Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and traditional therapies

on Batan Island, the Philippines
Reika Abe a,n, Kazuhiro Ohtani a,b
a
Graduate School of Kuroshio Science, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan
b
Kuroshio Science Unit, Multidisciplinary Science Cluster, Research and Education Faculty, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: We studied the local knowledge and uses of medicinal plants among
Received 9 June 2012 the Ivatan people of Batan Island by documenting their traditional practices.
Received in revised form Aim of the study: To identify the types of medicinal plants used in self-care by the indigenous people of
15 November 2012
Batan Island, the Philippines and to investigate the extent to which the plants are used. Conservation of
Accepted 18 November 2012
medicinal plants and natural resources is becoming increasingly important; thus, this research aims to
Available online 23 November 2012
collect information from local people concerning the use of medicinal plants on Batan Island.
Keywords: Materials and methods: A total of 116 informants were interviewed, allowing for calculated informant
Medicinal plants consensus factors (ICF), use value (UV), and fidelity levels (FL) for each medicinal plant species used to
Ethnomedicine
cure various ailments. This helped to establish a consensus on which species are effective for particular
Batan Island
ailments, as well as the species’ relative importance, and enabled us to understand the extent of the
Informant consensus factor
Fidelity level potential utilization of each species.
Use value Results: We describe the therapeutic effects of 112 plant species used medicinally against 13 categories
of ailments. The highest ICF value (1.00) was cited for diseases of the ear and respiratory system and for
use during pregnancy, childbirth and the postnatal period. The maximum FL of 100% was found for
Carica papaya, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Musa sapientum, and Pedilanthus tithymaloides, used for the
treatment of constipation, cuts and wounds, diarrhea, and dislocations and fractures, respectively. The
highest UV was for Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (0.67). All plants with high UV were used for exogenous
diseases, certain infectious and parasitic diseases, injuries, poisonings and other consequences of
external factors, and diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissues. In addition to its use for endogenous
disease and lifestyle-related diseases and illnesses, Moringa oleifera is also used for diseases of the
circulatory system, with a UV of 0.57 and Cocos nucifera is used for diseases of the genitourinary system,
with a UV of 0.56.
Conclusions: This study demonstrates that many plant species play an important role in local healing
practices and that knowledge of traditional medicine is still utilized and plays a significant role on
Batan Island. The documentation of this rich traditional ethno-medicinal knowledge has furnished us
with novel information that not only will provide recognition of this undocumented knowledge but
also could provide new avenues for pharmacological investigations to improve healthcare for a range of
ailments.
& 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the development of modern medicine (Aburjai et al., 2007). Batan

Medicinal plants have been used for treatment since ancient
times and are still in use all over the world. Of the 422,000
flowering plants found globally (Govaerts, 2001), more than
50,000 are used for medicinal purposes (Schippmann et al.,
2002). The practices of plant-based traditional medicine are based
on hundreds of years of belief and observations, which predate
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ81 8886 45291; fax: þ81 8886 45177.
E-mail address: reikaabe7@gmail.com (R. Abe).
Island in the Philippines is rich in wild resources including varied
flora because of the Kuroshio Current’s warm and rainy climate
(Top, 1992). Moreover, the Kuroshio Current is known as a north–
south route for the transmission of a variety of plant resources
and knowledge of herbal therapies. Additionally, 129 of the 529
plant species on Batan Island were on Ryukyu Island in Japan
(Hatusima, 1966). It is believed that there are more than 700
species of flowering plants on the Batanes Islands, and that,
remarkably, these contain a high percentage of endemic species.
At least 251 species of flowering plants have been found on Batan
Island, 42 of which are endemic to the Philippines and seven to

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.11.029
 R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565
Batan Island. The local Ivatan people reportedly use 138 different
species of plants for foods, medicines, and other uses (Batanes
Protected Lands and Seascape, 2001).
The Ivatan people make their living mainly through agriculture
and fisheries, with the main crops of the region being root crops
such as yam (Dioscorea alata; ‘‘uvi,’’ ‘‘dukay’’), sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas; ‘‘wakay’’), and taro (Colocasia esuculenta;
‘‘sudi’’). The Ivatan people share cultural commonalities with the
Yami people of Orchid Island, Taiwan, with whom they have
interacted since ancient times (Kano, 1946). Because of Batan
Island’s isolation between the Philippines and Taiwan, its rich
flora and unique traditional culture have remained intact. How-
ever, in recent years, with further economic development in the
Philippines, the nature of healthcare has turned towards Western
medicine. The rapid disappearance of traditional culture and
natural resources due to urbanization suggests that unrecorded
folk knowledge and information may be lost forever. Hence, there
is an urgent need to systematically document the medical
practices of Batan Island. Traditional and folk medicines have
served as the means of immediate therapy to maintain the health
of people living in such dispersed island areas. The conservation
of ethnobotanical knowledge is becoming increasingly important;
thus this research aims to document the use of medicinal plants
and healing practices on Batan Island, identify the most important
species, determine the relative value of species and calculate the
informant consensus factors.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
This fieldwork was undertaken with the aid of the Ivatan
community on Batan Island of Batanes, the Philippines. The
Batanes Islands are located approximately 162 km north of Luzon
Island in the Philippines and 100 km south of Taiwan and have a
total area of approximately 209 km2; they are the northernmost
part of the Philippines and it is the smallest province in terms of
both population and land area. The study site, Batan Island, is
composed of four municipalities, Mahatao, Ivana, Uyugan, and
Basco, the provincial capital. The indigenous people of Batan
Island are Ivatan and number approximately 11,440 according
to the 2007 Philippine Census (Philippine National Statistics
Office, 2007). There is only one hospital and one doctor’s office,
Fig. 1. Study sites (K) in Batan Island, the Philippines. The lines are divided into four municipalities; Basco, Mahatao, Ivana and Uyugan.
555
referred to as the clinic, and this is in Basco. The hospital is the
only health institution that can manage surgical and obstetric
emergencies. Typically, local people visit the health center in each
municipality to address their health concerns instead of visiting
the hospital. Only when they cannot be treated at the health
center do they choose to visit the hospital. On the entire island,
14% of the population has access to health facilities. All residents
have access to sanitary toilet facilities and safe drinking water,
and 90.2% have electricity. Annual income levels are lower than in
other regions of the Philippines (Philippine National Statistics
Office, 2007).
2.2. Data collection
Fieldwork was carried out for a total of six weeks in 2008 and
2009 on Batan Island. The work consisted of interviews, plant
observations, and the collection of medicinal plants in four
different sites: Basco, Mahatao, Ivana, and Uyugan (Fig. 1). We
interviewed 116 local people on Batan Island (58 female and 58
male, aged between 20 and 93, with the median age being 54)
from Basco (n ¼30), Mahatao (n ¼26), Ivana (n¼29), and Uyugan
(n ¼31). The data were collected through semi-structured inter-
views with residents and informal conversations with medical
personnel from Batanes General Hospital, the clinic in Basco, and
the Uyugan health center, using either English or Ivatan. The
informants were asked about their knowledge of the plants they
used to combat disease, the parts of the plant used, the modes of
preparation, and details concerning how each plant is adminis-
tered to patients, how such knowledge is obtained and trans-
mitted, the frequency of use, the responses of patients who
compare plant remedies with Western medicine, and how easy
it is to find the necessary plants. The informants were selected
randomly and no appointments were made prior to the visits. The
plants were collected, pressed and dried in the field and the
voucher specimens were later deposited at the Kochi University
Herbarium. The plants’ vernacular names were collected with the
help of local people. Scientific names were determined by
identifying herbarium species and checked against references in
the Dictionary of Philippines Plant Names (Madulid, 2001). Scien-
tific names of plants were determined using The Plant Names Index
(IPNI, 2004). The paired-sample t test was used to determine
whether there were significant differences between known med-
icinal plants and those actually used. All of the analyses were
conducted using the Excel 2003 software package for Windows.
556 R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

Of the inhabitants interviewed, 31% had a complete college
education, 43% had a complete high school education, 21% had a
complete elementary education, and 5% had an incomplete
primary education. More than half of all informants were farmers,
and most interviewees (67.2%) had annual personal cash incomes
of 50,000 pesos or less. Approximately 60% of the people inter-
viewed were members of PhilHealth (the Philippine Health
Insurance Corporation), and one-third of people had also joined
KsK (Kapanidungan sa Kalusugan), a community health insur-
ance plan that the Batanes government established in 2003.
Ten percent of informants subscribed only to KsK, meaning
that a total of 70% were covered by some form of health
insurance plan. The subscription rate to PhilHealth across the
whole of the Philippines averaged 76% in 2008 (Philippine
Health Insurance, 2009).
2.3. Data analysis
2.3.1. Use categories
The medicinal plants were identified based on the information
obtained from the informants in the study area, and the reported
applicable ailments were classified into 13 categories based on
the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) by the World
Health Organization. The categories were infectious and parasitic
diseases; endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases; diseases
of the eye and adnexa; diseases of the ear and mastoid process;
diseases of the circulatory system; diseases of the respiratory
system; diseases of the digestive system; diseases of the skin and
subcutaneous tissue; diseases of the musculoskeletal system and
connective tissue; diseases of the genitourinary system; diseases
during the postpartum period; undefined pains or illness; and
injury and poisons from external causes (Table 1). Moreover,
information on plants that have a medicinal use but that also used
for food or other economical uses was also noted. Every time
a plant was mentioned as being used to any extent, it was
considered to be one use-report. If one informant used a plant
to treat more than one ailment in the same category, we
considered it a single use-report (Amiguet et al., 2005). However,
a multiple use-report was considered when at least two inter-
viewees mentioned the same plant for the same ailments.
2.3.2. Informant consensus factor
To determine the agreement between informants over which
plants should be used for each category of ailment, we calculated
the informant consensus factor (ICF) (Trotter and Logan, 1986)
using the formula: ICF ¼(Nur–Nt)/(Nur –1), where Nur refers to the
number of use-reports in each category and Nt refers to the
number of taxa used for a particular category by all informants.
The ICF provides a range of 0–1, where high values (approaching 1)
are obtained when there is a well-defined selection criterion in
the community and/or if information is exchanged between
informants, and values are low (near 0) when plants are chosen
randomly or if there is no exchange of information about their use
among informants.
2.3.3. Use value
We calculated the use values for plants (Phillips et al., 1994) to
provide a quantitative measure for the relative importance of
species known locally: UV¼ (SUi)/n, where Ui is the number of
use-reports cited by each informant for a given species, and n
refers to the total number of informants. Use values are high
when there are many use-reports for a plant, implying that the
plant is important, and low (approach to 0) when there are few
reports related to its use. The use value, however, does not
distinguish whether a plant is used for single or multiple
purposes.
2.3.4. Fidelity level
Because many plant species may be used in the same use
category, we needed to determine the most preferred species

Table 1
Categories of ailments and informant consensus factor (ICF).

Category Diseases or ailments ICD-10 No. of % of all No. of % of all ICF Most % of all FL (%) in
use-reports use-reports species species frequently species this
used species category

Diseases of the ear and Earache VIII 2 0.1 1 1.4 1.00 Paederia 91 4
mastoid process scandens
Diseases of the respiratory Asthma, nasal congestion, X 5 0.3 1 1.4 1.00 Datura metel 100 50
system pneumonia cough, sore throat
Diseases of the eye and Red eyes, sore eyes VII 22 1.5 2 2.7 0.95 Calophyllum 91 100
adnexa inophyllum
Diseases of the circulatory Anemia, high blood pressure IX 155 10.8 10 13.5 0.94 Allium sativum 30 100
system
Injury and poisons of Allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, XIX 386 27.0 26 35.1 0.94 Argemone 15 100
external causes dislocation/fracture, sprain, mexicana
insect bites, snake bites, poison
Diseases of the Urinary, chronic cystitis, kidney XIV 75 5.2 6 8.1 0.93 Cocos nucifera 60 69
genitourinary system
Undefined pains or illness Abdominal pain, backache, body pain, XVIII 322 22.5 25 33.8 0.93 Piper betele 20 30
cough, fever, headache, stunned
Diseases during the Abortive, menstruation, new delivered XV 11 0.8 2 2.7 0.90 Radermachera 64 100
postpartum period fenicis
Infectious and parasitic Ascariasis, chicken pox, head lice, I 88 6.1 10 13.5 0.90 Senna alata 51 73
diseases herpes, ringworm, scabies
Diseases of the skin and Boils, skin eruptions XII 155 10.8 17 23.0 0.90 Hibiscus 48 96
subcutaneous tissue rosa-sinensis
Diseases of the digestive Constipation, diarrhea, inflammation of XI 149 10.4 15 20.3 0.91 Carica papaya 33 100
system rectum, ulcer, toothache
Endocrine, nutritional and Diabetes, nutrients, tonic IV 26 1.8 5 6.8 0.84 Moringa 42 19
metabolic diseases oleifera
Diseases of the Arthritis, rheumatism, swollen muscles XIII 35 2.4 9 12.2 0.76 Barringtonia 31 48
musculoskeletal system asiatica
and connective tissue
Table 2
Medicinal plants used on Batan Island, the Philippines and use value (UV).

Plant Scientific name Family Local name No. of Use No. of Diseases or ailments Parts Preparation and administrationd
no. use- value categoriesb usedc
reports (UV) a

1 Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl. Acoraceae tudivachib 1 – – Cuts and wounds Sp E Apply
2 Tetragonia tetragonoides (Pall.) Aizoaceae spinach 1 – – Anemia Lf I Eat raw or cooked leaves
Kuntze
3 Allium cepa L. Alliaceae bulyas 9 0.08 1n Boils Rz E Apply pounded rizomes
4 Deeringia polysperma (Roxb.) Moq. Amaranthaceae adit 2 0.02 1n Boils Lf E Apply
5 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae mangas 1 – – Sore throat Lf I Drink decoction
6 Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae atis 4 0.03 1n Fever Lf E Apply on a head as a cool compress
7 Alstonia macrophilla G. Don. Apocynaceae karayum 2 0.02 1n Abdominal pain Lf, Bk E Apply
8 Plumeria rubra L. Apocynaceae kalachuchi 2 – – Skin eruption Tk E Apply sap from trunks with few drops of oil
9 Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Lam. Apocynaceae manichit 17 0.15 2 Diarrhea; abdominal pain; body Lf E Wrap pounded or heated for 5 seconds with banana leaves
pain around your waist line

R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

10 Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) G.Don Araceae vula 34 0.29 1 Snake bites; insect bites; poison; Lf, St, E Apply sap from stems Apply pounded or crashed leaves, stems,
allergy (caused by ‘‘hateng’’) Sp, Rt, roots, or fruits
Fr
Cuts and wounds Lf, St, Sp E Apply sap from stems directly. Apply pounded or crashed leaves
or stems
11 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae sudi 12 0.10 2 Boils; cuts and wounds Lf, Sp E Apply sap of stems or fresh leaves to open wounds
12 Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms Araliaceae papuida 1 – – Headache Lf E Apply on a head with oil
13 Adonidia merrillii Becc. Arecaceae dapiau 1 – – Diarrhea Rt I Drink decoction
14 Areca catechu L. var. batanensis Arecaceae vua 2 – – Ascariasis Lf I Eat chewed
Becc.
Abdominal pain Lf E Apply chewed leaves on stomach with tobacco leaves and garlic
15 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae ñuy 65 0.56 4 Difficulty of urination Fr I Drink fresh coconut water
Ascariasis; constipation Fr I Drink coconut milk from matured fruits
Scabies; skin eruption Fr E Apply coconut oil directly
16 Aloe barbadensis Mill. Asphodelaceae sabila 12 0.10 2 Skin eruption; cuts and wounds Lf E Apply crushed leaves
17 Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae kamuyuvuyuk 8 0.07 1n Cuts and wounds Lf E Apply pounded leaves
18 Arnica montana L. Asteraceae tintura arnica 1 – – Dislocation/fracture Lf E Apply
19 Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. Asteraceae sambong 37 0.32 4 Boils Lf E Apply fresh leaves
Headache Lf E Apply fresh or steamed leaves on a head
High blood pressure; difficulty of Lf I Drink decoction
urination; cough
20 Chrysanthemum indicum L. Asteraceae mansanilla 7 0.06 3 Diarrhea Lf E Apply heated leaves on a stomach
Boils Lf E Apply decoction
Abdominal pain Lf I Drink decoction
21 Crassocephalum crepidioides Asteraceae parachute 29 0.25 1n Cuts and wounds Lf, St E Pounded and apply the juice
(Benth.) S.Moore
22 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. Asteraceae sta maria 37 0.32 2 Abdominal pain; diarrhea Lf E Pounded and apply on navel or use as suppository
23 Eclipta thermalis Bunge Asteraceae yayod 3 0.03 1n Tonic Lf I Drink decoction
24 Impatiens balsamina L. Balsaminaceae masitas 1 – – Headache Lf E Apply heated with little amount of oil on a forehead
25 Ehretia microphylla Lam. Boraginaceae tsaang gubat 1 – – Abdominal pain Lf I Drink decoction
26 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae pinya 4 0.03 1n Constipation Fr, Lf I Eat fruits. Drink decoction of leaves
27 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae lingwa; 62 0.53 3 Arthritis Lf E Apply boiled or fresh leaves
kapulkuru
Scabies; ascariasis; ringworm; Lf E Apply pounded leaves
antifungal; skin eruption
28 Canna indica L. Cannaceae lalasa 3 0.03 1n Abdominal pain Lf, Sd I Eat raw leaves or seeds
29 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae kapaya 49 0.42 1n Constipation Fr I Eat a lot of ripe fruits
30 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Clusiaceae vutalaw 20 0.17 1n Sore eyes Lf E Soak young leaves in water whole night and use decoction for
washing eyes
31 Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae savidog 11 0.09 1n High blood pressure; anemia Fr I Eat raw or cooked fruits
32 Terminalia nitens C.Presl Combretaceae tujit 5 0.04 1n Abdominal pain Lf E Apply heated leaves as a hot compress
33 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae kuhasi 1 – – Cuts and wounds Lf, St E Pounded and apply juice

557
34 Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal. Convolvulaceae kangkong 2 – – Diabetes Lf I Drink decoction
 558
Table 2 (continued )

Plant Scientific name Family Local name No. of Use No. of Diseases or ailments Parts Preparation and administrationd
no. use- value categoriesb usedc
reports (UV) a

35 Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir. var. Convolvulaceae wakay 2 0.02 1n Anemia Lf I Eat tops as vegetable
edulis (Thunb.) Kuntze
36 Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Roth Convolvulaceae vadinu 29 0.25 2 New delivered mother Bk, Lf E Pounded and extracted juice from fresh leaves or decoction of
bark, and use as shampoo for new delivered mother
Poison; insect bites Lf, St E Apply fresh, heated, steamed leaves on prick of poison fish, sea
urchin, or insect bites
37 Ipomoea sp. Convolvulaceae gact 1 – – Diarrhea Lf I Eat
38 Bryophyllum pinnatum (L.f.) Oken Crassulaceae siemprebiba 24 0.21 1 Fever Lf E Apply on head as a cool compress
Headache; abdominal pain; body Lf E Apply heated with oil or fresh leaves
pain
39 Cucurbita maxima Duchesne ex Cucurbitaceae kalabasa 1 – – ascariasis Lf E Apply
Lam.

R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

40 Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae palyak 31 0.27 3 Ascariasis Lf I Eat fresh leaves. Drink decoction
Anemia; diabetes; ascariasis Lf, Fr I Eat cooked leaves or fruits as vegetable Drink decoction of
leaves
41 Weinmannia urdanetensis Elm. Cunoniaceae karilang 1 – – Skin eruptions Lf E Apply pounded leaves when infected by ‘‘aryas’’ or ‘‘hating tree’’
42 Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp. Euphorbiaceae tairas 4 0.03 1n Cuts and wounds Sp E Apply
43 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae katawa 19 0.16 3 Arthritis; dislocation/fracture; Lf, Bk E Fastened fresh leaves or barks Fastend heated barks with
sprain coconut oil for 3–5 s
44 Manihot esculenta Crantz Euphorbiaceae carsava 1 – – Diarrhea N/A I Drink powdered leaves dissolved in water
45 Melanolepis multiglandulosa Euphorbiaceae ahem 13 0.11 2 Rheumatism Lf E Put oil on the levees and heated before apply
(Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb.f. et Zoll.
Fever; headache Lf E Apply on a forehead as acold compress
46 Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit. Euphorbiaceae tukdu 10 0.09 1n Dislocation/fracture St E Apply pounded stems
47 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae katawatawa 22 0.19 1 Abdominal pain Lf E Apply young leaves on waistline
Body pain Lf E Fastened heated leaves for 3–5 s with coconut oil
Headache; fever Lf E Apply fresh or heated leaves on a forehead
48 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth Fabaceae kakawati 5 0.04 2 skin eruption; scabies Lf E Apply pounded leaves
49 Indigofera zollingeriana Miq. Fabaceae dadin 1 – – Cuts and wounds St E Crushed and extracted juice from young stems and apply
50 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae kakuhanen 2 – – Diarrhea Lf I Drink decoction
Mumps; boils Lf E Apply pounded leaves
51 Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Fabaceae vaay 4 0.03 1n diarrhea Fw I Drink diluted by water
Benth.
52 Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. ‘Alba’ Fabaceae katirai 2 – – Diarrhea Bk I Drink decoction
Rheumatism Rt E Apply pounded roots
n
53 Hydrangea subintegra Merr. Hydrangeaceae gagadang 2 0.02 1 Abdominal pain Lf, St I/ Drink decoction of stems Apply pounded leaves on abdomen
E
54 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae oregano 2 0.02 1n Abdominal pain Lf E Apply pounded leaves
55 Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. Lamiaceae tahibu 13 0.11 2 Diabetes; high blood pressure Lf I Drink decoction
56 Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth. Laminaceae mayana 1 – – Cuts and wounds Lf E Crushed and extracted the juice and drop directly on the
Coleus formosanus Hayata wounds
57 Mentha arvensis L. Laminaceae herba buena 1 – – Fever and headache Lf N/A
58 Persea americana Mill. Lauraceae avocado 1 – – Diarrhea Lf I Drink decoction
59 Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz Lecythidaceae vutun 23 0.20 2 Rheumatism; arthritis Lf E Apply heated leaves as a hot compress
Abdominal pain Lf, Fr E Apply heated leaves with oil or fruits on abdomen
Evil spirits (body pain) Lf E Apply heated leaves with oil to the sudden body pain believed
caused by ‘‘anitus’’
Body pain; swollen muscles Lf E Apply as a cold compress
60 Ormocarpum cochinchinense (Lour.) Leeaceae antinitinid 29 0.25 2 Toothache Rt, Bk E Pounded and decocted the roots as mouth wash (gargle).
Merr. Pounded roots or barks as tooth pick
Arthritis Rt I Drink decoction
61 Allium sativum L. Liliaceae acos 47 0.41 1n High blood pressure Rz I Eat 2 raw or half cooked bulbs 2–3 times a day. Drink decoction
with calamanci
62 Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Lythraceae banaba 4 0.03 1n Difficulty of urination Lf, Fr I Drink decoction
63 Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Malvaceae okra 2 – – Constipation, ulcer Fr I Eat raw fruits 1 h before and after meals.
64 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae gumamela; 78 0.67 2 Boils Lf, Fw I/ Apply pounded leaves. Drink decoction of flower
kangaya E
Cuts and wounds Lf, Fw E Wash with decoction
65 Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Malvaceae hanut 1 – – Abdominal pain Lf E Apply pounded young leaves on a stomach with salts
66 Tinospora rumphil Boerl Menispermaceae mabuga 1 – – scabies Sp E Mix sap with oil and apply liberally on the affected part
67 Ficus septica Burm.f. Moraceae yabnuy 42 0.36 3 Fever; headache Lf E Three leaves are overwrapped with coconut oil and tie or
fastened to a forehead
Insect bites; poison Lf, Sm E Pounded or heated and apply to centipede bites or
poisonous fish
Cuts and wounds Sp E Apply
Arthritis; body pain Lf E Apply heated leaves
n
68 Morus alba L. Moraceae tañud 17 0.15 1 Cuts and wounds; burns Sp, Bk, E Apply sap directly Apply pounded barks/roots
Rt
69 Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae malunggay 58 0.50 6 Diabetes Lf, Sd, I Drink decoction
Fw
Nutrients Lf I Eat cooked leaves as vegetable.
Anemia, high blood pressure Lf, Sd I Eat fresh or cooked leaves or seeds as vegetable Drink decoction
of leaves
Constipation Lf I Eat cooked leaves as vegetable

R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

Ulcer Lf I Drink decoction.
Scabies; skin eruption; cuts and Lf E Apply crushed or boiled leaves
wounds
70 Musa paradisiaca L. Musaceae viniveh 35 0.30 3 Fever; headache Lf E Apply young leaves on a forehead with oil.
(guyud
variety)
Boils; cuts and wounds Lf, Sp, E Apply sap directly Apply pounded young leaves or young
Fw flowers
71 Musa sapientum L. Musaceae viniveh (tsina 17 0.15 1n Diarrhea Fr I Eat ripe fruits three times a day
variety)
72 Musa spp. Musaceae viniveh 6 0.05 2 Abdominal pain Sp I Drink sap
Difficulty of urination Lf I Drink decoction
73 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae bayawas 39 0.34 4 Diarrhea Lf, Fr I/ Drink decoction of leaves. Chewed young leaves or young fruits
E and swallowed Apply leaves on navel with oil
Cuts and wounds Lf, Sp E Apply sap directly Wash with decoction of leaves
Scabies, skin eruption Lf E Wash with decoction of leaves
74 Fraxinus japonica Blume ex K.Koch Oleaceae ash 1 – – Abdominal pain Lf E Apply heated leaves on a navel
75 Averrhoa bilimbi L. Oxalidaceae camias 5 0.04 2 Inflammation of rectum Lf I Drink decoction
Fever Lf E Chopped and boiled leaves for cold or hot bath sponges
76 Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Pandanaceae tubayan 12 0.10 2 Rheumatism; difficulty of Lf, Rt I Drink decoction
urination; chronic cystitis
77 Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. Pandanaceae hago 4 0.03 1n Scabies Fr, Sd E Apply heated and pounded leaves Apply pulverized seeds with
coconut
78 Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae karutung 56 0.48 1n Cuts and wounds Lf, St, Sp E Apply the sap from stems, leaves, or flowers Apply pounded
stems or leaves
79 Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Phyllanthaceae tapusan 1 – – Snake bites; fish poison Lf E Apply
vuday
80 Piper betle L. Piperaceae samuh 64 0.55 1 Cough Lf E Rubbed fresh or steamed leaves with coconut oil then heat for
3–5 s before apply chest and back
body pain; backache Lf E Apply fresh, heated or steamed leaves
Fever; headache Lf E Apply on a head as a cool compress
81 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae pamienta 1 – – Toothache Lf I Decoction or infusion.
82 Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Poaceae kawayan 6 0.05 1n allergy St I/ Apply ash from burned stems with coconuts oil. Drink decoction
J.C.Wendl. E
83 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. var. Poaceae vachid 1 – – Difficulty of urination Lf I Drink decoction
major
84 Oryza sativa L. Poaceae paray 1 – – Diarrhea N/A I Eat
85 Saccharum officinarum L. Poaceae onas 1 – – Cuts and wounds St E Apply pounded stems
86 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae tadayiv 1 – – Cuts and wounds N/A E N/A
87 Zea mays L. Poaceae mayis 2 0.02 1n High blood pressure Sk I Drink decoction
88 Ardisia confertiflora Merr. Primulaceae payin 1 – – Skin eruptions Lf E Apply ash from burned leaves with coconuts oil
89 Morinda citrifolia L. Rubiaceae dino 2 0.02 1n High blood pressure Fr, Rt I Drink decoction

559
90 Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr. Rubiaceae rayi 49 0.42 4 Red eyes Lf E Rub on as a cool compress
 560
Table 2 (continued )

Plant Scientific name Family Local name No. of Use No. of Diseases or ailments Parts Preparation and administrationd
no. use- value categoriesb usedc
reports (UV) a

Earache Sp E Put sap directly in ears

Evil spirits; body pain Lf, St E Rub fresh or heated leaves or heated stems all over the body
includes sudden pain believed caused by the ‘‘anitus’’
Fever Lf E Apply on a forehead
Abdominal pain Lf, St E Apply fresh or heated leaves or stems
Cuts and wounds Lf, St, Sp E Apply sap of stems directly to wounds to stop bleeding Rub on
crushed leaves or stems
91 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae kahayaw 2 0.02 1n Boils Lf E Apply pounded leaves with salt
92 Chrysophyllum cainito L. Sapotaceae caimito 2 0.02 1n Diarrhea Fr I Eat fresh fruits
93 Palaquium formosanum Hayata Sapotaceae natu 2 – – Cuts and wounds, boils Lf E Apply
94 Capsicum frutescens L. Solanaceae sili 1 – – Arthritis N/A E Rub with coconut oil as an irritant
95 Datura metel L. Solanaceae siva 10 0.09 3 Nasal congestion Lf E Apply steamed leaves on a chest

R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

Abdominal pain Fw E Apply pounded fresh or heated flowers
Insect bites Lf E Apply pounded leaves
96 Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Solanaceae kamalutasit- 4 0.03 1n Abdominal pain Lf E Apply crushed leaves on abdomen
kamates
97 Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae baku 8 0.07 1 Skin eruption Lf E Rub fresh leaves
Boils, skin eruption Lf E Apply fresh or chopped dried leaves or heated leaves with oil
98 Radermachera fenicis Merr. Solanaceae valayvayan 7 0.06 1 Menstruation; abortive Bk, Lf I Drink decoction
99 Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae talong 2 – – Scabies Lf, Rt, St E Washing with decoction

100 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae nateng 11 0.09 2 High blood pressure; anemia; tonic Lf I Eat cooked leaves as vegetable. Drink decoction
101 Leucosyke quadrinervia C.B.Rob. Urticaceae mavuhu 5 0.04 1n Cuts and wounds Lf, St E Apply pounded leaves or stems
102 Premna odorata Blanco Verbenaceae aryaw 27 0.23 4 Head lice Lf E N/A
Cough Lf I Drink decoction
Fever Lf E Apply fresh leaves on a head with oil
Cuts and wounds Lf E Apply crushed leaves
Diarrhea; ulcer; stunned Lf E Apply leaves on a navel with oil
103 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Verbenaceae sisiplot 48 0.41 1n Cuts and wounds Lf, St E Apply pounded or crashed leaves
104 Leea philippinensis Merr. Vitaceae aniblawun 1 – – Skin eruptions Lf E Apply heated leaves
105 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Woodsiaceae tamidoc 14 0.12 2 High blood pressure; constipation Lf; St I Eat cooked leaves as vegetable
106 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae hama 7 0.06 3 arthritis Rz I Drink decoction
Cuts and wounds Rz E Apply extracted juice from crushed rizomes
Cough; arthritis Rz I Drink decoction with honey or sugar
107 Zingiber officinale (Willd.) Roscoe Zingiberaceae luya 3 0.03 1n Arthritis Lf, Rz E Fastened pounded and heated rhizomes or leaves with coconut
oil
108 N/A aduvut 26 0.22 3 Scabies; skin eruption Lf, St E Pounded and diluted by water and bath the whole body
(Severe head) wounds Lf, St, E Apply pounded leaves. Wash with pounded and diluted leaves
Fw stems or flowers by water
109 N/A disolne 1 – – Diarrhea Rt I Drink mixed with warm water
110 N/A kamusuy 29 0.25 1n Cuts and wounds Lf E Pounded and apply the juice.
111 N/A katana 17 0.15 2 Scabies Lf, Bk E Drink decoction of leaves Apply heated leaves or barks
Cuts and wounds Lf, Fr E Apply pounded leaves or fruits
Boils; allergy; chicken pox Bk E Apply ash from burned barks
112 N/A kawawakay 4 0.03 1n Abdominal pain Lf, St E Apply heated leaves or boiled stems

a
UV is the sum of the number of use-reports cited by each informant for a given species divided by the total number of informants.
b
Number of categories reported out of the 13 categories (nFL ¼100%). For calculation of UV and number of categories, the use-report was considered when described by at least two interviewees mentioned the same plant for
the same ailments.
c
Bk, barks; Fr, fruits; Fw, flowers; Lf, leaves; Rt, roots; Rz, rhizomes; Sd, seeds; Sk, silk; Sp, sap/juice; St, stems; Tk, trunk.
d
I, internal; E, external.
 R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565
used for the treatment of a particular ailment, and we did so by
calculating fidelity levels (FL) (Friedman et al., 1986): FL¼Np/N,
where Np is the number of use-reports cited for a given species for
a particular ailment, and N is the total number of use-reports
cited for any given species. High FL values (near 100%) are
obtained for plants for which almost all use-reports refer to the
same method of use, (that is, the plants were considered the most
preferred species for a particular ailment category), whereas low
FLs are obtained for plants that are used for many different
purposes.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Knowledge of medicinal plants
Differences in occupation or educational background did not
influence the reported knowledge of medicinal plants. Local
people living in Basco reported fewer medicinal plant species
than informants from other municipalities (a median of 8.3 plants
vs. 15.3) (t (a ¼ 0.01, d.f. ¼ 47) ¼ 4.56; po0.00005). One of the most
likely reasons for this result is that Basco is the provincial capital
of Batanes and is served by the hospital, clinic and small shops,
giving residents more opportunities to buy over-the-counter
medicines and convenient access to professional healthcare
compared with residents from other sites. Moreover, cash
incomes in Basco were slightly higher than in other locations.
Women also have slightly more information about medicinal
plants than men (t (a ¼ 0.05, d.f. ¼ 112) ¼2.34; p o0.05), reflecting
their roles in household management and child care as well as
their leading role in keeping families and communities generally
healthy by providing preventive care and treatment. Women have
long been associated with herbal healing because of their crucial
role in plant diversity management and conservation at the
household, village, and community levels (Braidotti et al., 1994).
Additionally, those aged over 60 were more knowledgeable than
their juniors (t (a ¼ 0.01, d.f. ¼ 87) ¼2.28; p o0.05), and the use of
medicinal plants decreased with decreasing age. Although almost
all informants reported that knowledge of medicinal plants was
inherited from their ancestors through oral tradition, the number
reporting this varied by age, which means that knowledge of the
use of medicinal plants may be disappearing.
3.2. Frequency of use of medicinal plants
Of the inhabitants interviewed, 96.6% actually used medicinal
plants and 0.6% possessed knowledge but had never used med-
icinal plants. Most people used medicinal plants occasionally
(87.1%), and 4.3% of residents used them every day. They used
traditional medicines for the treatment of diseases and also for
nourishment and energy. Herbal medicines were used by the
Ivatan people because most believed that they were more
effective than Western medicines in all cases (68%) or in some
cases (26%).
3.3. Characteristics of medicinal plants
The data obtained from field surveys are summarized in
Table 2. Both the scientific and vernacular names for the medic-
inal plants are given by taxonomic category and family. In this
survey, 112 plant species were recorded for their medicinal use,
and these belonged to 57 families and were used to cure 47
ailments in 13 categories. For five out of the 112 species, only the
local name was documented. In terms of the number of species
used, of the 107 plant species identified, Asteraceae and Solanaceae,
with seven species each, were best represented, followed by
561
Euphorbiaceae and Poaceae with six species, Fabaceae with five
species, and Lamiaceae with four species. This is not surprising—
these families are very widespread around the world. The
Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae families contain a large variety of
phytotoxins, mainly alkaloids, diterpene esters, glycosides, and
ricin-type toxins (Yamane et al., 2010).These are sometimes used
as medicines or spices; in general, they contain some toxins and
strong irritants. Many medicinal plants used are members of
the mint family, Lamiaceae, which includes basil, mint, and
rosemary; these are used because of their rich and fragrant
essential oils, which are composed principally of monoterpenes
(Yamane et al., 2010).
The Philippine Department of Health (DOH) has recommended
the following ten species of medicinal plants in its traditional
health maintenance program: Blumea balsamifera, Carmona retusa,
Cassia alata, Psidium guajava, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia,
Vitex negundo, Mentha sp., Quisqualis indica, and Peperomia
pellucida. The pharmacological effects of these plants have been
clinically proven to be significant, and pamphlets concerning their
use have been distributed from local health centers. The plants
have also been discussed in science class in elementary schools on
Batan Island. Of these ten medicinal plants recommended by the
DOH, the first seven species mentioned above were reported in
this survey, and five of these plants were utilized in all four
municipalities. The utilization rates of these plants are higher
than for any other plants. This fact indicates that knowledge of
medicinal plants has been influenced by various media in recent
years. We found that the usage of some plants varied between
villages. For example, Blumea balsamifera was used mainly for
‘‘difficulty in urination’’ in Basco and Mahatao, but it was used
mainly to treat boils and coughs in Ivana and to treat high blood
pressure in Uyugan. Additionally, Musa paradisiaca was used to
treat boils in Basco and Mahatao and for fevers, headaches, and
cuts and wounds in Ivana and Uyugan; Musa sapientum was used
to treat diarrhea in all four municipalities. During the interview,
the plants themselves or plant pictures were shown to the
informants to avoid misunderstandings concerning identification
of the plants. Nevertheless, across different sites on Batan Island,
there are differences in terms of which plant to use for which
diseases, and same plant may be used to treat different diseases.
Moreover, the regional mix of local names has been investigated,
and it has been confirmed that different plants are sometimes
given the same name. For example, Jatropha curcas is known as
‘‘katawa’’ in the southern part of Batan Island, around Uyugan,
whereas residents living near Basco referred to this plant as
‘‘katana,’’ a word which itself indicates another plant species
(Ricinus communis) to the residents of Uyugan. A further example
is ‘‘manichit’’ (Tabernaemontana pandacaqui), which is also called
‘‘pandakaki-puti’’ in Basco but is known as ‘‘gagadan zambales’’ in
Uyugan, while ‘‘gagadang’’ is yet another species (Hydrangea
subintegra) that is endemic to Batan Island. Confusion was
observed across regions, indicating that proper plant identifica-
tion using local names is only accurate within a particular village
or municipality (Gothard and McWilliam, 1989).
3.4. Collection sites
Medicinal plants are collected in the wild by individuals or
their family members. Three percent of medicinal plants used
were cultivated for medicinal purposes, and 21% were cultivated
as vegetables, with 77% found growing wild in fields, backyards,
or forests. Most plants could be easily found near homes, reflect-
ing that the current study area is rich in natural resources
allowing for the collection, rather than cultivation, of medicinal
plants. However, in the future, to stem the loss of knowledge
regarding medicinal plants and prevent the eradication of these
562 R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565

medicinal plant resources, it is necessary to consider intentional available, such as bark or roots because plants in such areas can
cultivation of these useful plants. One must consider that the be regularly exposed to long periods of drought and thus lose
medicinal properties of plants, as well as the secondary metabo- their leaves. However, using the roots is more damaging to the
lites produced under stress and competition, are not always health of the individual plant compared to the use of its leaves of
expressed in fast-growing monocultures. Rather, higher levels of branches.
active compounds may be present in wild populations where
plants grow more slowly (Uniyal et al., 2000). Therefore, it is 3.6. Preparation and administration
necessary to conduct further investigation into the components of
medicinal plants and to conduct chemical analyses. The main method of preparation was use of the intact plants
(31%), followed by pounding or crushing (21%), decoction (20%),
heating (15%), boiling (6%), and steaming (4%), while burning and
3.5. Plant part used
drying represented the least used preparation methods (Fig. 3). In
other words, 52% of the plants were used fresh and 48% were
All parts of various plant species are used against a variety of
heated somehow. Both internal and external methods of admin-
diseases. The most frequently used part is the leaves (55%),
istration were used to cure ailments. In most cases, the admin-
followed by stems (9%), fruits (8%), bark (8%), and sap or juice
istration routes were external (68%) rather than internal (32%),
(6%) (Fig. 2). In some cases, more than one organ of the same
differing significantly from practices elsewhere (Giday, 2003;
species, especially a combination of leaves and stems, are used in
Ragunathan and Solomon, 2009; Upadhyay et al., 2011). The
the preparation of different remedies. The fact that leaves are the
advantage of external application is safety because external
most frequently used part corresponds to similar results reported
application results in indirect yet immediate local effects on the
in many other ethnomedicinal studies in Asia (Subramanyam
area and allows for easier regulation of dosages depending on the
et al., 2008; Langenberger et al., 2009; Srithi et al., 2009; Ugulu
concentrations of beneficial or toxic compounds.
et al., 2009; Chowdhury and Koike, 2010; Upadhyay et al., 2011)
The data regarding parts used, preparation, and administration
and in other regions of the world (Giday, 2003; Gazzaneo et al.,
are summarized in Table 3. The most common use employs fresh
2005; Jeruto et al., 2008; Ragunathan and Solomon, 2009). The
(intact or pounded/crushed) leaves for external administration
ease of accessibility to leaves explains their frequent inclusion in
(23.6%); the use rate rises to 42% if all aerial parts are considered.
most of the preparations (Singh and Lal, 2008). It was also
The second most common use involves the decoction of leaves for
observed that residents have been using leaves to identify
internal administration (9%). Almost all of the species are used
medicinal plants. Additionally, leaves are the main photosynthetic
alone; very few mixtures have been identified, such as chewing
organs in plants, and photosynthates are translocated to other
mixture of garlic bulbs with Areca catechu and Nicotiana tabacum
parts, such as the roots, bark, fruits and seeds. These can act as
leaves like a gum for the production of poultices for abdominal
toxins for protection against predators and some are of medicinal
pain. This supports other reports of stand-alone usages in other
value to humans.
countries and regions (Akerreta et al., 2007; Ragunathan and
The utilization of the underground organs, both roots and
Solomon, 2009; Upadhyay et al., 2011). Sometimes, local people
rhizomes, was less widespread, whereas aerial organs were highly
also used other ingredients, such as oil, vinegar, and salt, to
used. This is a result of the evergreen nature of the island climate.
prepare the remedies.
In contrast, many previous reports have noted that roots were
In addition to having scientific efficacy, traditional medicines
frequently used, second only to leaves (Giday, 2003; Ragunathan
were strongly influenced by cultures, traditions, and personal
and Solomon, 2009; Ugulu et al., 2009; Allabi et al., 2010; Rokaya
beliefs because their use was handed down orally from ancient
et al., 2010; Upadhyay et al., 2011). Inhabitants of dry regions
times. People decided to use plants based on the plants’ forms or
tend to focus their attention on plant parts that are continuously
shapes. The manner in which various parts of the plants are used

Bk
Rt 2% Sk Bo Bn
0.1% 4% 1%
2%

Rz
4%
Fw
5% Sm Ht
2% 13%
Sp Nt
11% 38%

Sd
1% Lf Dc
55% 13%
Fr
12%

Dy
St
0.3% Pd
8%
Pd
30%

Fig. 2. Plant part used for medicinal applications in Batan Island. Bk, barks; Fr, Fig. 3. Mode of preparation of medicinal plants in Batan Island. Nt, nothing; Pd,
fruits; Fw, flowers; Lf, leaves; Rt, roots; Rz, rhizomes; Sd, seeds; Sk, silk; Sp, sap/ pounded/crushed; Dy, dried; Dc, decoction; Sm, steamed; Ht, heated; Bo, boiled;
juice; St, stems; Tk, trunk. Bn, burned (use ashes).
 R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565 563

Table 3
The number of use reports and their proportion (%) of total uses for medicinal plant parts used, and their preparation and administration on Batan Island.

Administration Nothing Pound/extract Dry Decoction Steam Heat Boil Burn Total

Leaves Internal 12 (0.4%) 0 (4.7%) 0 (5.9%) 105 (0.0%) 8 (0.0%) 29 (0.0%) 36 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 202 (0.0%)
External 195 (7.0%) 311 (0.1%) 3 (0.0%) 25 (0.0%) 15 (0.0%) 135 (0.0%) 9 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1196 (0.0%)
Total 207 (7.4%) 311 (0.0%) 3 (0.2%) 130 (0.2%) 23 (0.0%) 164 (0.0%) 45 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1398 (0.0%)
Stems Internal 0 (0%) 0 (0.1%) 0 (0.2%) 2 (0.2%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%)
External 65 (2.3%) 52 (0.2%) 0 (0.8%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 5 (0.0%) 237 (0.0%)
Total 65 (2.3%) 52 (0.0%) 0 (0.1%) 2 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%) 4 (0.0%) 5 (0.0%) 243 (0.0%)
Fruits Internal 142 (5.1%) 0 (0.2%) 0 (0.9%) 6 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 22 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 316 (0.0%)
External 18 (0.6%) 3 (0.1%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 43 (0.0%)
Total 160 (5.7%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 26 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 359 (0.0%)
Seeds Internal 10 (0.4%) 0 (0.1%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 28 (0.0%)
External 0 (0%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%)
Total 10 (0.4%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 31 (0.0%)
Juice/sup Internal 56 (2.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 113 (0.0%)
External 123 (4.4%) 3 (0.1%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 249 (0.0%)
Total 179 (6.4%) 3 (0.1%) 0 (0.1%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 362 (0.0%)
Flowers Internal 4 (0.1%) 0 (0.2%) 0 (0.1%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 10 (0.0%)
External 2 (0.1%) 70 (0.3%) 0 (0.3%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 148 (0.0%)
Total 6 (0.2%) 70 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 5 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 158 (0.0%)
Rhizomes Internal 31 (1.1%) 0 (0.3%) 1 (0.4%) 8 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 9 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 95 (0.0%)
External 0 (0.0%) 13 (0.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 26 (0.0%)
Total 31 (1.1%) 13 (0.8%) 1 (0.0%) 8 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 10 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 121 (0.0%)
Roots Internal 0 (0%) 3 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 5 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 8 (0.0%)
External 2 (0.1%) 26 (0.2%) 0 (0.0%) 21 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 55 (0.0%)
Total 2 (0.1%) 29 (0.1%) 0 (0.3%) 26 (0.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 63 (0.0%)
Bark Internal 0 (0%) 0 (0.3%) 0 (0.3%) 6 (0.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (0.0%)
External 6 (0.2%) 5 (0.1%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 13 (0.0%) 42 (0.0%)
Total 6 (0.2%) 5 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 9 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 13 (0.0%) 48 (0.0%)
Silk Internal 0 (0%) 0 (0.1%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%)
External 0 (0%) 0 (5.0%) 0 (2.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
Total 0 (0.0%) 0 (1.9%) 0 (5.6%) 2 (0.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.0%)
Total Internal 255 (9.2%) 3 (6.9%) 1 (7.8%) 139 (0.6%) 12 (0.0%) 60 (0.0%) 49 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 786 (0.0%)
External 411 (14.8%) 484 (0.0%) 3 (0.0%) 52 (0.0%) 15 (0.0%) 157 (0.0%) 11 (0.0%) 18 (0.0%) 1999 (0.0%)
Total 666 23.9 487 (0.0%) 4 (0.0%) 191 (0.0%) 27 (0.0%) 217 (0.0%) 60 (0.0%) 18 (0.0%) 2785 (0.0%)

does, however, suggest some understanding of their medicinal
properties, which corresponds to a scientific understanding even
if it is sometimes based on folklore and superstition. For example,
sap has been used for cuts and wounds, and large, thick leaves
have been used as hot or cold compresses to relieve pain and treat
rheumatoid arthritis, abdominal pain, headache or fever. In
addition, plants are sometimes pretreated by applying coconut
oil to the leaves before application to the afflicted area. This is
performed to facilitate adhesion or to facilitate transfers from leaf
to skin. In addition, the coconut tree is widely distributed in the
Philippines, so the use of this tree in medicinal folklore and in the
preparation of other treatments is very common. Other examples
include Paederia scandens and Barringtonia asiatica, which are
used to treat sudden body pains believed to be caused by evil
spirits known as ‘‘anitus,’’ and fresh or heated leaves are rubbed
over the whole body for protection. Paederia scandens has a strong
smell and Barringtonia asiatica, which flowers in the night, is
viewed as an eerie tree and is even believed to be evil in Yami,
Taiwan.
3.7. Use value (UV)
UVs, representing the relative importance of plants, were high
for Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (0.67), Cocos nucifera (0.56), Piper betle
(0.55), Senna alata (0.53), and Moringa oleifera (0.50). The lowest
use value was calculated at 0.02, with only two people reporting
utility (Table 2). High use-value plants, which were reported by
residents of all four municipalities, are distributed across all of
Batan Island and easy to obtain. These were the most frequently
used plant species used for each ailment category: Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous issues, Cocos
nucifera for diseases of the genitourinary system, Piper betle
for undefined pains or illness, Senna alata for infection and
postpartum issues, and Moringa oleifera for endocrine illnesses,
nutritional deficiencies and metabolic disorders. All plants
showed a high UV when used for exogenous diseases, such as
infectious and parasitic diseases (e.g., scabies, ascariasis), injury,
poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes (e.g.,
cuts and wounds) or diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
(e.g., skin eruptions). Moringa oleifera and Cocos nucifera were also
used for endogenous diseases and lifestyle-related diseases,
problems of the circulatory system (e.g., high blood pressure,
anemia), diseases of the digestive system (e.g., constipation), and
for endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases. Our study
shows that plants with higher UVs have become more widely
used for a variety of diseases in modern times. This is an
interesting result and shows the importance of medicinal plants
in the region.
3.8. Informant consensus factor (ICF)
ICFs were calculated by using reports in each of the 13
categories. The results ranged from a low of 0.76 to a high of
1.00, with a mean value of 0.91 (Table 1). The highest ICF value,
1.00, indicates that people use a particular plant consistently in
that category. However, the number of use-reports (Nur) in these
high-ICF categories was extremely low. After excluding categories
with a Nur of less than eight (0.5%), the highest remaining ICF
category was for diseases of the eye (0.95), followed by diseases
of the circulatory system (0.94), injury and poisons from external
causes (0.94), diseases of the genitourinary system (0.93), and
undefined pains or illnesses (0.92). The most frequently used
plant species in each category were those plants with either a
high UV or the highest FL (100%), except in the case of Barringtonia.
asiatica, which had the lowest ICF value (0.76) for diseases of
the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue. This low ICF
564 R. Abe, K. Ohtani / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 145 (2013) 554–565
suggests a lesser level of agreement among informants on the use
of plant species to treat this particular disease category. In addition,
a low ICF was associated with many plants with almost equally
high usage reports. This low ICF may also be explained by the
availability of easily accessible pharmaceuticals that provide alter-
natives to traditional medicine. These pharmaceuticals may reduce
the use of some traditional remedies.
The ailments with the highest ICF values (1.00) were ring-
worm infections, sore eyes, and toothaches, all of which were
treated with specific plant species. Ringworm infections were
treated with Senna alata, known as ‘‘lingwa’’ to the locals. The
young leaves of Calophyllum inophyllum, when soaked in water
overnight and decocted, can be used for washing sore eyes.
Calophyllum inophyllum has been reported to have an antimicro-
bial effect (Saravanan et al., 2011). A decoction of Ormocarpum
cochinchinense roots is used as a mouthwash (gargle), and
pounded roots and bark of this plant are used as toothpicks to
treat toothache. The calcium level in the plant has been found to
be one of the reasons for its soothing effect (John et al., 2011).
The ailments that had high ICFs also had specific methods of
treatment. The second highest ICF was for cough (0.95), which was
treated by drinking a decoction (75%; e.g., Premna odorata, Curcuma
longa, and Blumea balsamifera). This was followed by hypertension
(ICF of 0.94), which was treated by eating plants as vegetables (36%;
e.g., Allium sativum, Diplazium esculentum, and Moringa oleifera)
or drinking decoctions of leaves (55%; e.g., Orthosiphon aristatus,
Zea mays, and Solanum nigrum). The next highest ICF value (0.93) was
for constipation, which could be treated by eating fruits or leaves
(67%; e.g., Ananas comosus, Moringa oleifera, and Carica papaya). Cuts
and wounds (ICF of 0.93) were treated by applying sap (39%; e.g.,
Chamaesyce hirta, Argemone mexicana, and Ficus septica) or by the
application of pounded leaves or stems (50%: e.g., Stachytarpheta
jamaicensis, Psidium guajava, and Crassocephalum crepidioides). Diffi-
culty urinating (ICF of 0.93) could be treated by drinking a decoction
of leaves (80%; e.g., Blumea balsamifera, Pandanus amaryllifolius, and
Lagerstroemia speciosa). It is interesting that not only general diseases
but also specific ailments such as hypertension and urinary disorders
are present in the top five ailments. The incidence of hypertension on
Batan Island is reportedly high. In fact, hypertension (6.3%) was the
fourth leading cause of death (13.8%) on Batan Island in 2007, with
heart disease being the top killer (Department of Health, 2007). This
is a result of the introduction of Western culture that has occurred on
Batan Island, including Western food, and also essential hypertension
caused by specific genes in the tropics. According to the most recent
survey of national health in the Philippines, the leading cause of
death became lifestyle-related diseases in 2005, whereas infectious
diseases were the leading killers in 1975. Moreover, hypertension
ranked fifth in morbidity in 2005 in the Philippines. The current
studies of ICF results support the finding that hypertension, which
increases the risk of ischemic heart disease, strokes, and kidney
disease, and other disorders when it occurs with obesity, hyperlipi-
demia, and diabetes, is a risk factor for the major cause of death in
the Philippines, including Batan Island.
3.9. Fidelity level (FL)
FLs for plant species for a specific disease varied widely, ranging
between 1% and 100% for plants in the study area. The maximum
FL of 100% was found for 36 species, including Carica papaya,
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Musa sapientum, and Pedilanthus
tithymaloides, which are, respectively, used to treat constipation,
cuts and wounds, diarrhea, and dislocations and fractures (Table 2).
Most of the plants with high FL values have pharmacological
effects that have been proven scientifically. On the other hand,
the lowest FL, 1%, indicated less-preferred species for treating
specific ailments. In contrast, these plants have been widely used
against several diseases. For example, Moringa oleifera is used for
nine different ailments that can be divided into six categories, each
of which garnered only low FL values: certain infectious and
parasitic diseases (FL¼5%), endocrine, nutritional and metabolic
diseases (17%), diseases of the circulatory system (64%), diseases of
the digestive system (6%), diseases of the skin and subcutaneous
tissue (3%), and injury/poisoning from external causes (6%). Living
up to its nickname as a Miracle Tree, Moringa contains many
nutrients, such as vitamins, antioxidants, essential amino acids,
and minerals, and many health and nutrition programs funded by
various charitable organizations support its use. As a result, this
useful plant might represent something of a panacea treatment
even if it has low FL values for individual problems. The reported
species were used to treat a wide range of ailments (ranging
between 1 and 9). However, there were 32 plants used against two
or more diseases, and 42 plants were used to cure a single ailment
(Fig. 2). High ICFs and FLs for specific species suggest that the
plants might contain valuable phytochemical compounds. These
traditional medicines, handed down despite their traditional back-
ground, have high ICFs and FLs because of their efficacy and safety.
4. Conclusion
This study confirms that plants are still a major source of
medicine for the local people living on Batan Island in the
Philippines. Modern healthcare systems in this area are not
adequate, and some parts of the population have limited means
to buy modern medicine. Thus, traditional medicine remains the
most popular solution to health issues.
We found that most recorded plants grew in the wild. Notably,
the uses of some plants have not been reported in the literature.
Our results also reveal the urgency of collecting ethnopharmaco-
logical data because knowledge of medicinal plants is vanishing.
As described above, increases in lifestyle-related diseases have
become a serious problem on the island. Residents use several
plants against conditions such as hypertension and urinary
disorders. This study suggests that detailed pharmacological
evaluation of these plants is required because the pharmacologi-
cal basis for the activity of some plants has not been determined.
Apart from this study, we recently discovered that some plants
contribute to hypotensive activity on Batan Island. Further
research can encourage the continued use of medicinal plants.
Acknowledgments
We are very grateful to the Batan Island people for sharing
generously their knowledge of medicinal plants with us. Thanks are
for the midwives and nurses in Uyugan Health Center and health care
workers of Batanes General Hospital for their cooperation in providing
information. We would like to thank Professor Shingo Ishikawa for
valuable advice of plant identification. We would like to thank
Professor Yoshinori Morooka for reading the manuscript and making
a number of helpful suggestions. We wish to thank Jonathan Walsh
for reading the entire text in its original form. The writing of this
paper was made possible largely through grants from Sasagawa
Foundation Research Grant, The Japan Science Society, and we would
like to acknowledge here the generosity of these organizations.
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