Bituminous Geomembranes

in Mine Construction
B Breul1 and R McIlwraith2

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the successful use of bituminous geomembranes (BGMs) in mining
applications since their development in 1974. It explains and illustrates the structure of a BGM
composite, which is a geomembrane manufactured by impregnating a polyester geotextile with
a compound of bitumen, elastomer and filler. Examples of applications of BGMs in the mining
industry are also presented in the following contexts.
Storage of solid waste:
•• storage of mining waste at mines in Canada
•• heap leach pads in France, Peru, Chile and Turkey
•• at the base of a mining waste landfill in Brazil
•• capping of solid mining waste in Chile and Canada
•• temporary capping of mining stockpiles in Australia (with possible reuse of the BGM for other
works).
Examples of the application of BGMs for the storage of liquid waste in mining containment
reservoirs in Canada, Guatemala and Peru will also be given.
For each example given, reasons are supplied that supported the choice of BGMs by the clients
and consultants, drawn from the following advantages of the BGM:
•• BGMs have excellent puncture strength, due to the internal polyester reinforcement, as well as
excellent ultraviolet resistance. This often eliminates the need for a cushion geotextile or cover
soil over the BGM.
•• BGMs have a very long life expectancy, in excess of 300 years, in subsoil conditions
(Breul et al, 2004).
•• BGMs can be installed in very harsh climatic conditions. They are suitable for high wind
environments as their heavy mass per square metre makes them resistant to wind uplift. The
low coefficient of thermal expansion means that BGMs are suitable for installation in mines
where very low or very high temperatures are expected. This reduces construction delays and
allows for a quicker use of the mining facility.
•• The fact that the BGM can be installed by the mine’s own workforce, after appropriate training
from the BGM manufacturer, allows for a more flexible construction sequence on the mine.
•• Ability of the BGM to connect to other materials such as concrete, steel, rock and other
geomembranes that may be on the mine site.
The technical advantages of a BGM enabled the engineering consultants to prepare solutions for
their mining clients that had a lower environmental risk, had a faster completion schedule and
were overall a cheaper option than with a polymeric geomembrane.

INTRODUCTION
Bituminous geomembranes (BGMs) have been used
extensively in a wide range of mining applications since they
were initially developed in 1974. The applications for BGMs
in mining include tailings dams, water supply dams, hot brine
ponds, canals, stockpile covers and capping of contaminated
land. BGMs have a number of technical advantages over
typical polymeric geomembranes as follows:
•• BGMs have excellent puncture strength, due to the
internal polyester reinforcement, as well as excellent
ultraviolet (UV) resistance. This often eliminates the need
for a cushion geotextile or cover soil over the BGM.
•• BGMs have a very long life expectancy, in excess of
300 years, in subsoil conditions (Breul et al, 2004).
•• BGMs can be installed in very harsh climatic conditions.
They are suitable for high wind environments as their
heavy mass per square metre makes them resistant to
wind uplift. The low coefficient of thermal expansion
means that BGMs are suitable for installation in mines

1. Global Technical Director, Coletanche Paris, 8, Avenue Félix D’Hérelle, Paris 75016, France. Email: breul@eircom.net
2. General Manager, Axter Australia, Suite 1306, Level 13, 50 Cavill Avenue, Gold Coast Qld 4217. Email: rmcilwraith@axter.com.au

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B BREUL AND R MCILWRAITH
where very low or very high temperatures are expected.
This reduces construction delays and allows for a quicker
use of the mining facility.
•• The fact that the BGM can be installed by the mine’s
own workforce, after appropriate training from the BGM
manufacturer, allows for a more flexible construction
sequence on the mine.
•• Ability of the BGM to connect to other materials such as
concrete, steel, rock and other geomembranes that may be
on the mine site.
DESCRIPTION OF A BITUMINOUS
GEOMEMBRANE COMPOSITE
(THE TECHNICAL ADVANTAGE)
A BGM is a geomembrane manufactured by impregnating
a continuous filament polyester geotextile with a bitumen
compound. The geotextile provides the mechanical resistance
and the high puncture resistance. This bitumen provides
the waterproofing properties of the geomembrane and also
ensures the longevity of the composite by totally impregnating
the geotextile. The BGM composite also includes other
components as illustrated in Figure 1.
The BGM composites contain internal non-woven polyester
reinforcement up to 400 g/m2 and overall thickness of the
composites are up to 5.6 mm.
BGMs are by far the thickest and heaviest geomembranes
on the market and combined with the inherent properties of
bitumen exhibit some unique qualities for mining projects as
outlined further.
Special characteristics of bituminous
geomembranes suited for mining applications
The hybrid nature of a BGM leads to unique and specific
mechanical properties and behaviour.
Tensile properties
The tensile properties of a BGM are derived primarily from
the geotextile at the core of the product. When stressed, a BGM
will show an approximately linear response typical of a non-
woven geotextile, up to failure at a strain of approximately
70–100 per cent. The bitumen component of a BGM can
accommodate very large strains as a result of its viscoelastic
property that does not damage its structure or affect its
properties. This is in contrast to a polymeric geomembranes
that has a yield point at about 12–15 per cent strain after
which strain softening occurs (Giroud, February 2014,
personal communication). Up to this yield point a polymeric
geomembrane behaves elastically without damage to the
polymer’s structure, but at a greater strain up to failure, the
behaviour is plastic.
This level of 12–15 per cent strain in a polymeric
geomembrane can easily occur as a result of basal settlements,
FIG 1 – Schematic cross-section of bituminous geomembrane.
290 TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE MANAGEMENT FOR THE 21ST CENTURY / SYDNEY, NSW, 27–28 JULY 2015
temperature induced stresses and indentation by overlying or
underlying materials. By contrast a BGM can operate safely at
much greater strains, up to at least 30 per cent, without risk
of damage.
Ageing
The effect of ageing on the tensile strength of BGMs has been
investigated by laboratory testing using a xenon lamp as
per ASTM D 4355 and by testing of material exhumed after
more than 30 years of service. The testing of BGMs has shown
no significant reduction in tensile properties. The tensile
properties of BGMs are derived primarily from the polyester
non-woven geotextile at its core and this geotextile is very well
protected from ageing and degrading processes as it is totally
impregnated with elastomeric bitumen. In order to determine
the long-term ageing and effectiveness of existing potential
covering membranes ANDRA (French National Agency
for managing radioactive waste) developed a mathematical
model and calibrated it with test results from samples from
different existing sites where the materials had been installed
for varying periods of time. ANDRA determined that the
Coletanche BGM would have a resistance to bio-degradation
in excess of 300 years (Convert, Coquille and Herment, 1993).
It is also worthwhile noting that bitumen has been used since
antiquity to waterproof structures (Krishnan and Rajagopal,
2003).
Puncture resistance
Because of its thickness and the presence of the non-woven
geotextile, BGMs exhibit a strong resistance to puncture.
Larger stones can be tolerated in the subgrade (up to 25 mm)
and rocks in the cover soil (up to 150 mm) without the need
for a cushion geotextile. The cushion is essentially within
the BGM. Further, even when penetrated or indented by a
protrusion, the viscoelastic nature of the bitumen comes into
play and the bitumen takes the shape of the protrusion and
coats it as shown on Figure 2a. The BGM’s strong puncture
resistance gives the mine a great deal of flexibility in using
available aggregate. This strong resistance to puncture also
A
B
FIG 2 – (A) Indentation in bitumen, (B) construction
equipment on bituminous geomembrane.

allows light to medium construction equipment (up to 8 t
with rubber tyres) to drive directly on the BGM as shown
in Figure 2b where a front end loader deploys the BGM on
which it then drives. Note that there are no tyre indentations
in the BGM.
This high puncture resistance allows the use of coarse grain
material directly on the geomembrane namely for the over
liner of the heap leach pad as shown in Figure 3, eliminating
the need for screening of material (if otherwise required) or
placement of a cushion geotextile thereby saving time and
money for the mine.
Connectivity to other materials
BGMs may be welded directly to steel and concrete pipe work
on the mine site by use of a bituminous primer applied to the
pipe or structure, which is then heated and bonded directly to
the melted surface of the BGM, forming a complete watertight
seal. A batten strip (aluminium or stainless steel) may be
fixed to increase the longevity of the weld. BGMs can also be
effectively sealed to PVC and polymeric geomembrane and
pipes by using Bitumseal adhesive mastic.
Extreme temperature application
A BGM has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion
compared to that of resin based polymeric geomembranes
(2.2 × 10- 3 mm/m/°C versus 1.0 to 2.5 × 10- 1 mm/m/°C), and
this gives the BGM a distinct advantage on mine sites that are
FIG 3 – Large particles of soil directly on bituminous geomembrane.
A B
FIG 4 – (A) Bituminous geomembrane and (B) polymeric geomembrane under the same temperature conditions.
TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE MANAGEMENT FOR THE 21ST CENTURY / SYDNEY, NSW, 27–28 JULY 2015
BITUMINOUS GEOMEMBRANES IN MINE CONSTRUCTION
exposed to extremely hot or cold environmental conditions.
A BGM does not expand and contract excessively under
these temperature variations like a polymeric geomembrane
does, with the associated problems of induced wrinkles and
contraction stresses. Figure 4a shows a BGM being laid in
a pond in Guatemala during a sunny day with an ambient
temperature of 39°C during installation. The BGM lays flat
on the foundation soil with no wrinkles. Figure 4b shows a
polymeric geomembrane installed in Vermont, USA under
the same temperature. A large number of wrinkles can be
observed on the polymeric geomembrane.
It was necessary to wait till the temperature reduced before
installing the geocomposite and then the cover soil. This time
delay was necessary to reduce the number of wrinkles, as it is
now well documented that excess wrinkles lead to a series of
serious problem, namely:
•• The folding over of the geomembrane when the cover
soil, geotextile or geocomposite is placed over the
geomembrane. This folding leads to stress concentration
at the folds which in time may lead to localised failure of
the geomembrane and loss of performance.
•• The increased volume of leakage. The work conducted
by Kerry Rowe et al (2012) has shown that when defects
are present in the geomembrane liner (and unfortunately
some defects are usually present after installation), then
the wrinkles act as a reservoir for the liquid leaking
through the geomembrane and a larger volume may leak
(refer to Figure 5).
Wind uplift resistance
The BGMs typically used for heap leach pads have a minimum
mass per unit area of 4850 g/m2 (for Coletanche ES2) up to
5800 g/m2 (for ES3). This mass per square metre is more than
three times that of a 2 mm thick polymeric geomembrane or
more than four times that of the common 1.5 mm polymeric
geomembrane. Combined with a higher tensile resistance
(due to the presence of the internal reinforcing geotextile),
the BGM can sustain wind speeds three to four times higher
than lighter polymeric geomembranes without damage or
excessive straining. Consequently on a mine site a BGM can be
installed in stronger winds than other flexible geomembranes
and will necessitate less ballast should large areas need to
remain exposed for long periods of time. This is beneficial
for large heap leach pads with high incoming tonnage
by allowing construction of large cells and minimising
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FIG 5 – Installation of bituminous geomembrane
in Diavik, Northwest Territories, Canada.
disruption of operations. This resistance to high wind was
essential in the use of BGMs at the Toromocho mine in Peru,
located at an altitude of 4800 m and in Patagonia known for its
high wind conditions. At this mine site, winds are at generally
15–20 km/h all year round, with wind speed increasing to
120 km/h during the summer months.
Examples of bituminous geomembrane
applications in the mining industry
Storage of solid mining wastes
Heap leach pads (HLPs) are typically lined with a composite
liner system that consists of the following components, from
top to bottom:
•• a drainage layer also labelled the over liner, typically
consisting of gravel or free draining material
•• a geomembrane (the primary liner)
•• a barrier layer (the secondary liner), which can be a
compacted clay liner (CCL) typically a 30 cm thick, a
geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) or another geomembrane
(double liner system).
The ore is then piled up on top of the over liner and the
leachate solution applied on top of the ore to leach out the
precious metal.
A typical cross-section is shown in Figure 6. The main role
of the composite liner system is to control (or preferably
eliminate) leakage of the pregnant solution into the subsoil
and to allow full recovery. This is important for at least two
reasons:
1. it holds the dissolved metals (the pregnant liquor)
that are the source of revenue from the mining operations
FIG 6 – Typical heap leach pad cross-sections.
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and it contains chemicals that may be harmful to
groundwater
2. loss of revenue from leakage of pregnant solution from
HLPs can be considerable (Beck, 2014).
In designing the composite liner system, the engineer has
many choices for the selection of the geomembrane and the
barrier layer. The decision is influenced by the local geology,
availability of an adequate low permeability soil, site logistics,
hauling distance, availability of water for compaction, the
required construction schedule, climatic conditions, the
nature of the subbase, the technical ability of the workforce at
the mine, government regulations and cost. Given that HLPs
often cover tens of hectares, the volumes of low permeability
soil to haul and install are very large and the installation
time may be fairly long impacting development of the mine.
Consequently, a very strong, puncture resistant, easy to
deploy, and climate insensitive geomembrane such as BGM
has proven to be an ideal answer to all the challenges faced by
many mine owners and operators.
In France, BGMs have been used in HLPs for different
metals. One of the earliest applications was in Limoges,
France for uranium leaching. The HLP was lined with BGM
as shown in Figure 7. BGM was selected for its durability and
high puncture resistance.
In the Antamina mine in Peru, a BGM was used to line a
copper HLP at an altitude of more than 4000 m because:
•• there were extreme weather conditions on this mine site
at this altitude, with a lot of wind, sudden changes of
weather and very cold temperatures
•• the better puncture resistance of the BGM permitted
the use of a single BGM without protection geotextiles,
and this enabled a faster installation schedule in these
extreme conditions as only one geomembrane needed to
be installed rather than a thinner polymeric geomembrane
and two protection geotextiles (refer to Figure 8).
In Chile, at the Codelco mine a BGM was used for the HLP
and to line a perimeter canal for collecting leachate. The BGM
was selected for the leachate collector channel because of its
UV resistance and surface mass. A BGM is heavier than water
(relative density = 1.22) and so it will not float and it can also
remain exposed. The low Manning’s coefficient of a BGM
gives another advantage for using a BGM in a HLP, where
a transversal slope of two per cent is enough for assuming a
good flow of leachate and this entails less excavation (refer to
Figure 9).
A BGM was also used for a gold leaching facilities at
Efemçukuru mine in Turkey. Figure 10 shows deployment
of the geomembrane with the anchor trench on the left-hand
side of the photograph. A BGM was selected because it could
be installed by the mine’s own workforce (after training by
FIG 7 – Uranium leaching using bituminous geomembrane in Limoges, France.

FIG 8 – Peru Antamina. (A) Preparation of cell sub-base, (B) lined cell.
FIG 9 – Codelco Mine, Chile.
TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE MANAGEMENT FOR THE 21ST CENTURY / SYDNEY, NSW, 27–28 JULY 2015
BITUMINOUS GEOMEMBRANES IN MINE CONSTRUCTION
FIG 10 – Efemçukuru mine in Turkey.
the BGM manufacturer), the high puncture resistance, and the
high interface frictional resistance. The area is characterised
by a high seismicity and stability of slope under seismic load
was critical and dependent upon strong dynamic properties
of the BGM materials.
A BGM was used in this application despite its higher capital
cost, because it could be installed by the general contractor
and provided a greater puncture resistance than other
flexible geomembranes. Therefore, a cushion geotextile was
not needed reducing the volumes of material to bring to site
and lay down. The larger mass per square metre compared
to other flexible geomembranes was also a deciding criterion
since the areas are characterised by high wind.
A BGM was used for basal lining of a solid waste storage
facility at a niobium (rare earth) mine in Brazil. The BGM
was the perfect solution, as due to its puncture resistance it
could be used in direct contact with the low permeability
(10- 5 m/sec) laterite subgrade.
The overall cost of the work was cheaper than the
initially proposed solution with a polymeric geomembrane,
and the BGM also presented a safer environmental solution as
the BGM stays in intimate contact with the low permeability
subgrade despite the high temperature fluctuations
(Figure 11).
Capping solid wastes
Chilean Patagonia: the BGM was selected for this mining
project in Chile due to its high puncture strength and its
ability to handle extreme weather conditions (Figure 12).
Capping of heavy metal concentrate stockpiles in Australia
with heavy-weight re-usable BGM liner: the BGM was chosen
due to its high unit mass to prevent wind uplift in a region
subject to high winds.
On this project the challenge was to cap the stockpile
without fully bonding the edges of the BGM so that it could
be reused (Figure 13).
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B BREUL AND R MCILWRAITH
FIG 11 – Solid waste landfill, Brazil.
FIG 12 – Bituminous geomembrane for mine waste in Chile.
Storage of liquid wastes
Reservoirs: BGMs were selected to contain liquid mining
waste in three mining projects: Canada (Figure 14), Guatemala
(Figure 15) and Peru (Figure 16). The BGMs were selected due
to their puncture resistance and ability to handle extreme
weather conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of BGMs in mining applications has increased over
the past few years due to both technical and overall financial
294 TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE MANAGEMENT FOR THE 21ST CENTURY / SYDNEY, NSW, 27–28 JULY 2015
FIG 13 – Bituminous geomembrane as stockpile covers.
FIG 14 – Bituminous geomembrane at Diavik mine, Canada (Artic conditions).
FIG 15 – Bituminous geomembrane used to contain mine waste in Guatemala.
advantages. As described in this paper those technical
advantages include:
•• strong puncture resistance which allows the use of local
material or mine waste to be used directly on top of the
BGM
•• the BGM can be installed in very harsh climatic conditions
where winds speed can exceed 100 km/h and temperatures
could be below zero

FIG 16 – Bituminous geomembrane used to contain mine waste at
Toromocho Mine in Peru at an altitude of 4800 m with very strong winds.
•• the possibility to run light to medium weight construction
equipment (up to 8 t with rubber tyres), on the BGM
geomembrane.
The financial benefits include:
•• the fact that cushion geotextiles are not needed due to its
high puncture resistance
•• the fact that large size aggregate can be placed directly on
top of the BGM eliminating the need for screening and
segregation
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BITUMINOUS GEOMEMBRANES IN MINE CONSTRUCTION
•• the fact that the mine’s own staff can install the
geomembrane and easily make repairs after training
provided by the BGM manufacturer
•• easy connections to concrete, steel and other materials
reduce the installation costs and increase the watertightness
efficiency
•• the ability to install under harsh climatic conditions
allows the heap leach pad to go online faster and generate
revenue earlier
•• the reduced leakage through the BGM liner, due to its
puncture resistance and lack of wrinkles, thereby saving
ore laden leachate.
The use of a very robust geomembrane such as a BGM also
has environmental benefits and these include the reduced risk
of leakage through the liner, due to its puncture resistance
and lack of wrinkles, minimising the risk of contamination of
the groundwater.
REFERENCES
ASTM International, 2014. ASTM D4355/D4355M-14 – Standard
test method for deterioration of geotextiles by exposure to light,
moisture and heat in a xenon arc type apparatus.
Beck, A, 2014. The financial benefit of electrical-leak location to the
mining industry, in Proceedings Geosynthetics Mining Solutions,
Vancouver, 8−11 September (InfoMine Inc).
Breul, B, Caron, M, Cote, J-F and Stenson, G, 2004. Durability of
bituminous geomembrane waterproofing works, in Proceedings
57th Canadian Geotechnical Conference, pp 30–37 (Canadian
Geotechnical Society: Richmond).
Convert, P, Coquille, J P and Hermen, R, 1993. Couverture par une
géomembrane d’un stockage de déchets de faible et moyenne
activité à vie courte, in Proceedings Congrès EURO Bitume,
Stockholm, 16–18 June.
Kerry Rowe, R, Chappel, M J, Brachman, R W I and Take, W A, 2012.
Field study of wrinkles in a geomembrane at a composite liner
test site, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 49:1196–1211.
Krishnan, J M and Rajagopal, K R, 2003. Review of the uses and
modeling of bitumen from ancient to modern times, Applied
Mechanics Reviews, 56(2):149–214.
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