Chapter 8 How and when is language possible?

LAD What is it? Who proposed it?- Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky)

LASS What is it? Who proposed it?- Language Acquisition Support System (Bruner) the
idea that language is learned through social interaction.

UG universal grammar (what is this?)- the theory that humans have an innate
grammatical structure programmed into their dna. Proposed by chomsky.

Know the 13 design features of language (you will have matching questions over this!)-
ALL PRIMATES
1. vocal-auditory channel- use of speaking & hearing as key feature of language

2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception- sounds/signs of human

language are sent in all directions, but listeners perceive them as coming from a
specific direction. (being able to tell when prof. Is in back of room)

3. Rapid fading (transitoriness)- language signals don’t last very long. Speech is
gone after it has been said (unless a recording has been made) Unlike writing.

4. Interchangeability- A speaker can send and receive the same signal. (Despite your
gender, you can say “I am a boy” or “I am a girl.”)

5. Total feedback- The speaker can hear or see their own talking and monitor what
they are saying as they say it.

6. Specialization- language sounds are specialized for communication, and it is their

primary intent. (Unlike a dog’s panting, which makes noise but is primarily an
action to cool the dog, not communicate.)

7. Semanticity- Specific sound/signed signals can be linked directly to specific

meanings. (Being able to combine the words “food” and “danger” to signal the
food you are about to eat could kill you)

8. Arbitrariness- A signal has no causal connection to its meaning (The word salt in
no way reminds one of salt, it is not rough, granular, etc.)

9. Discreteness- units of communication are separated into distinct units that

cannot be mistaken for each other. (“b” and “p” have distinct sounds to English
speakers.)
HUMAN ONLY
1. Displacement- The ability to communicate about things besides the present.
(Talk about past, future, wants, other locations)

2. Productivity- produce and comprehend new utterances without having them

memorized. (being able to understand “time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like a
banana”)

3. Traditional transmission- language is learned in social groups.

4. Duality of patterning- discrete units of language at one level (like the auditory
level) can be combined to make different units at a different level (like words)
(For instance, the sounds “k” “ah” and “t” can be combined to make the English
words cat, tak, or act.) Combination of discreteness and productivity.

Which are unique to humans?- productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of

patterning.

critical period hypothesis- at puberty (12-15) if a person has not learned language, they
will not be able to speak it with fluency - Lenneberg.
Location of broca’s and wernicke’s area- Broca's area is found in the left inferior frontal
gyrus and Wernicke's area is located in the left posterior superior temporal gyrus

What are the theories for language acquisition in children?-

1. Innatist Theory- language is already hardwired into the human brain at birth. UG
provides a core set of rules and allows brain to function as LAD. Internal
grammar.
2. Behaviorist Theory- children must hear language from those around them
(stimulus) and receive positive feedback from caregivers to develop linguistic
abilities.
3. Cognitivist Theory- children develop their intellectual abilities and then their
language abilities as a result. Develops in fixed states.
4. Theory theory(active construction of a grammar theory)- children observe and
interact with the world around them and form theories about their experiences.
Language then, is the result of a set of theories that children create about
linguistic stimuli they are exposed to. Analyze and use language.

Stages of language development in children, i.e., cooing, etc.- Cooing (sounds are all
vowels / first months after birth) Babbling (alternates consonants and vowels / 4-6 mos)
Holophrastic (One word utterances that express entire sentence/idea / 12 mos) Two
word Stage (Begin combining words into two word utterances. Doggie run, Push ball
after 18 mos)

Cross-cultural examples of language acquisition in children- Tiwi (proper way to

address people is by their kinship term, 2 terms for daughter. First words children learn
are kinship terms. Kaluli (speak well, no baby language. Never look into baby’s eyes.
Mother is model for speech)

Productive vocabulary- ability to produce a word that matches your intended meaning
for it
Receptive vocabulary- words you can comprehend understand, even if you can’t say
them yourself

According to the fossil record, when was the possibility for speech?- homo habilis has
potential for development of early stages of potential language / broca wernickes
appear.

Physiological conditions for language: discuss the role of the brain and the role of
human vocal apparatus.- more curved basicranium ( bottom of skull)
evidence of low larynx, longer pharynx / ability to use sound is skulls that we can find. if
basicranium is curved, is indication of low larynx. Brain has to be certain size to create
language and understand it.

What is the condition of the human vocal apparatus for speech? (think about the
condition of the larynx pharynx, and basicranium Broca’s and Wernicke’s area. Why are
they significant for language? What does each do? - low larynx in humans allows for
longer pharynx and a wide variety of vowels. Flexible tongue allows for wide variety of
consonants. Broca’s area allows for the production of speech. Wernicke’s area allows for
the comprehension of language.

Broca’s aphasia- Nonfluent aphasia, problem with function words, can comprehend.

Wernicke’s aphasia- fluent aphasia, incorrect and nonsensical sentence structure,

limited comprehension.

Animal communication: Redundancy in honey bee communication-

Waggle dance of honey bees- figure 8 dance done by honeybee. Conveys info about
direction/distance to nectar and pollen, to water sources, or to new nest-site locations
with other members of the colony.
Round dance of honey bees-comb of close circles conveying a bee has located a
profitable food source close to the hive. The round dance transitions into the waggle
dance when food sources are more than 50 meters away.

Bird calls- used for things like alarms or keeping members of flock in contact
Bird songs- longer and more complex than calls, often used for territory, and mating

What are the early theories on primate vocalization? Provide examples of each

LANGUAGE of HURRICANE KATRINA

how does language reflect culture? - language reflects culture in that the use of certain
language represents how the culture feels about certain things.

What do the statistics provided in class tell us?- that the mostly african american new
orleanians had less opportunities than other people and were therefore criticized
unfairly.

Why would it be considered offensive to ask, “Why didn’t they just leave?” - many
people did not have cars, many people had lived there their entire lives and were
hesitant to leave it behind. Once they got somewhere else they would be homeless as
they were already in poverty.

What were the words (language) of Katrina?- refugee, looter, finder, resident,

What is coded language? (Text and subtext—videos of Katrina). -

Text- anything considered to be a subject of analysis or literary criticism.
Subtext- underlying or implicit meaning of something

According to the author of “Why Katrina’s Victims Aren’t Refugees: Musings on a

“Dirty” Word, what does the language of Katrina tell us about U.S. culture?- it tells us
that inequality is inherent to our system in the U.S.

Why is ‘Refugee’ a dirty word?- the victims of Katrina saw the word as a way to separate
them from other Americans. In times of crisis, when all possessions may be forfeit, your
identity is most important thing to yourself.

What is the “categorical void”?- the lack of a way to categorize adequately the victims of
Katrina, including the nightmarish conditions and having to restart their lives.
How did Hurricane Katrina challenge assumptions about the American Dream?- it
showed that America could not take care of even 1 city, let alone all of its people. It also
showed that not everyone can simply pick themselves up by their bootstraps.

POTENTIAL ESSAY QUESTIONS on KATRINA:

● What is structural violence and where do you see it in Hurricane Katrina?-
violence where a social structure or system harms people by keeping them
from their basic necessities. Seen in those in Katrina not getting food or
shelter after the hurricane.

● Why was “refugee” considered offensive from an emic perspective?-

offensive bc those being called refugee felt that it separated from their
American brothers and sisters. They felt like it put them as lower than the
average american citizen.
● Explain how to use critical discourse analysis to uncover racism in the
language of Katrina: what were the words used and how did those words
demonstrate racism?- Critical discourse analysis is a way to study how
social inequality and dominance are reproduced and resisted through
language. The words used were “looting” “finding” “survivors” “looters”

● Explain why this is considered an offensive question: “Why didn’t those

who were affected by Hurricane Katrina just leave?” (You must
incorporate and discuss the specific statistics to receive credit)- offensive
because most people lived in one place in New Orleans their whole lives,
and many did not have cars. 27% didn’t have cars, and 77% live in LA their
whole lives.

● Explain why the Katrina ‘victims’ were considered “pollution” based on

Mary Douglas’s theory of social order.- refugees belong neither “here nor
there” and as such are scene as those inbetween other social classes,
essentially they are dirt and do not belong bc they do not fall into a
quantifiable “them” or “us”

● How did the aftermath of Katrina threaten the American Dream?- it

showed that America could not take care of even 1 city, let alone all of its
people. It also showed that not everyone can simply pick themselves up by
their bootstraps.

LANGUAGE AND GENDER

Egg and the Sperm
According to Martin, how does scientific language (the language of biology textbooks)
reflect and reinforce cultural stereotypes- The language used in biology textbooks to
describe female reproductive organs are words commonly associated with women in
culture, and in a derogatory way. Eggs are described as wasting away and shedding,
which implies that they are worthless and degrading, while sperm is produced, which
implies it is a commodity. Eggs are also heavily associated with passiveness, while
sperm are active and “save” the egg by fertilizing it. Despite using science and biology,
the themes applied to the cells are based in cultural values of men and women.

What does she mean by this statement: “Part of my goal in writing this article is to shine
a bright light on the gender stereotypes hidden within the scientific language of biology.
Exposed in such a light, I hope they will lose much of their power to harm us.” What
does she mean by “harm”- The fact that cultural views of women can trickle down to
something as empirical as science means that much of the knowledge we consume is
biased towards viewing women as lesser. When we are unaware of this fact, we passively
consume content that steers us to believe in this idea, even if it is unconscious belief.
This is the harm that the stereotypes cause; a widespread and normalized mindset of
viewing women in a passive and inferior manner.

What are some examples of the language used and how does this language contribute to
gender inequality according to Martin-
To describe eggs: “debris”, "ceasing," "dying', "losing," "denuding," "expelling”, “sheds”,
“a scarred, battered organ”, "a dormant bride awaiting her mate's magic kiss, which
instills the spirit that brings her to life”
To describe sperm: “manufacture”, “produce”, “feat is accomplished”, “activate”,
“strong” “"mission”
The words associated with eggs are all negative and imply that women are wasteful and
full of excess, to the point where eggs are not as valuable, due to their overproduction so
quickly (at birth). The egg is also described with words like “passive” and “dormant”
which imply that it simply sits and waits for a man, which is heavily based in culture.
The words associated with sperms are all positive and imply that men are creating and
and producing a valuable and needed amenity. The sperm is also described as strong
and taking an active role, which again is rooted in cultural values.

Simmons: Odd Girl Out

What is the point of the article- To highlight how women are, especially by other
women, bullied into being more passive and submissive, and are hated for being
outgoing and strong-willed.

What does the author propose as the reason for why girls construct the "all that" girl-
First, it's a scapegoat for women to project onto, but also, because it defines confidence
by giving it a physical manifestation that women can tear down in order to maintain
their ideal of femininity and passiveness.

What does "all that" mean- “All-that” fluctuates, but it in essence is a woman who is
confident, assertive, and independent.

How do girls view the ideal girl and the anti-girl- Thin, pretty, popular, dependent,
passive, ultimately shallow and stupid, seductive, wealthy, indirect and manipulative;
mean, ugly, gay, manly, strong, serious, opinionated, seductive, independent, atheltic,
smart

How does the role of femininity contribute to girls' behavior- Women have historically
been designated as passive and dependent on men, which are characteristics that
women idealize in themselves and punish others for not displaying.

How does girls' behavior reflect their early experience in play- Women prioritize games
that involve intimacy and connections, instead of boy’s games, which involve hierarchy
and action

What is the “culture of indirection”- The contradictory ideas that are forced on girls:
that they can be anything they want, but powerful women are cold hearted. They must
be modest and unsexual, and yet need “perfect” bodies underneath. They must be
passive and yet need to manipulate and gain power.

KNOW THE FINE POINTS AND DETAILS OF THE ARTICLE.

How does the phrase “All That” contribute to gender inequality- The phrase alienates
women and pits them against each other, by specifically demonizing “undesirable” traits
in women that allow them to express their individuality.

How does language contribute to this conditioning? (Specific examples)- Many words
that describe a sexually empowered woman have extremely negative connotations: slut,
skank, flirt. Words like “girly” and “femininity” inherently mean passive and weal to
many people “Aggressive” and “assertive” and “opinionated” are not considered
complements for women, but they are for men.

What are code words and what are some examples-

“Flirt”: code for “a girl was seen interacting with a guy I like and I’m upset that he is
giving her more attention than me, regardless of whether or not it's platonic.”
“Slut”: code for “a girl is attractive and is receiving male attention and I’m upset that she
is able to express herself like that, regardless of whether or not she wants the attention.”
“Fat Talk”: code for “I’m not an All That girl; I think I’m unattractive. Please
compliment me and say I’m not fat. Also, if I’m fat, than anyone fatter than me MUST be
fat.”

12. THINK ABOUT THE VIDEO WE WATCHED IN CLASS ABOUT GENDER

AND PAINT CHOICES (HOME DEPOT)

CHAPTER: CHANGE AND CHOICE (HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS) &

LANGUAGE EXTINCTION
Pidgin- a language developed through contact out of two unrelated languages.

Creole- a complete language that has emerged out of a pidgin. A creole can be someone’s
first and major language, while a pidgin cannot.

Diglossia- situation in which multiple varieties of the same language are used by
speakers in different kinds of settings.

Codeswitching- using more than one variety of language, generally in a single situation
(often within a single sentence or even word), but also in different situations.

Stable bilingualism- a situation in which individuals and communities maintain their

bilingualism on a long-term basis.

Transitional bilingualism- the children and grandchildren of these bilingual individuals

abandon their home language over time. Leads to language death.

Moribund

Endangered

Safe

Extinct

What influences the rate of language change- languages die, words die, Culture changes
- then language changes
Lecture: What is a protolanguage- constructed language that is the supposed ancestor
of other languages. For instance, Proto-Indo-European language.

What are genetically related languages- languages that have descended from the same
ancestor language.

What does it mean that a language is a mother or daughter language- The ancestral
language is thought of as a "mother" language, and the descendants are all referred to as
"daughter"languages.

Who proposed the family tree model and what are the 2 hypotheses of this model-
August Schleicher, 1) languages change in regular, recognizable ways, and 2) there are
similarities among the languages that are derived from same mother language.

Morphological language change- changes in inflection and word formation. Words can
be lost; typewriter, record player, (blank)-gate to reference a scandal.

Semantic language change- form of language change regarding the evolution of word
usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the
original usage. Changing definitions of homosexuality over the years.

Sound language change- a change in the pronunciation of a language over time.

Conditional sound changes- sound changes that happen because of a specific reason.
can be conditioned by a great range of different types of environments.
evertime you see an f between two vowels it becomes a v.

Unconditional sound changes- occur throughout the language without the necessity of
there being any special phonetic conditions the word. For example, the change from /t/
to /θ/ that we see in a correspondence like Latin tres and English three did not happen
because of the specific vowel in the word, or the presence of the phoneme /r/. No special
conditions were needed for it to take place.

What is the Great English Vowel Shift- series of changes in the pronunciation of the
English language that took place primarily between 1400 and 1700 15th-18th century,
beginning in southern England and today having influenced effectively all dialects of
English. Long vowels did merry chase upwards.

CHAPTER: NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION/SILENT LANGUAGES

What are the four body distances discussed in the text- intimate, personal, social, and
public.
Emblems- or gestures with direct verbal translations, such as a wave goodbye or the
wave/beckon gesture I learned in the Comoros

Illustrators- or gestures that depict or illustrate what is said verbally, such as turning an
imaginary steering wheel while talking about driving

Affect displays- or gestures that convey emotion, such as smiles or frowns

Regulators- or gestures that control or coordinate interaction, such as indicating that it's
someone else's turn to talk during conversation

Adaptors- or gestures that facilitate release of body tension, such as the nervous foot
shuffling of people who would probably rather be leaving

Be able to discuss all the types of nonverbal communication discussed in class, i.e., the
sacred space of roadside memorials- Facial expressions, body stance, gesture, tone of
voice, body art, smell, silence and touch.

What is object communication and why and how do people use it- use of objects to
communicate some sort of message. An example would be wearing a rolex and a suit to
indicate that you are rich.

Proxemics- the study of how people perceive and use space.

Provide examples of proxemics and how it can express social status/class- an example
would be the American elevator vs the French elevator. the more powerful you are, the
more space you can command and the more easily you can enter someone's personal
space without permission.

List and explain the 3 levels of communication discussed in class.

● Oculescics- communication based on visual information
● Haptics- communication based on touch
● Vocalics- communication based on speaking/vocalizations/sound.

BB readings: Authority From Grief; Why Katrina’s Victims Aren’t Refugees. Film
Guides: The Linguists & Buckskin