found in vascular plants. 7 We divide plants into groups to help us identify and study them, 8 Mosses and liverworts do not have a vascular system {0 absorb and transport water therefore they are often restricted to damp environments. 9 Vascular plants have a vascular system to absorb and transport water and often have a waterproof layer to reduce water loss. 8D.2 Interactions in a habitat 1. Possible advantage of doing fieldwork on a rocky shore is that it is often easier to see plants and. animals in their natural habitat than in other habitats. Possible problem with doing fieldwork on a rocky shore Is that you have to be precise with the tide times and therefore you are limited in the amount of time you can spend carrying out the fieldwork. 2 Pupils could suggest that this is not very scientific and that David should take a sample because It is ‘not possible to count all of the organisms that they can see. 3. Examples of safety points that the class needs to think about before working on a rocky shore could include: checking tide times; taking care in slippery conditions; not going too close to the sea; and not running on the rocks. 4 It isa good idea for several groups to do the same experiment so that a large sample size is obtained in order to compare results and increase validity of conclusions. 5 The lower shore is covered by the sea for the longest time. 6 The lower shore has the widest variety of living organisms. 7 It is not a good idea to take some of the limpets back to the laboratory to look at in more detail because due care and consideration should be shown to the organisms so as not to have an adverse effect on the area you are working in, & Seaweeds are generally found in the lower shore here the water is often fast moving and they therefore need strong holdfasts that allow them. to hold on to the rocks and not be taken away by the water.9 It is useful to organisms living on the upper shore that they don’t dry out quickly because they spend a large part of their time not covered by water. 10 The middle shore contained the largest population of barnacies. 411 Agree with Molly’s conclusion because the middle shore spends more time under water and the hamarles therefore have more time to feed from the water than they would on the upper shore. 12 If Molly is a good scientist she should compare her results with those obtained by other groups. 13 Other reasons that make it easier for barnacles to survive in the middle shore are that there is less. chance of barnacles drying out on the middle shore and they spend less time exposed to severe weather conditions. 8D.3 How living things depend on each other 1a Microscopic plants are producers. bb Sea bird, starfish, mussels, dog whelks, crabs, limpets and barnacies are all consumers. 2 Crabs eat mussels and limpets. 3 ‘croscopc plants —p mussel starfish —p ses bid !mlroscope plants — limpet — crab sea bird riroscople plane —p baracle > crab ——p ae bid 4 Mussels, limpets and barnacles are all herbivores, 5 Dog whelks, starfish, crabs and sea birds are all carnivores, 6 If all the rabbits were killed, the lettuce population would rise because there would be less rabbits eating them, 7 The effect of a fall in the rabbit population would create a rise in the slug population due to the fact that there would be more food available. Ba Fox Rabbits Dandelions . [|r Perch Insect larave Microscopic plants [[ssom ; aan 100 1 rosebush Unit 8E Atoms and elements 8E.1 Materials 1 2 The four elements according to the Ancient Greeks were Earth, Fire, Air and Water. Elements are special because they are pure substances that cannot be made out of anything else, Wood Is not an element because it is not a pure substance as it contains cells of different shapes, sizes and colours. Examples of elements are neptunium, americium, iridium, thallium, protactinium, gadolinium, rhenium, technetium, seaborgium and hassium,8E.2 What the elements are like 1 There are about 100 different elements. 2 Particles in gas are disordered with large distances of separation. 3. The word ‘atom’ means ‘uncuttable’ 4 The sensors in your nose provide evidence that particles exist because the sensors can detect different particles. 5 Iron atoms are found in a lump of the element 6 The particles that make up hydrogen are 0,0000001mm big. 7 No, carbon dioxide is not an element as it contains more than one type of atom. 8 Cz means two atoms of chlorine. CO shows one atom of carbon joined to one atom, ‘of oxygen whilst Co is the symbol for cobalt. 10 0,, Hand CO, are not atoms. ‘11 Helium was discovered by Sir W Ramsay (UK), and PIT, Cleve and N.A. Langlet (Sweden) in 1894, It got its name from the Greek ‘helios meaning ‘Sur 12 Two is the minimum number of atoms in a molecule, 8E.3 How we get all the other materials 1. Examples of physical changes are Ice melting, ‘water freezing, expansion and contraction. Examples of chemical changes are coal burning, 100d digestion, leaves 1uttiny, iron rusting, food ‘cooking and concrete setting. 2 The colour as well as the appearance of the remains of a bonfire are clues that burning is a ‘chemical change. The new substances also behave differently. 3. Atroom temperature hydrogen and oxygen are ‘gases whilst water is a liquid. 4 Twos the smallest number of different kinds of atom a compound can contain. Chloride ion Sodium fon, 8E.4 Representing the changes 1 The chemical name tells you what elements are present in the compound. 2a Copper chloride contains the elements copper and chlorine. ¢ The elements zinc and sulphur make up the ‘compound zine sulphide. The elements nitrogen and oxygen make up the ‘compound nitrogen oxide. 3a Calcium oxide is the name for the formula CaO. b Magnesium sulphide is the name for the formula MgS. ¢ Hydrogen chloride is the name for the formula HC. 4 Adiatomic molecule Is a molecule containing 1wo atoms of the same element joined together. Copper + sulphur ——> copper sulphide Calcium + oxygen ——> calcium oxide 7 We need two atoms of Mg on the left of the ‘equation to react with a molecule of oxygen. We need two atoms of Mg on the right of the ‘equation to balance the number of atoms of Mg ‘an both sides of the equation. Unit 8F Compounds and mixtures 8F.1 Elements and Compounds 1a There are 48 different words used in the passage. b 21 different letters are used in the passage. The word “a” contains only one letter. © Fluorine has the greatest number of different letters - eight. 2. Inert gases went undetected for years because they did not react with anything noticeable. 3 a Iron isa shiny metal used to build bridges. b Oxygen is a gas in the air that we can't do ‘without. © Helium is a gas used in airships. 4 Hyand 0, are elements. CO; and CH, are compounds. 5 One particle of water contains three atoms. 6 Hy, 02, CO; and CHy.7 [substance | Number | Number of of atoms | elements Caco, 5 3 CuSO, 6 a ‘MgO Zi 2 180, 7 3 | % | substance | Name aco, Calcium carbonate cus0, Copper Sulphate | Mao ‘Magnesium oxide 1,80, Sulphuric acid ‘8F.2 Looking at Compounds 1 Nais the chemical symbol for sodium, 2 Clis the chemical symbol for chlorine. 3. NaCl is the chemical formula for sodium chloride. fa tron fs a silvery metal. Sulphur is a yellow powder. 5 a Iron isa silvery metal compared to the soft black crystals of iron sulphide. b Sulphur is a yellow powder compared to the soft black crystals of iron sulphide. 8F.3 Compounds and some of their reactions 1 The candle gives off heat via its flame. The acid reacts with the base making bubbles, a fizzing noise and causing gas to evolve. The two liquids cause a change of colour and precipitation of an insoluble solid. The Bunsen burner appears to be glowing, and a change of colour and appearance are caused, 2 Oxygen comes from the ait. 3a You can tell when an acid has been neutralised because it changes colour. b You will see bubbles and fizzing when gas is produced in a neutralisation reaction, 4 You can separate iron carbonate precipitate from sodium chloride solution by filtration, calcium oxide Calcium carbonate —> Ee carbon dioxide ‘8F.4 What is a mixture? 1 Six types of particle, 2 a 02, Hz and N, are all elements. b NH, CO, and H,0 are all compounds. 10 4 15, 16 Any sensible choice of two elements shown clearly by choice of symbol and/or shading, b Any sensible choice of an element and a compound shown clearly by choice of symbol and/or shading. Any sensible choice of two compounds shown clearly by choice of symbols and/or shading, There are nine different minerals in the mineral water. Chloride is the most common mineral in the mineral water. b Fluoride is the least common mineral in the mineral water. You can't see the minerals in the water because they have dissolved. Magnesium chloride is the most common compound in the Dead Sea mixture. 6 billion tonnes Is the mass of calclum chloride in. the Dead Sea, 370 grams of salts are dissolved in every Kilogram of water in the Dead Sea, b This is nine times greater than the amount of. salts dissolved in the ocean, © The salts are dissolved from the land around by rainwater and carried to the Dead Sea by rivers, ‘The salts can be extracted relatively cheaply and. Used to make valuable substances. The Dead Sea fs also important for the tourist industry. Nitrogen makes up the biggest part of the mixture ‘we call ait ‘There is 0.035% carbon dioxide in the air. @ Welding/ making steel/ making nitric acid/ hospitals. bb Fertilisers/ stop food, chemicals and electronics from reacting with oxygen, © Inside light bulbs, ~~ @ @ Water becomes a solid at 0°C. When the air mixture of solid carbon dioxide and solid water passes through pipes in the equipment Used to separate air, it would block pipes.7 18 19 20 21 Water is the substance in air that has the highest boiling point. Nitrogen is the substance in air that has the lowest boiling point. Nitrogen Is the first substance to become a gas when liquefied air heats up. Oxygen Is the last substance to change back to a gas trom liquetied ait. ‘The process of separating a mixture of liquids by heating them and collecting the gases as they boll off is called fractional distillation. ‘Two other examples of uses of fractional distillation are separating crude oil and making whisky. ‘Iron is a solid at room temperature. B Water ie a liquid at room temperature, © Methane and hydrogen are gasses at room temperature, 24 You can turn methane into a liquid by cooling it down to a much lower temperature. 25 0°C is the fixed melting point of ice. 26 100 °C is the fixed boiling point of water. a7 ‘The dissuived sall in the water lowers the temperature at which water freezes. So unless the temperature is very cold indeed, the roads will remain free of ice. If the water in a car's radiator freezes then it will no longer circulate around the engine. Heat will not be removed from the engine so it may overheat, Also, when the cooling water freezes it expands, so the radiator could crack. 8G Rocks and weathering 86.1 Rocks vary 1 2 Granite, limestone and sandstone are solid rocks. ‘Sand, peat and clay are loose-grained rocks. Granite has a mixture of small and large grains. b Sandstone has small grains ¢ Granite is made up of a mixture of minerals. Sandstone Is the porous rock. The picture shows Dubbles coming out of the pores. Air is in the pores of porous rocks. We find water and oil in porous rocks. Only porous racks have the space between the grains, to store oil or water. The sand has lots of pore spaces. These pore spaces are filled mainly with air so water drains ‘easily through them. When we see water ‘sinking Into the sand’, itis draining into the pore spaces. 86.2 Rock and cain zn ‘a The new gargoyle has sharply defined features because it is new. The old gargoyle has been. ‘weathered by acid rain so its features are hardly recognisable. b The changes took 500 years. Acid rain turns the calcium carbonate into carbon dioxide, which escapes into the air, and a salt, which is washed away by the rain, ‘The grains in some sandstones are cemented together with calcium carbonate. When chemical weathering dissolves the cement, the sand grains. separate. It takes rain many years to break the rock down Decause rain is a very weak acid. In granite: a Two minerals that are weathered by rain are feldspar and mica. 1b Two chemicals that are washed away are soluble carbonates and hyarogencarbonates of sodium, potassium and calcium. a Two solids left behind when granite weathers, completely are quartz / silica and clay minerals. b Quartz / silica was a mineral in the original granite Feldspar is the mineral that would be lost if these statues were made of granite. Chemical weathering would change the feldspar to carbonates, hydrogen carbonates and clay minerals. Granite will leave the largest mass of solids after being soaked in concentrated acid for a month because it contains the most quartz. 86.3 Rocks and temperature changes 2 ‘The volume of me rock Increased when th turned to ice. Water freezing in cracks in rocks causes weathering. As the water freezes it expands and widens the cracks, when the ice melts, the rocks fall apart at the cracks.3 Its safer for mountaineers to climb early in the morning than at midday because it is colder. When it gets warmer the ice in the cracks in rocks ‘melt and then pieces of rock break off as the climber puts weight on them, 4 Mountain peaks and the rocks that fall from mountains have sharp angles where they have broken along the cracks In the rocks, 5 Pieces of rock were broken off a mountain by freeze-thaw weathering. The pieces were washed down the mountain and collected at the bottom of a slope as screes, 6 eecceeccee e@000e0000e eecee0c0ce 000000000 egeceeoee Coovecccee ame 0000000000 Woseeeee eocccccccc Wooseesee eel leTd KN 0000000000 Geeeweeseo ocecccl ee CSCS an expanded, solid a contracted solid 7 The surface of the rock gets hottest. Ba This part 1s mostly likely to crack because it Is the part that expands and contracts the most. 9 The kind of weathering shown in the picture is ‘sometimes called onion skin weathering because |W comes off in layers in the same way that an onion skin peels off, 86.4 Moving weathered pieces of rock 1. Weathering breaks rocks down into fragments, Erosion is the transport of the rock fragments away from where they formed. 2. Gravity moves loose rock fragments down slopes. A second result of gravity Is that water flaws downhill and carries rock fragments along with I. 3 The sediments in the hills are large, angular rock fragments. Further downstream the sediments are large, rounded pebbles. Sand is the sediment on the flatter land. The sediments in the estuary are fine sand and clay. 4 The rock fragments upstream are larger and more angular than the rock fragments lower down. the stream, 5 Water flows more quickly in the hills because the slopes, including the slope of the stream bed, are steeper, 6 a The faster the current of the river the larger the size of the rock fragments that it can move. b A fast current has more energy than a slow ‘current so it can carry larger rock fragments. 7 ‘The smaller fragments are carried downstream by the river current. 8 As the river slows down it deposits the larger particles that it can no longer carry and continues to carry the smaller ones depositing them as it slows down further down the stream. 9 Abrasion is the wearing away of rocks that happens when particles rub against them. Two examples of abrasion are the wearing down of pebbles in a river and the sand-blasting of a bullding, 10 The further that rock fragments travel in a river, the more their comers are knocked off and they become rounded. ‘11. Sand blasting is used to clean buildings. The sand Js abrasive so it knocks off the dirty top layer of stone to expose the clean stone beneath. An abrasive to polish stones has very fine particles in it'so that it doesn't leave visible scratches. ‘86.5 Why do sediments form layers? 1. Compared with the normal river the speed of flow is faster in the river in flood, larger and more patticles of sediment are carried by the ooding river. 2 The sand settles when you stop stirring because there is less energy in the water to keep it moving, 3 The largest particles are at the bottom. Further up the Jar the particles get smaller and smaller.10 n 2 13 ry a5 16 ‘The layers in the cliff are clearer than those in the jar ‘The rocks at the bottom of the cliff were deposited first so they are the oldest rocks. As you go up the cliff, the rocks get younger. So the youngest rock is the shale at the top of the cliff. When the sand was deposited the river was lowing faster than when the mud was deposited. The thickest layer is the lower layer of shale. It contains the most sediment, so it probably took the longest to form. b Sediments may have settled at a faster rate at some times than at other times. Newer layers press down on the older ones and ‘squeeze water out. Dissolved solids from the ‘water form erystals that coment the sediments together forming hard rock. Chemical weathering produces dissolved solids. b These substances drain into the sea via rivers. ‘© The concentration of dissolved solids is much higher in the sea than in rivers. Rivers have carried salts into the sea for millennia. Only the ‘water evaporates from the sea leaving the salts. behind. So the sea stays very concentrated ‘whilst the much purer evaporated water falls as rain again to form rivers, ‘The heat from the Sun makes the water in seas, and lakes evaporate. Salt deposits are most likely to form in a sea if it {s in a hot country and more water evaporates from the sea than flows into it. Very large seas. and oceans are too deep or have tov much water flowing into them to form salt deposits. ‘Two animals that concentrate dissolved solids are corals and molluscs. ‘The chemical that forms the hard parts of these animals is calcium carbonate. ‘a When the animals die their soft parts decay. b Their hard parts form fossils. © They form limestone. A fossil coral tells you that the sea was clear, warm and fairly shallow at the time the rock formed. From the photograph of the rock we can see that the shale at the bottom of the cliff formed first. It formed in a deep muddy sea as it contains lots of fossils so we know that lots of sea creatures lived there. The sea became shallower and clear of mud so corals and many animals with shells started to grow and their remains formed limestone. This is a very thick layer so It probably took millions of years to form. The next rock is sandstone which. means that rivers must have started (o bring lots of sand into the sea, corals no longer grew, and other animals lived there. The layer of rock salt shows that the sea must have dried up, pethaps rivers no longer brought water into the sea. The current bedding shows that there was a river again and the area was the delta. After that the area became land and weathering of the rocks helped to produce the layer of soil at the top of the cliff. The stripes in layers of rock are called current bedding, that is found in modern deltas. 117 William Smith meant that the older rock is at the bottom, or at least it started off below a newer rock. sa sandstone with ‘current bedding limestone ‘onan ‘ora fos shale oldest layer b soit sandstone with urrent bedaing layer formed ima clear sea ‘naning ‘oral fos sandstone wits ‘current bedding whenatver Geet ‘comma ‘oral fossisa sol ecasrata) en = Fated ae aaa wel ree nstomed rears ‘oral fsa Unit 8H The rock cycle 8H.I How sedimentary rocks form a Sedimentary rocks are rocks made from sediments, often materials washed down by [As more and more layers of sediments are deposited, the pressure an the lower layers Increases. The pressure compacis the sediments, and squeezes the water out. Minerals erystalise ‘out of this solution cementing the rock fragments together and thereby forming sedimentary racks a The millstone grit has rounded grains of one ‘mineral whilst the oolitic limestone has spheres of a different mineral b Both rocks are similar in that they are granular, ‘with pores and cement. grain 8H.2 Limestones are not all the same 1 a Limestone A is light in colour. Limestone A has a light colour so itis likely to be purer than the other limestones. It contains fewer mineral impurities. ‘Carbon dioxide gas is in the bubbles. calcium chtoride Calcium carbonate s = > catmon dioxiae hydrochloric acid + water ‘Calcium chloride and water are left behind as a solution. Solid impurities are also left behind. b The solids left behind are the minerals in limestone that do not react with hydrochloric acid therefore they are not carbonates. ‘Both rocks contain carbonates, so both will fizz /aive off carbon dioxide. b Rock B is darker coloured and probably less pure than rock A, so more mineral impurities will be left behind. € All limestones contain calcium carbonate, but all limestones differ in their mineral content depending on the conditions under which they were formed. 8H.3 Rocks are sometimes changed 1 2 a a 5 6 7 ‘A metamorphic rock is new rock formed when an existing rock is changed without being melted, Marble, slate and quartzite are metamorphic rocks. ‘The texture of metamorphic rock is non-porous, ‘The crystals interlock, with no pore space. Rocks become harder, with a more granular texture and minerals may become aligned / lined- up as a result of metamorphism, Rocks get hot enough to change them as a result of being buried deep in the Earth or as by being in contact with or close to a molten magma / lava, Pressure is put on rocks by deep burial in the Earth's crust or as a result of movements of the Earth's crust. Pressure from deep burial could have compressed. the shale and lined up the minerals to change the shale into slate. 81.4 Rocks formed from molten magma 1 heat to above 1000°C pg —— granite magma cool to below 100°C2. a Magma is molten rock containing a mixture of minerals. An igneous rock is a rock formed when magma, solidifies, 3 Basalt and granite are igneous rocks. Both of them are made of crystals with an interlocking texture. 4 One difference between the two igneous rocks is that the basalt is made of small crystals and the granite of large crystals 5 a Evaporating means that liquid water turns into ‘a gas. Another way of putting this is that the water “dries up”. The solid part of the solution is left behind. ‘a The speed at which the water evaporates affects the size of the crystals formed from a solution, You make large crystals by letting the water evaporate slowly. 6 The basalt has the smaller crystals of the two so it formed from the faster cooling magma, 7 Obsidian has no crystals, it would have cooled at the Earth's surface so quickly that there was no lume for crystals to form. You can’t see ciystals it pumice, but it is not glassy so it probably has tiny crystals. Pumice has bubbles in it, in order to trap {gas bubbles. It probably cooled very quickly at the Earth’s surface. 8 The granite probably formed deep underground, Its large crystals show that it cooled slowly. A magma cools more slowly underground than on. the surface of the Earth. 9 Avoleano is often cone-shaped. 10 Two materials that form volcanoes are lava and, volcanic ash, 121 The volcano in the drawing formed by building up layers of lava and volcanic ash. Sometimes it erupted ash and at other times lava. 12. The clouds are probably steam formed when the hot lava goes into the cea and makes the water evaporate. 13 Surtsey appeared out of the sea in 1963. It is near Iceland, 14 a Both rocks are igneous rocks because they have an interlocking / non-porous texture. b Both rocks formed deep below the Earth’s surface because they both have large crystals. ‘This is evidence that they cooled slowly. BH.5 Recycling rocks 1a The black arrows show weathering, erosion and deposition. b The orange arrow shows compacting and cementing. 2. a The red arrows show melting, b The blue arrow shows cooling and solidifying. © The purple arrows show heat and pressure, 2 The rock cycle. Unit 81 Heating and cooling 81.1 Measuring how hot things are 1A thermometer is used to measure temperature. 2. Temperature tells us how hot or cold something is. ‘The estimate of temperature you make with your skin depends on the temperature of your skin. If your skin has been in a warm place, for example hot water, then something quite warm can feel cold simply because it is colder than your hot hand 4 The scale used for measuring temperature in everyday work in science is the Celsius scale. 5 30°C 81.2 Changing the temperature 1 Heat energy is supplied to make the temperature of something go up. v James Prescott Joule was born on December 24, 1818 in Salford, Lancashire. He died on October 1, 1889 in Sale in Cheshire. He was a scientist ‘who established that energy can be changed from, ‘one type into another. He formed the basis of the Jaw of conservation of energy. He also helped to discover the principle of refrigeration. The unit of, energy is named after him, 3 Heat energy can move from a hot object to a cold object. 4 The temperature of a cold object will rise if itis supplied with heat energy from a hot object. S The cold drink will warm up because the heat energy transfers from the hot metal to the cold. liquid. This happens because the metal is at a higher temperature than the drink. The temperature of the metal will fall and the temperature of the drink will rise, 813 Hot to cold 1 Vibrations pass from particle to particle when heat passes along a solid. 2 The process that takes place when heat travels along a solid is called conduction. Metal is a hetter conductor of heat than plastic. ‘The metal base is a good conductor so the heat is, conducted through to the food. Plastics a poor ‘conductor so if itis used for a handle it will prevent ‘heat from the pan reaching the cook's hand.5 Two metals that are good conductors of heat are copper and aluminium, 6 The bone acts as a conductor and carries the heat energy into the middle of the meat so it cooks more quickly. 7 The particles in a gas are spread out and flying free of each other. They collide into each other and rebound off the walls of whatever container they are in, 8 Gas is a poor heat conductor because the particles are flying about separate from each other so the transfer of heat energy from particle to particle is, very poor compared to that of a solid, 9 Layers of clothes act as insulators because they trap air between the layers or between fibres. The alr is a poor conductor but a good insulator and this makes the clothing’keep the heat in. 10 The handle of the bike feels colder when you touch it even though it is at the same temperature as the saddle. The handle is made from metal, which is a good conductor, so it carries the heat away from the skin quickly. The saddle is made of plastic and is therefore a poor conductor. 11 It would be better to hold the wooden part of a spade on a frosty day because woud Is & poor conductor of heat energy so it will not take heat from the skin as quickly as the metal part. 81.4 Moving the heat energy in liquids and gases 1 Cold water is denser than hot water. 2 A convection current is the name for the current that forms when hot water floats upwards and cold water sinks, 3 The patticles in the water jostle about more quickly when the temperature increases, 4 When the temperature increases the density of the water falls. 5 The convection current used by a glider pilot is called a thermal, 6 Inside a fridge the cooling unit cools the air in ‘contact with it and this air falls in the fridge because it is denser. The warmer air rises up and 4s cooled when it meets the cooling unit. This cycle continues as'a convection current with the ool air falling from the cooling unit and the warmer air rising up to be cooled, 7 Sea breezes often blow from the sea towards the land during the day because the hot air rises up from the land and the cooler sea air is drawn towards the land. At night the breezes blow from the land towards the sea because the land cools more rapidly than the sea and soon cooler land air is being drawn towards the sea as the warmer sea air is rising, 8L5 How energy travels through space 1. Energy is carried from the Sun to the Earth by radiation, 2 Heat can transfer through space by radiation but not by conduction or convection. 3° Ashiny or light-coloured surface will reflect heat radiation, 4 Some objects are coloured white or given shiny surfaces so the surface reflects heat radiation and keeps the object cool. 5 Spotlight bulbs have a reflective coating so they project a lot of heat radiation as well as light. If they are placed above plates of cooked food in restaurants the heat radiation coming off the bulbs will keep the food hot. 81.6 Keeping warm 1. Ways of reducing heat loss include double glazing, draught excluders, cavity wall insulation, carpets, loft insulation and curtains. Double glazing works by trapping a layer of air between two sheets of glass and the air acts as an insulator, Draught excluders stop air getting in and out via cracks around doors and windows and so prevent heat loss by convection. Cavity wall insulation uses a layer of foam to trap air which improves the insulation of the walls. Loft insulation is a thick layer of fibres which trap air and prevent heat loss through the roof by conduction and radiation. Carpets and curtains work by reducing air movement and by reducing heat conduction. 2 Someone might have double glazing fitted to their house even if they anly plan ta live in it for a few years because it could reduce heating bills, it will reduce condensation on windows and noise from the outside, and it would be a selling feature of the house when they decide to move on. 3A vacuum is an empty space where all the Patticles have been removed. 4 Radiation is the only method by which heat energy can cross a vacuum. Convection and conduction are methods of heat energy transfer that require particles in order to happen, whereas radiation can transfer heat energy through space. 5 James Dewar was born on September 20, 1842 in Kincardine, Scotland. He died on March 27, 1923 in London. He studied low-temperature phenomena. He designed a double-walled vacuum flask. The flask is now known as a Dewar flask. The Thermos flask is an adaptation of the Dewar flask. Dewar also did important work in chemistry and he built a machine for producing liquid oxygen. He was the first person to liquefy hydrogen gas in 1898 and to solidify it in 1899, Working with Sir Frederick Augustus Abel he developed an explosive, cordite.81.7 Changing between solid, liquid and gas 1. The ice is melting where the temperature stays. the same on the graph. 2 The energy supplied makes the particles of the melting ice break apart while the temperature slays the same. 3 Once all the ice has melted the temperature of the ‘water starts to rise, This happens because once the particles have broken free from the solid lattice they start fo move more quickly. ‘The liquid starts to turn into a solid at about 54 °C 5 The liquid takes about 3 minutes to turn into a solid, 6 If the experiment was repeated in colder surroundings the temperature would fall more quickly. 7 The effect that causes rain water to dry out on pavements is evaporation, 8 The effect that causes bubbles of vapour to form all through a body of water is called boiling, 9 Condensation is the process where a gas, such as vapour or steam, changes back to a liquid. Even though steam and boiling water can both be at 100 °C, the particles in the steam have a lot ‘more heat energy than the particles in the water and therefore the scald from steam can be much ‘worse than the scald from boiling water. 10 11. James Watt was born in Scotland in 1736, He was. fan inventor who researched and patented many important inventions. Watt determined the properties of steam and patented his improvements fon the Newcomen steam engine and his design of a separate condensing chamber that prevented the losses of steam and heat energy in the steam engine, The unit of electrical power {rate of supply of energy} is named after him. He died in England in 1819. Unit 8J Magnets and electromagnets 8}.1 Magnetic forces 1. The Greeks separated materials into three groups: magnets, magnetic materials and non-magnetic materials, Magnetic materials are attracted {0 magnets, 2 Nickel Is attracted to a magnet, b Plastic would be neither attracted nor repelled by a magnet, in other words the magnet would have no effect on the plastic, © Iron may be attracted or repelled by a magnet because It can be a magnet itself. 4a Steel cans are magnetic. b Aluminium cans are non-magnetic, 5 a The steel cans are attracted to a magnet. b The aluminium cans are not attracted to the magnet, they are left behind, Non-magnetic materials let magnetic forces pass through, b Magnetic materials will not let magnetic forces pass through. 7a Magnetic forces do pass through aluminium. b Magnetic forces do not pass through steel. 8 North pole and south pole are the names given to ‘each end of a magnet. 9 When a magnet is left to move freely, it lines up with the Earth's magnetic field and always comes to rest pointing towards the Earth's north. 10 a These magnets attract each other. b These magnets repel. © These magnets repel. Answers may refer to compasses used at the north pole or on other planets or the moon. A compass, used at the North Pole will not be of any use because all directions are south from the North. Pole. There is nowhere for the north-seeking needle to point. 8).2 Magnetic fields 1. You can sprinkle iron filings around a magnet to show where the magnetic field is or you can place ‘a compass near a magnet to see the direction of the magnetic field 2 _——_—_. ee a A‘The magnetic fleld of a magnet is strongest at its poles. There are few lines of force andthe lines are quite far apart for a weak magnet. For a strong ‘magnet there are more lines of force and the lines are closer together, ‘A compass Is used to help you find your way because the magnet in the compass lines up with the Earth’s magnetic field so that you can always tell which direction you are facing: The area around a magnet is called a magnetic field. You can tell that the Earth has a magnetic field because the magnet in the compass lines up with, the Earth's magnetic field, ‘The stronger a magnet is the farilver Ue magnetic field reaches. You could test a magnet by seeing how close to the magnet a compass has to be before its needle is affected by the magnet. 8).3 Making magnets q ‘To make a magnet you need a magnet and an iron nail Common materials that can be magnetised are Ion, steel, nickel and cobalt Two magnets will repel each other when their north poles are facing each other and when thelr south poles are facing each other, Rails could be made from magnetised steel ‘Magnetic tape contains many tiny magnetic Particles on which information is stored by ‘magnetising the particles into different patterns. Itis important to keep credit cards and floppy disks away from strong magnets because magnets near ‘magnetic materials can rearrange the particles so that the information will be lost or changed, 8).4 Making and using electromagnets 1 2 You can make an electromagnet by letting an electric current flow through a wire Compasses or iron filings can be used to show the Magnetic field around an electromagnet. ‘Three ways to make an electromagnet stronger are by using a strongef current, adding an iron core or adding more turns on the coil. An electromagnet can be switched off and its strength can be chaiged. ‘An iron core is magnetised by the magnetic field Of the coll. The magnetic fleld of the iron core adds to the magnetic field of the coll ‘The core can be made of any magnetic material, such as steel, nickel or cobalt 7A domain is a small region of a magnetic material {in which all the particles are magnetised in the ‘same direction. On a larger scale, if lots of domains align in the same direction then the ‘material is magnetised, but if the domains cancel out then the material is not magnetised, @ ‘The cars are attracted to the electromagnet because they contain steel which is magnetic 9 The electromagnet in a crane is switched on and off as the current is switched on and off. 10 A springy metal strip holding a hammer is attracted to the electromagnet. 11 The electromagnet is switched off when the hammer is attracted by the electromagnet, The electric circut is broken so the electromagnet no longer works and the hammer springs back and completes the circuit again, 12 Relay switches are used in car starter motors to tur on large currents safely and to switch on circuits remotely, 13 When somebody steps on the pressure switch a circuit is completed and the electromagnet is switched on, The magnetic field generated by the electromagnet attracts the piece of iron (armature), which rotates and pushes the contacts together on the second circuit, The light in the second circuit is switched on. So the current in the first circuit has been used to switch on the current in the second circuit without any electrical ‘connection between the two. Unit 8K Light '8K.1 Where light comes from and how it travels 1. Allight source is something that produces light, for example a candle, a torch bulb or the Sun, ‘The Sun.is our main source of light Electricity does not produce a naked flame when is used to power a light source, It can be transported in batteries and carried along wites, it does not produce a smell, and it can be switched ‘on and off instantly. 4 A light ray is a line that shows you the path that the light travels along, 5A light ray is drawn as a straight line because light travels in straight lines, 6 The fact that light travels in straight lines makes the pencil cast a shadow. 7 You see someone nit tne ball betore you hear the ‘sound because light travels a lot faster than sound. 8 Light seems to fill the room instantly when you switch a light on because the speed of light is so fast, The time the light takes to cross the room is {00 short to observe.9 if the Sun went out it would be 500 seconds. 8K.3 Micrors (about eight and a half minutes) until we noticed, becouse tat lsthowiloog if takes ight Havel 1. When light bounces off a mirror it bounces off at from the Sun to the Earth 10 A light year Is the distance light travels in a year {(9,465,000,000,000 km}. The unit is used to measure distances in space because the distances. in space are so large. ‘8K.2 Light hitting objects 1A transparent substance is one that lets light through it and that you can see clearly through. zi 2 Plastic and glass are examples of transparent substances. Glass is used for windows. Plastic is, used for the visor on a motorcycle helmet. 3 Advantages of glass as a substance for windows are that it does not corrode, it is waterproof, it keeps wind and rain out, itis easy to clean and hard to scratch. A disadvantage Is that glass is brittle, so it breaks quite easily. 4 Atranslucent substance is one that lets the light through but you cannot see clearly through. 5 Translucent substances could be used on the surface of a pearl light bulb, as the window of a {ollet, of as a cotton sunbitnd. These are all situations in which you want light to pass through the substance, but you want the light to be scattered so that you cannot see clearly through it, 6 Clouds scatter the Sun's light rays. 7 An opaque substance Is one that will not let light through it B An opaque substance is useful as the case for a photographic film or as the material for a blackout blind. These are situations where you 5 want to keep light out. 9 Pale or white coloured substances reflect most of the light that falls on them. 10 Cyclists and pedestrians can wear light-coloured clothing and reflective belts. rmbands to, s make sure they are visible and’ SM on dark roads. 11 You see a luminous object becayglfthe object is a light source. t emits light, whicMW detected by your eye. 12 To see a non-luminous object light has to reflect off the object and enter your eye. 13 The Moon is a non-luminous object. The light, e fom the Moon fs reflected sunlight 14 The Moon, planets and some satellites arénon-g luminous objects that can be seen in the night sky. When it is in the right position in the sky the Moon can be seen in the day. You cannot see the stars in the daytime because there is too much 9 background sunlight. the same angle at which it hit the mirror. In the case of a piece of paper the light is scattered in many directions when it bounces off. ‘When light bounces off a mirror, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. mirror incident ray (light coming in) Zngle of incidence Seer”... normal angle of reflection SS reflected ray (light going out) mirror ‘The image is the same size as the object when you look at something in a plane mirror. Writing is reversed when you look at it in a mirror, This effect is used on the bonnet of some ambulances where the word ‘ambulance’ is. printed backwards so that it will appear to be the correct way round In a driver's rear view mirror. ‘When you look at your face in a mirror you see the left side of your face in the left side of the mirror. When you look at a photograph of your face you see the left side of your face on the right side of the photograph because it has not been reflected. Another difference is that the image in a mirror is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. The image in a photograph is in the plane of the paper. [A periscope Is made of two mirrors set parallel to ‘each other and at 45 degrees to a long tube. A periscope can be used for seeing over things oF looking out over the surface of the sea from a submarine, Ima periscope the light rays are at 45-degree angles to the mirrors.8K.4 Bending the light 1. The word refraction means bending, 2° To produce a large amount of bending, light has to enter the glass at a large angle of incidence, 3. For no refraction to take place, light has to enter a glass block along a normal so that it doesn't bend. 4 Yon can bend light away from a normal if you shine it out of a substance into the air. 5 If light is not going to be refracted it must travel along a normal so that the light doesn't bend, 6 When water has been added to the metal can the light from the coin is bent as it leaves the water and enters Kriss eye, 7 Water appears to be shallower than it really is because light from the bottom of a poul ur port bends away from the normal as it leaves the surface. The light looks like it is coming from a point higher up than the base of the pool or pond. actually is, 8 In water, actual depth = 4/3 x apparent depth, The goldfish is actually at a depth of 20cm. 9 The critical angle for a substance is the angle of Incidence at which the light is refracted exactly along the surface. If the angle inside the ‘substance gets larger than the critical angle it cannot be refracted and it totally reflects back inside the substance. The surface acts as a mirror, 8K.5 The spectrum White light is made up of the colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. 2 The shape of the glass or plastic used to produce a spectrum is called a prism. 3 A suitable phrase using the letters R, 0, Y, G, B, V and possibly I as the penultimate letter, 4 The Sun‘has to be behind you for you to see a rainbow, 5 The order of colours in a rainbow from the outside to the inside is red. orange, yellow. green, blue, indigo and violet. 6 Examples of two different places where you might see spectrums of colours that do not need a prism to produce them include reflections off the back of a CD and the reflection of sunlight on oil floating on water. 7 Colour blindness is where a person has some fault or deficiency with some of the cells in their retina, As a result colours like green and red can appear to be shades of grey. 8K.6 Colours 1 Ared filter lets through red light. 2 A colour TV produces three pictures: one in red dots, one in green dots and one in blue dots. All colours can be made by mixing these three primary colours 3 Each of the three lights contains one third of the spectrum. Between them they contain the full range of the colours of the spectrum so when they are mixed they produce white light. 4 A red post box reflects red light and a little orange and absorbs the rest of the colours from the spectrum, 5 Grass reflects the colours from the middle of the spectrum centred on the colour green. 6 A yellow daffodil absorbs the colours from the blue end of the spectrum, 7 The fluorescent lights inside a shop give off a different balance of colours than sunlight so a red shirt will appear to be a slightly different shade in, ‘sun than it does inside a shop. 8 Blue jeans will appear to be dark grey or black Under the light of a streetlight. The streetlight does not give off any blue light and the jeans absorb all colours except blue. 9 A daylight filter is used to compensate for the sensitivity of camera film to different colours of the ‘spectrum. In some situations the picture produced ‘will look false in terms of colour unless a filter is used to compensate for the light conditions. Unit 8L Sound and hearing 8L.1 Making sound 4 For the saxophone, air is vibrating to create sound. The string on the guitar is vibrating. The drum skin on the drum is vibrating. 2 Air, water and the ground are three materials that, vibrations can travel through, 3° The drum skin vibrates backwards and forwards. ‘This makes the air particles next to it vibrate, ‘These vibrations are passed on to other ait particles. When the vibrations reach our eais, we hear the sound of the drum. 4 Thunder is an example of a loud sound, 5 Yasmin can make a quiet sound on the drum by hitting the drum gently, 6 A recorder can be used to make loud and quiet sounds by blowing hard to make a loud sound and gently to make a quiet sound. 7 Abig drum creates a low-pitched sound and a squeaky door creates a high-pitched sound. 8 The cello makes sounds of a lower pitch because Its a bigger instrument than the violin, 9 A mouse makes a higher-pitched sound that a ion as a mouse is much smaller than a lion,10 nn 2 13 a4 15 16 Ww ‘The male frog makes a low-pltched croaking sound when it is trying to attract a female frog by Inflating the skin below its chin to make a large ‘valloon’. This balloon makes the male frog sound lower-pitched as if it were a larger animal. A high-pitched sound is made by vibrations that have a high frequency. Tightening string, using a thinner string or shortening a string are three ways of making a higher-pitched note on a guitar. 330 Hertz is the frequency of the thinnest string on a guitar. ‘There are 440 vibrations in one second. ‘The loud sound produces the taller wave. ‘a A piccolo would produce the sound shown by oscilloscope A; 'b a flute would produce the sound shown by oscilloscope B. ‘The complicated shape of the wave on the oscilloscope is because Yasmin’s volce is made up ‘of many sounds of different pitch and loudness. 8L.2 Travelling sound 1 2 ‘A vacuum is an empty space that contains no particles. ‘The audience could see the bell vibrating because light can travel through a vacuum, We can see the Sun but we cannot hear the sound, it makes because the light from the Sun can travel through space but sound cannot travel through space as it Is a vacuum. Astronauts use a radio system to talk to their colleagues when leaving their spacecraft to mend a faulty satellite because sound waves cannot travel through space so the astronauts need to communicate using a radio system because radio waves can travel through a vacuum. 6000: 3 g 8 8 8 ‘speed of sound (m/s) 8 8 8 1000 air water brick iron We usually first hear the approaching train via the humming railway lines because the vibrations in, the rails travel faster than the vibrations in the alr. 7 ‘The whale's message to her mate 150 000 metres away will take 100 seconds (150,000 = 1,500) 10 reach him, & Light travels nearly a million times faster than, sound. 9 More examples that show that light travels much faster than sound: lightning arrives before thunder: smoke from a starting pistol can be seen before the sound is heard; firework explosions are seen before the bang is heard. 10 The bar will be a million times longer than the bar for the speed of sound in air. If the bar for the speed of sound on your chart is 1em long, the bar for the speed of light will be 10 km tong. 11. A.common method for measuring the speed of sound in air involves making a loud sound in front of a tall building and measuring the time between. the sound and its echo. The speed is calculated using the formula: speed = (2x distance between person and building)/time. To measure the speed Of sound in water, a similar method can be used. but it must be carried out in a swimming pool. BL.3 Hearing sound 1 Rat, eat, dog and human are listed in order of the highest to the lowest frequency hearing ability, 2 Older people find it difficult to hear higher- pitched sounds, 3. Sounds that an older person might not be able to hear are a mouse’s squeak, small bells and a dog whistle. 4 Sound vibrations are changed to electrical signals, before they reach the brain. Sound waves ‘The “Three bones ‘wavel down | eardrum pass the the ear canal wibrates |] vibrations ‘onto the . ‘cochlea “These electrical signals travel to the brain Nerve cells in the cochlea are ‘stimulated to make electrical signals 6 Animals have two ears to enable them to locate where a sound is coming from. 7 The long-cared bat can hear the quicter sound ae it has larger earflaps that collect more sound. vibrations from the air. B Astethoscope consists of a round disc that is placed on the patient. Vibrations from the heart or lungs travel from the disc along tubes to the earpleces. In this way, much more sound reaches, the doctor’s ears so the sound is louder.8L.4 Dangerous sound 1. 904B is the loudness level at which permanent damage can be caused to the ear. 2 The loudness in the classroom is usually between 50dB (quiet) and 80dB (noisy) 3 Noise can best be described as sounds that are not wanted, Noise pollution is too much unwanted sound. 5 Traffic noises can be reduced by using double or triple glazing on windows of a concert hall. Echoes can be reduced using absorbent materials, such as foam, around the room. 6 People who work in noisy places for long hours ‘wear ear defenders to reduce the loudness of sound reaching their ears to avoid permanent damage to their ears, 7 The sound energy Is transformed (changed) into heat energy as the particles vibrate with more energy. Materials do not usually get noticeably hotter because sound energy does not produce very much heat when it is transformed, 8 Damage to the nerve cells in the cochlea Is what usually causes older people to have hearing problems, 9 Cleaning earwax out of the ear using a stick or cotton bud, a very loud bang, or ear Infections, are ways of damaging or breaking the ear drum. 10 People who are profoundly deaf can hear sounds but the quality of sound is not good enough for them to make out any detail. For example, they ‘can hear that someone is speaking but they caiut hear te words. They need to lip-tead in ‘order to work out what the person is saying, 11 At wwwevelyn.co.uk/hearing.him there is a good description of Evelyn Glennie’s deafness and how sshe uses vibrations in her body and sight to help her ‘hear’ music, telephone calls, etc, ae &