Complete Guide To Linguistics

INTRODUCTION TO
LINGUISTICS
Submitted to:
Prof. Khalida
Submitted By:
Madeeha Ashfaq
Institute of Education and Research

University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Introduction to Linguistics
Introduction to linguistic
Linguistic:
Linguistics is the study of language. And language is used to fulfill the need of communication.
Without the language we cannot communicate with people to show our emotions and thoughts.
Linguistics tells us about every aspect of language. It basically includes:
 Phonetics
 Phonology
 Morphology
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Pragmatics
Phonetics: The study of speech sounds.
Phonology: The study of speech sounds in their cognitive aspects.
Morphology: The study of the formation of words.
Syntax: The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
Semantics: It means the meaning of a word, phrase, or text.
Pragmatics: Pragmatics is a study about how context contributes to meaning of the text.
Sub-division of linguistics:
 Descriptive
 Historical
 Comparative
 Geographical
 Theoretical
 Applied
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Descriptive Linguistics: This is not according to rules and structure. In this, people use
language as daily routine without pay attention to grammatical and structural rules.
For example: if someone say OMG instead of OH MY GOD.
Historical Linguistics: Historical linguistics is basically the study about how language formed,
when one language did changed, how one is change from another language. It is all about the
history of language.
For example: the study about change of OLD ENGLISH to MODERN ENGLISH.
Comparative Linguistics: It is the type in which we compare two languages in order to

establish their historical relatedness.
For example: English is seen to be related to Italian if so, many words that have the same
meaning and that have not been borrowed are compared: PIEDE & FOOT, PADRE AND
FATHER.
Geographical Linguistics: Study of regional and local variation of language and dialects. How
language become different in different cities, it is known as Geographical Linguistics.
For example: Toponymy is the study of place names.
Theoretical linguistics: It deals with the structure (grammar) and meaning (semantics) of the
language. It is basically the study of linguistics as a whole without practice it in our teaching
methods and daily life.
Applied Linguistics: It happens when we put linguistics into practice. It is a field in which we
identify, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems.
For example: we can use applied linguistics in teaching, speech therapy, translation and speech
pathology.
The origins of language:

The origins of human language are unclear and it's difficult to explain them. Languages are
linked to each other on the basis of words, sounds and grammar.
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The divine source: Every religion has its own concepts and believes. It is a thought in many
religions that language is a God-given gift to human beings only. Today rather than one language
people are using many different languages and the original divine language has lost. To develop
the original divine language people thought if a child brought up without hearing any sound and
language then we can have the original divine language.
The natural sound source:
The bow-bow theory: All languages have sounds that mimic the natural sounds. These are
called onomatopoeic words.
For example: Miyav is a word which refers to cats originally.
The Pooh-pooh Theory: It is an assumption about the idea that language maybe created from
the sounds which reflect emotions such as pain, fear, hunger, surprise, and the sounds of laughter
and crying, etc.
For example: üf, ayyy, yaa, vay, etc.
These sounds are not the part of vocabulary of human language so it is difficult to say that
sounds of emotions are basis of human language.
Musical source: Before we utter words, we can produce a wide range of sounds that are not
words. Musical source is about the pitches of sounds and the rhythm.
The social interaction source: This means that people live in large social groups for
protection and during their combined living they must produce grunts and groans. This is also
known as “yo-he-ho” theory.
The physical adaptation source: Idea is that the sounds of a person involved in physical
effort could be the source our language, especially when that physical effort involved several
people and the interaction had to be coordinated. In the study of evolutionary development, there
are certain physical features, best thought of as partial adaptations, which appear to be relevant
for speech.
Teeth: human teeth are upright and smaller than animals and they can used for chewing and
grinding. They are useful in making sounds [f] and [v]
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Lips: human lips are more intricate muscle and more flexible. They can make sounds like [p]
and [b]
Mouth: the human mouth is relatively small; it can close and open quickly.
The tool making source: As early humans’ hands became occupied with tool use, they
were less able to use hand gestures, so speech became a necessity. By about 2 Million years ago,
humans had developed right-handedness and had become capable of making stone tools [using
brain].
The genetic source: At the birth, a child’s brain is only a quarter of its eventual weight.
Larynx is much higher in a throat. In to a relatively short period of time, the larynx descends, the
brain develops the child has as upright posture and starts walking and talking. This suggests we
might have some genes of language and it is known as innateness hypothesis.
Animal and Human Language:

Language is a source of communication, process of conveying your thoughts, and can be used in
literary terms. Language is a human characteristic and only humans have the ability to use
language. Other species like birds and other animals can speak but they simply produce sounds
and there's no usage of language in animals.
Communication:
The change of ideas and thoughts with each other through speaking, writing and with other
means. It has two types:
 Communicative signals.
 Informative signals.
Communicative signals: When you tell something to someone by using words intentionally.
For example: I am sick today.
Informative signals: Sending the information unintentionally to someone.
For example: red nose, sneezing etc.
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Properties of human language:
 Displacement
 Arbitrariness
 Productivity
 Cultural Transmission
 Duality
Displacement: The human language can be talk about the things which are not happening in
front of them in the present time. They can talk about the things which are far away from them.
There is an image in their mind about the certain things, places and persons. And they can tell us
about these things even in their absence.
For example: my uncle James who lives in Canada got an accident yesterday.
Arbitrariness: When there is no connection between words and their meanings. For one
object there are different words in different languages. You can create words for any object on
your own which is already present in the world.
For example: cup, tree and cat
But there are some onomatopoeic sounds in every language. In this situation there is a
connection between words and their meanings.
For example: in English splash(water), buzz(bee), boom(explosion).
And animals also have some specific signals to convey their message to their partners. Their
language is Non-Arbitrary.
For example: a crab which wants to convey his extreme expression will extend a large claw, and
in comparison, to him a less angry crab will just raise a leg.
Productivity: Human language can create new utterances by using their linguistic resources to
make new objects or words. This protentional is infinite in any human language. From one word
or sentence we can make unlimited words and sentences. Only humans have this ability because
of their mind.
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For example: 1. Boys are working
2. They are working
3. We are working
In comparison to humans, animals have limited communication system. They have fixed signals
for the particular messages.
For example: Cicadas have 4 signals and Vervet Monkeys have 6 vocal calls.
Cultural transmission: Culture can be transmitted from one place, one generation, and one
history to another through language. Culture and language are strongly connected to each other.
“The more the culture is rich and the more the language is rich.”
But a child who brought up in isolation does not acquire any language. Human gain language
from their elders and ancestors.
For example: a baby born in Korea and grown up in UK will speak English.
And animals are born with a specific set of signals which are produced instinctively.
For example: song birds.
And if birds do not hear any bird song for 7 weeks so they can produce song but a faulty and
abnormal one.
Duality: Language can be used as different levels.
 As sounds (n, b, i)
 As words. Nib. Bin
It has different interpretations of same expression. And one word can give you different sounds.
With the help of this ability, human beings can produce unlimited words using limited set of
sounds. And animals cannot produce different sounds because they have fixed and limited set of
sounds.
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The sounds of Language:

Phonetics: The word “phone” means sound and “tics” means scientific study of something.
Phonetics is the science concerned with the study of speech processes, including the production,
perception, and analysis of speech sounds from both an acoustic and a physiological point of
view. It is pronounced as [fah-NET-iks]. A linguist who specializes in Phonetics is known as a
Phonetician
Braches of Phonetics
 Articulatory Phonetics
 Acoustic Phonetics
 Auditory Phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics
The branch of phonetics that studies sound articulation (how individual speech sound is
articulated) is called Articulatory Phonetics.
Acoustic Phonetics
The branch of phonetics that studies sound transmission (physical properties of sound
transmission) is called Acoustic Phonetics.
Auditory Phonetics
The branch of phonetics that studies sound perception (how a listener perceives and understands
a sound) is called Auditory Phonetics.
Two major classifications of English Sounds:
 Vowels
 Consonants
Vowels
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Definition:
Vowel comes from a Latin word, “Vocalis”, which means “vocal”. Vowels are usually voiced.
Because there is no air constriction of flow in vocal cords. Vowels are produces with more open
vocal tract as compared to consonants. Duration of vowel articulation is longer than that of a
consonant. Vowel identification is a matter of perceptional judgment that comes with exposure
and training with audio drills because there is no clear boundary between vowel and consonants.
Vowels are defined with reference to their place in a syllable. Vowels have 5 vowel alphabets in
English (a,e,i,o,u) and 20 vowel sounds. To talk about place of articulation it can be describes as:
 Front vowels.
 Central vowels.
 Back vowels.
The example of Front High is “HEAT” because this sound is made with front part of tongue.
And the word “HAT" is made by lower tongue and the sound “HOT” is described as low back.
Front vowels Central vowels Back Vowels
[i] bead, beef, key, me [ə] above, oven, support [u] boo, move, two, you
[ɪ] bid, myth, women [ʌ] butt, blood, dove, tough [ʊ] book, could, put
[ɛ] bed, dead, said [ɔ] born, caught, fall, raw
[æ] bad, laugh, wrap [ɑ] Bob, cot, swan
In place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth. Body of tongue, jaw, and lip
shades are involved in Vowel Production.
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Articulation of Vowels:
Vowels are classified on the basis of three production factors:
1. Vertical adjustment of tongue (high-mid-low) openness of mouth.

2. Horizontal adjustment of tongue.
3. Lip posture.
Vertical tongue:
Close vowels:
It has little constriction of air, little jaw opening, and upper surface of tongue is closer to the roof
of mouth.
For example: /peep/, /poop/, /bead/.
Open vowels:
No constriction of air, lowering of jaw and tongue lowering,
For example: /map/, /tap/.
Horizontal tongue:
In this the tongue moves in scalar space from more front to more back positions.
Close-Front:
Air constriction occurs between front tongue and hard palate.
For example: /bee/.
Close-Back:
Constriction between back tongue and velum.
For example: /two/.
Lip posture:
It works on a scale of rounding (from spread-neutral, close, and open rounding).
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For example: /bee/, /bet/, /boot/, /bought/.
Types of vowels:
1. Short vowels.
2. Long vowels.
3. Diphthongs.
Short vowels:
Short vowels are sounds that are pronounced in a short form. In English the examples of short
vowels are:
A /æ / cat, hat.
E /e/ pet, red.
I /ɪ / pick, sit.
O /ɒ/ pot, lot.
U /ʌ/ duck, sun. /ʊ/ book, good.
/ə/(schwa) apart, pilot.
Long vowels:
A /a/ car, lava.
E /ɜ/ sheep, peach.
I /i/ her, learn.
O /ɔ/ law, brought.
U /u/ tooth, June.
Diphthong:
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It comes from Greek word “Diphthongos” which means “two sounds”. It is made up of two vowels
sounds with the same syllable. The examples of diphthongs in English language are:
/aɪ/ five, eye.
/aʊ/ now, out.
/eɪ/ say, eight.
/oʊ/ go, home.
/ɔɪ/ boy, join.
/eəʳ/ where, air.
/ɪəʳ/ near, here.
/ʊəʳ/ pure, tourist.
Consonants
Definition:
The consonants are made with some constriction of air flow that either involves lips and tongue.
These are produced with some obstacles. They can either totally blocked or partially blocked.
Aspects of consonants:
 Voiced or voiceless
 Place of articulation
 Manner of articulation
Voiced:
When vocal cords vibrate with the sounds production this is called “voiced”. In this air is passing
through vibrating vocal cords. If we say long [v] sound which we can symbolizes with [vvvvv].
We can feel the vibration in our vocal cords. This can be the example of voiced consonant.
Voiceless:
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In this the air passes through the open vocal cords. In producing the voiceless consonants sounds
there is no vibration in our vocal cords. As we can practice saying long [f] sound which can be
symbolizes as [fffff].
Now, we can say that the both sounds are produced in the same way in the mouth but the only
difference is that the [v] is voiced, and the [f] is voiceless.
Place of articulation:
It shows that where the sound is produced in mouth and tells us that where is the most or near
contact of articulators. And describes that where is the constriction and obstruction in airflow.
There are 8 places in the consonants:
(Bilabial, Labio-Dental, Dental, alveolar, Post alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal)
Bilabial sounds:
These sounds are produced with the movement of both lips. In this the both lips are active
articulators.
Like: [p] [b] [m]
[p] is voiceless and [b] [m] are voiced.
Examples:
/p/ as in “pin”, “purse”, “pet”
/b/ as in “bin”, “black”, “bad”
/m/ as in “man”, “mad”, “lemon”
Labio-Dental sounds:
These sounds are produces with upper teeth and lower lip. In this the upper teeth are passive
articulators and lower lip is active articulator. Such as: [f] [v].
[f] is voiceless, and [v] is voiced.
Examples:
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/f/ as in “fin”, “from”, ‘fox”
/v/ as in “vine”, “van”, “vixen”
Dental sounds:
Sounds which produced when the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. The tongue is
active where the teeth are passive articulators. Such as: [θ] [ð]
[θ] is voiceless, and [ð] is voiced.
Examples:
/θ/ as in “thick”, “moth”
/ð/ as in “this”, “rather”
Alveolar sounds:
These sounds are produced with tongue and near the ridge behind the upper teeth. In this the
tongue is active and upper teeth is passive articulator. Such as: [n] [t] [d] [s] [z] [l]
[t] [s] are voiceless and [d] [z] [l] [n] are voiced
Examples:
/n/ as in “no”, “ten”
/t/ as in “two”, “tab”
/d/ as in “dog”, “dip”
/s/ as in “suit”, “snake”
/z/ as in “zebra”, “zoo”
/l/ as in “lot”, “luck”
Post-Alveolar:
These sounds are produced when tongue blocks airflow just beyond the alveolar ridge.
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Such as: [ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ]
[ʃ] [tʃ] are voiceless and [dʒ] [ʒ] are voiced.
Examples:
/ʃ/ as in “she”, “shrew”
/ʒ/ as in “pleasure”, “measure”
/tʃ/ as in “lunch”, “check”
/dʒ/ as “bridge”, “large”
Velar:
These sounds are produced when the back of the tongue approach or touch the velum.
Such as: [k] [g]
[k] is voiceless ang [g] is voiced.
Examples:
/k/ as in “kick”, “cat”
/g/ as in “goat”, “gorilla”
Glottal sounds:
These sounds are produced from the glottis which is known as vocal cords. Such as: [h]
It is voiceless.
Examples:
/h/ “hat”, “how”.
Here is the diagram of places of articulation.
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Manner of Articulation:
It describes how sounds are produced in vocal tracts. It is related to the closure (complete closure, close
approximant, open approximant)
There are 6 manners in consonants.
(Stops/Plosive, Fricative, Nasal, Affricate, liquid, glide/semi vowels)
Stops/Plosive:
In this, there is a complete closure of air passage which is released afterwards.
Examples: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Pen, bin, two, dug, king, gaze.
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Fricatives:
In fricatives, articulators move towards each other to stop airflow but it cannot be stopped
completely and flow from the narrow passage with friction. They are 9 in numbers:
Examples: [f] [v] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [θ] [ð] [h]
Fin, very, see, zebra, though, that. Sheet, treasure, hay
Nasal:
These sounds are produced when the airflow through nasal cavity either (partially or completely).
Examples: [m] [n] [ŋ]
Miss, note, bring.
Affricates:
These sounds are produced with the complete closure of air passage which is released afterwards slowly
with a friction.
Examples: [tʃ] [dʒ]
Chair, Just
Lateral:
Thes sounds are made when the air flow from the both sides of the tongue.
Examples: [l]
Like, silly.
Glide/semi-vowels:
These sounds are semi-vowels, which are phonetically vowel and phonologically consonants. They sound
like consonants but their mechanism is same as vowels because there is no blockage in airflow.
Examples: [w] [r] [j]
Wine, red, yellow.
And when it comes altogether:
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The sound patterns of Language:

Phonology: Phonology is the study about how sounds are produced and organized. The
structure of sounds and how they combine to give the meanings is the basic theme of Phonology.
It can be termed as Grammar.
Branches of phonology:
 Segmental phonology
 Spra-segmental phonology
 Diachronic phonology
 Synchronic phonology
It can be divided into two parts:
1. Phoneme
2. Phonetics
Phoneme: It is a small unit of sounds that makes a difference in its pronunciation and
meaning. It is important for the formation of spellings.
For example: /s/ in “soar”, make it different from /r/ in “roar”.
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Phones and allophones: Phones can be termed as a type when speech sounds are
considered separate from language. A phone is any speech sound or gesture, regardless of
whether the real sound is critical to the meanings of words.
For example: the sound of /p/ in pun with aspiration [pʰ] and in spun [p] without aspiration. It
does not affect the meaning of the word.
Allophones is a set of multiple possible spoken sounds which do not change the meaning of
sounds.
For example: In English, [t] (as in stop [stɒp]) and the aspirated form [tʰ] (as in top [ˈtʰɒp]) are
allophones for the /t/ phoneme.
Phonotactics: It is about the rules of sequence and structure of phonemes in any language. It
defines syllable structure, consonants clusters and vowel sequence.
For example: In Japanese, consonant clusters like /st/ do not occur. And in modern English, the
clusters like: /kn/ and /ɡn/ are not present at the beginning of a word.
Syllables: It is a unit to organize the sequence of speech sounds. a unit of pronunciation having
one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants.
For example: there are two syllables in water (wa, ter) and three in inferno (in, fer, no)
Syllables have the following structure:
 Onset (optional)
 Rhyme (obligatory, comprises nucleus and coda):
 Nucleus (obligatory)
 Coda (optional)
Consonant cluster: When two or more consonants of different places come together in the
same syllable. These based on sounds and not on the letters of the words.
For example: /sp/ in sphere. And /sl/ in sleep and /str/ in strong.
Assimilation: It is about the language and culture of a social group or nation which is
dominant. It happens when two groups of neighboring people effect the language and way of
each other's speaking.
For example: the accent of Boston is not same as the accent of Brooklyn, but both are clearly
the example of Northeastern Accent.
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Elision: It is about the omission or deleting one or more sounds in a word while speaking. The
process of combining or merging the sounds and removing some sounds from the word.
For example: “kinda” instead kind of. “I'm” instead I am.
References:
Definitions from Oxford dictionary
https://www.merriam-webster.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://www.slideshare.net/
https://pronuncian.com/introduction-to-long-vowels
https://www.britannica.com/science/linguistics
Searched and composed by: Maroofa Nazir Khan.
Roll no: 1309

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Word Formation:
Etymology: Etymology is the history or origin of words. The word etymology come from the
Greek word's “etymon” means “origin of history” and “logia mean ‘study of.
For example; etymology is tracing a word back to its Latin words.
Coinage: Coinage is the way if originating new words. When new words are originated due to
some invention and we give some name to that invention then it is called ‘coinage’. We gave
names after the name of inventors or someplace where it is invented.
For example, NAYLON came from “new York” and “London”. NAY from New York and LON
from London. Some more examples are Google, laptop, aspirin etc. When we need to name
something, new word is made and that process is called coinage.
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Borrowing: In borrowing, we borrow the word from other languages which are not exist in
our language'. People and lands are under the influence of others. Different languages are
combined to form a single language.
For example; piano is an Italian word, sofa is an Arabic word, madrasa is a Persian word, yogurt
is a Turkish word.
Compounding: When we combine two words to make a new word is called compounding. A
sometimes-new word gives idea of two words from which we combine new word.
For example; tea + pot = teapot
Book + case = bookcase.
Sometimes new words does not give the idea of two words which we combine.
For example; cold + shoulder = cold shoulder.
Blending: Blending is when we take some part of one word and some part of other word and
both parts are combined to get a new word.
For example: Smoke + fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Chill + relax = chillax.
Clipping: Clipping is a way when you just take a part of one word and that part is used as a
whole word.
For example, Influenza ______ Flu, Aero Plain ____ Plane, Picture _____ Pic, University ____
Uni, Examination _____ Exams, Laboratories ____ Lab, Tablet ___ Tab, Advertisement ____
Ad.
Backformation: In backformation, a noun exists and we will make a verb from that noun’
For example; from donation to donated, from television to televise.
Conversion: Conversion is the process in which we use the same word for some other
meaning. In conversion, we use the noun as a verb also and we use the verb as a noun also.
For example: Butter: I like to eat butter. (Noun)
He always butters his boss. (Verb), We can use words as adjective and verb.
`Alphabetization: When we use alphabets to make some names is called alphabetization.
There are two types of alphabetization;
i. Acronym
ii. Abbreviation
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Abbreviation: When we just pick the alphabets of some name then it is abbreviation. We only
use first alphabet of some word. For example, Punjab University ____ PU, compute desk ____
CPU, Pakistan international airline ____ PIA.
Acronym: When we combine abbreviation together to make a new name this is called
acronym.
For example, NEWS____ North East Wet South, NASA___ National Aeronautics and Space
Administration ____ WAPDA etc.
Affixation: Affixation is when we add some affixes in the beginning of the words or in the end
or middle of the words.
Types of Affixation
i. Prefixes: Affixation at the beginning of the word is called prefixes.
For example, un_ happy, mis_ lead.
ii. Infixes: Affixation in between the word is called infix.
For example, sister _ in _ law, command _ in _ law.
iii. Suffixes: Affixation at the end of the word is called suffixes. For example, worked,
termed.
Morphology:
It is the branch of linguistics. Morphology is the study of words, how they are created, and how
they relate to other words of the same language. It is one of the major components of grammar
especially regarding morpheme a unit of morphology.
Morpheme: Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in vocabulary and cannot be
further subdivided.
Types of Morpheme
There are two types of morpheme;
Bound Morpheme are those that carry information without any help it occur alone.
Free Morpheme are those when we make plural. It must appear in conjunction with another
morpheme. For instant, in the word "badly," the free morpheme is "poor," and the bound
morpheme is "ly." It is bound because, though it has value, it cannot stand on its own. It must
be combined with another morpheme to form an expression. All free morphemes are lexical
also and bound morphemes are functional morphemes.
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When we talk about words, there are two groups:

Lexical words Open class terms include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. This list is
updated on a daily basis with new vocabulary.
Closed class wordsor Function words , are conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns;
and no additional words can be added to this category.
Affixes: Affixes are often the bound morphemes. If we add some affixes at the beginning,
center, at the end. All affixation are bound morphemes. Prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and
circumfixes are all members of this community. Prefixes are appended to the beginning of
another morpheme, suffixes are appended to the end, infixes are incorporated into other
morphemes, and circumcises are appended to another morpheme at both the beginning and
end. For example, the word lead, by adding mis (PREFIX) the word become mis-lead, by
adding (suffixes) at the end of the word it become leading.
The categories of Affixes
There are two categories of affixes: derivational and inflectional.
i. Derivational affixes are applied to morphemes to create additional words that may or
may not be in the same part of speech. For example, the suffix -ly is affixed to
adjectives like good, simple, and happy to create the adverbs well, soon, and happily.
There is a small difference in context and type in these examples.
ii. Inflectional affixes are purely grammatical additions at the end of an actual word. The
term "windy," for example, is made up of the noun "wind" and the affix -y. When the
noun is combined with the derivational affix -y, the adjective "windy" is formed.
MORPHS: A morph is a word fragment that represents a single morpheme, the smallest unit of
meaning in language.
i. Alo Morphemes: It is same morpheme but it pronounces differently of the same
morpheme. For instant; (cats) the word s sound like shhh, (dogs) the word s here
pronounce like zzz.
ii. Morphological Analysis: When we see a sentence is lexical, derivational, bound or free
morphemes. But their there are some issues in this analysis. For example, cats (shhh),
dogs (ZZ), bus (ssh)
When these type of words changing variation come into the context of meaning. There are no
change in class but there is a change in the limitation of morphological analysis.
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Grammar:
Grammar is the set of structural rules that regulate the construction of sentences, sentences,
and terms in any given natural language, according to linguistics. The study of those rules,
which includes morphology, syntax, which phonology, and is often supplemented by
phonetics, semantics, and eight pragmatics.
According to David Crystal;
“Grammar is a combination of morphology as in syntax.”
For example in the sentence ‘students work hard yesterday’. This is the wrong sentence because
the word formation is wrong instead of writing worked we write work. Also if we write;
yesterday work hard students so this time syntax is wrong.
Types of Grammar
i. Traditional Grammar
ii. Traditional Analysis
Traditional Grammar: The terms “article,” “adjective” and “noun” that we used to label the
grammatical categories of the words called Traditional grammar. It is largely based on the
principles of Latin, Greek and old languages.
For example, the lucky boys found a backpack in the park and they opened it carefully.
Traditional Analysis: When we analysis some sentences according to parts of speech.
For example, it’s a nice day. (Nice is adjective and song is noun)
I’m really pleased to see you. (Really is a linking verb and pleased is adjective).
Agreement: When the words and part of speech are going or put together with each other and
they fulfill the requirement of each other.
For example, Cathy loves his dog. In this sentence the verb loves ‘agree with’ the noun Cathy.
Types of Agreement
1) Subject word agreement
2) Gender agreement
3) Number agreement
Subject-Verb Agreement. Subjects and verbs must have the same number (singular or plural).
As a result, if the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular; if the subject is plural, the
verb must also be plural.
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For example, A Dog chases the cat. Since the subject and verb agree in this sentence, dog and
chases are singular.
Gender Agreement: When we use this pronoun for male and similarly for female then it is
gender agreement.
For example, the man with his destination. The ship with her/its destination.
Number Agreement: When we use singular for single one and plural for plural one then it is
number agreement. For instance, one child need one chocolate, many Childs need many
chocolates.
Prescriptive Approach in Grammar: When we use grammar according to the strictly
rules then it is called perspective grammar. We mostly used Latin and Greek grammar. For
example, in infinite we use first form with ‘to’ e.g. to run, to go, to jump etc. There is a rule in
grammar that we can’t end sentence with preposition but we use many sentence ends with
preposition e.g.’ where you from’ so it is descriptive.
Descriptive Grammar: When language is used actually and we can’t recognize it wrong then it
is descriptive grammar.
Structural Analysis: When we analyze the sentence according to the structure of the sentence is
called structural analysis. When we analyze any sentence according to the parts of speech for
example (noun, verb, preposition etc.) then it is structure analysis. When we want to analyses
any sentence, we broke it into different parts e.g., noun, pronoun, preposition. If we want to
replace any part, we will upload it with the same category e.g., noun with noun or pronoun, verb
with verb etc.
For example, ‘Ali plays nicely’. It having 3 different structures. If we want to replace noun then
‘Umar plays nicely’ here ‘Umar’ is also noun. So this is structural analysis.
Constituent Analysis
When we analyses sentence on the bases of phrases then it is called constituent analysis.
 It does not give us a complete meaning.
 Phrases when we define it might be a word or group of words having no meaning.
 Phrases are shown in brackets.
 Phrases is a main constituent part of a sentence.
 Preposition phrases always carry’s a noun phrase.
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For example, [(a boy) {bought (a bike) 9 to the ground)} Np, vp, np, preposition phrase with
noun phrase.
Syntax:
The order or arrangement of words and phrases to form a proper sentence is referred to as syntax.
For example, a boy ran hurriedly.
Rule of Syntax;
 The most basic syntax follows a ‘subject+ verb+ object’
 Rules tell us about words arrangement.
 Everything has arrangement, than rules are disturbed, if rules are disturbers then basic
purpose of language is distributes and language becomes faulty.
Surface Structure: Appearance structure of sentence is called surface structure. It is related to
what is the sentence looking like. Surface structure is related to the surface appear to the eye.
Deep Structure: Deep structure is related to the meaning of sentence. In deep structure meaning
is always remained same.
For example: sometimes surface structure is not same but deep structure is same
o Like I read a book
o A book is read by me.
In these sentences meaning is same but appearance is different.
 Sometimes surface structure is same but deep structure is different.
o For instant, I hit a table
o I read a book
Same appearance but meaning is different.
Structural Ambiguity: When the structure is not done properly and it gives very ridiculous
meaning and is not correct even not acceptable. It is always related to meaning because
sometimes word structure is not same or proper. In structural ambiguity meaning is not clear and
is confused. When we don’t put the structure properly then it is structural ambiguity.
For example,
1) “Boys are more than girls hardworking.” In this sentence we don’t understand who is
more hardworking boys or girls.
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2) “Ali hit a boy with an umbrella.” In this sentence we don’t understand about umbrella
that it is Ali or boy.
Recursion: When we go on adding something to make different sentences them it is called
recursion’. We can repeat any number or student. When we want to change any structure, we can
replace it with same category
For example,
1) Noun with noun, preposition with preposition etc.
 When we applying the same rule, we can made thousands of sentence.
 Rule is “subject + verb + object”
For example,
1) “He plays a football.” He brings a football (plays and brings both are verb and
change with verb)
2) “He plays football.” He plays hockey. (Football and hockey is noun and he with
noun)
Tree Diagram: Tree diagrams are one of the most common methods to construct visual
representations of syntactic structure.
(A= article = noun, NP = noun phrase) to name tree sections as we attempt to catch their
hierarchical organisation in the fundamental form of phrases and sentences As a result, we will
take the details in the labelled and bracketed format seen on the left and display it in a tree
diagram shown on the right.
While this type of "tree," with its "branches," seen on the right, appears to rise downward rather
than upward, it serves well as a diagram reflecting all of the grammatical detail contained in the
other study on the left. It also clearly indicates that there are different layers of the study. That is,
there is a level of analysis at which a constituent such as NP is represented, and another, lower
level of analysis at which a constituent such as N is represented. This style of hierarchical
structure can be depicted in a tree diagram for an entire sentence, starting with S at the end.
Starting at the top of the tree diagram, we will begin with a sentence (S) and split it into two
constituents (NP and VP). The NP constituent is then subdivided into two other constituents (Art
and N). Finally, one term is chosen that corresponds to the mark Art (the) and another that
corresponds to N. (girl). You will repeat the process with the VP divisions.
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For example,
 The chef cooks the soup.
 The dog ate the bone.
Movement Rules
In this rule we can make article after articles, phrases after phrases.
Vp. Pp
Np _______ always article + simple noun
PP _______ preposition + noun phrase
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Lexical Rules: In this rule a noun phrase either a simple phrase or article of noun.
In this following roles can be follow, Verb with verb, auxiliary with auxiliary, either verb or
auxiliary + verb.
For example, a dog followed the boy, you saw it.
Recursions: In this thousand or phrases consist of article and noun.

We can’t bring preposition in a noun phrase. If we make more and more phrase we replace noun
with noun, article with article only.
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For example,
 Mary helped George.
 Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
 John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
Compliment: A sentence in which we see compliment. For instance: john handed Mary ball.
References:
1. Definitions from Oxford dictionary
2. The study of language (4th Edition) by George Yule
3. A good overview of Chomsky’s early work is Lyons,
https://evaeducation.weebly.com/uploads/1/9/6/9/19692577/chapter__9.pdf
4. Syntax, https://examples.yourdictionary.com/syntax-in-writing-examples.html
Searched and Composed By: Nimra Ishfaq

Roll No: 1316.
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Semantics:
Semantics is about the study of meanings. it can tell us the meanings of words, phrases and
sentences. It is basically the relationship between words and their meanings.
For example: “destination” and “last stop”. Both words give the same meaning but we can
analyze the difference through the study of semantics.
Semantic features: Semantic features explain how words that share certain features can be
members of the same domain of semantics.
For example: father and son share the relationship of "kinship", "male" and these are the same
male parts of semantics' domain.
Semantic roles: A semantic role is the relationship between the main verb in a clause.
Semantic role is the actual role at which a participant plays in imagined or real situation, away
from the linguistic encoding of those situations.
For example: in real or imagined situation, John hits Bill, then John is the agent and Bill is the
patient event. So, the semantic role of Bill is the same (patient) in both of the sentences.
Agent and theme: Agent: it carry out the action of verb intentionally. An agent is defined
the action which is happened by someone.
For example: if a bee is taking pollen from one flower to another flower. So, the bee will be the
agent of pollination.
Theme: It receives the action of the verb directly. They are usually the direct object of the verb.
For example: “John hit Tom” in this Tom is a theme.
Instrument: It is about the entity by which the action of the verb carried out.
Experience: It is about an emotion, a state of being, or a perception which is expressed by the
verb.
Location: It is about the place where the action of the verb take place.
Source: It is about the direction from which the action of verb takes place.
Goal: It is the direction in which the action of the verb moves towards.
Lexical relations:
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Words always have their relations with other words. In everyday speech the words are explained
in terms of their relations with other words. This is called lexical relations.
for example: the lexical relation of close and open is antonymy.
Synonymy: A word or phrase that has same or identical meaning as another word in the same
language is called synonymy.
for example: lexical relation between begin or start is synonymy.
Antonymy: The word opposite in meaning to other.
for example: lexical relation between good and bad is antonymy.
Hyponymy: A term denoting a subcategory of a larger class is called hyponymy.
for example: a chair and a table are both hyponyms of FURNITURE CLASS.
Prototype: The prototype refers to the concept of the characteristic instance of a category.
The concept of a prototype aids in explaining the meaning of certain words such as bird. Even
native speakers may wonder if ostrich or penguin are hyponyms of bird but have no trouble
deciding on a sparrow or pigeon
Homophones: Words having same sounds but spelling and meaning is different is called
homophones.
Example: “Sun and Son” have same sound but meanings are different.
Homonyms: Words having same sound and spelling but meaning is different is called
homonyms.
Example: Bat instrument used for playing, animal name.
Polysemy: In polysemy, there is one word but interpretations are more than one.
Example: Head of state, body part.
Word Play: Word play is when we use one word in different sense.
Example: He always creates problems for the class. The boy is very intelligent.
Metonymy: Metonymy is when we use a term to represent something else.

Example: I have taken full bottle. Here bottle represents “some drink”.
Collocations: Collocations are the words always used together.

Example: Black and white, salt and pepper etc.
Pragmatics:
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It is about the meanings of the words and how words are used in a practical sense. The meanings
between the interaction of two people, speaker’s meaning, about the tone, situation and scenario.
It is mostly the practical and logical rather than the imaginative situation.
For example: Can you open the door? I am getting hot.
Context: It is about the things which have already been said. And it revolves around the
specific word or passage which shows its meanings.
For example: the history of Shakespeare’s King Henry 5
Cotext: It is about the linguistic expressions which do you understand from the linguistic
material is called “cotext”.
Deixis: The specific function of some words whose denotation changes from one discourse to
another. The speaker’s intention is very important in it. And with the speaker’s position the
change of time, place and meaning can also be changed.
Three types of deixis:
 Personal deixis
 Temporal deixis
 Spatial deixis
Personal deixis: it is about the person and with the change of a person it can also be changed.
For example: (I drink a lot of water), (we go to school).
Temporal deixis: it talks about time of the specific incident or events.
For example: (I went to his home yesterday) (tomorrow I will read this book)
Spatial deixis: it talks about the place of the event. Where the incident happens.
For example: (he was there) (I am at the school)
Reference: The relationship between a grammatical unit that refers to another grammatical
unit is referred to as a reference.
Interference: An interference is an extra information used by the listener to make a

connection between what is said and what must be meant.
for example: if x is the name of the author of a book, then x can be used to identify a copy of
that writer’s book.
Anaphora: Anaphora is the use of an expression whose meaning is dependent on another

expression in the context
for example: I want my money right now, right here, all right.
I this type of relation, second referring relation is an anaphora.
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Presupposition: A presupposition is an implicit about the world or background belief relating

to an utterance whose truth is assumed in discourse.
For example: jane no longer writer fiction.
Presupposition is jane once wrote fiction.
Speech Act: When we utter some words, some action is performed which is known as speech
act.
Example: I ordered him to go, I quit the lecture.
Types:
Locutionary Act:
Locutionary act is when we say something.
Example: I promised him.
Illocution: Illocution is our attention understood by another person. It is what after act is done.
Per locution: Per locution is the fact of meaningful utterance. It is the result of that utterance.
Positive Phase: In positive phase, when we say something, it must be positive.

Example: This time a little more hardworking is required to pass the examination.
Negative Phase: Negative phase is when we don’t leave any good impression.
Example: This time you are not able to pass the examination.
Discourse analysis:
Discourse analysis
discourse analysis is a study of written or spoken language in relations to its social
context. Which is fairly significant. Its aim mostly is to comprehend how language
essentially is used in daily situations, kind of contrary to popular belief.
many humanities and social science disciplines, such as linguistics, sociology,
anthropology and cultural studies use discourse analysis as a qualitative research
tool.
EXAMPLE: Such as TRAINS COLIDE, TWO DIE; and understands that what
happened in the first part was the cause of what happened in the second part
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Interpreting discourse: Discourse interpreting is a difficult and specialized

course in which knowledge is analyzed.
Example
my town
may natal was in small town very close to RIYYADH the capital of Saudi
Arabia. The distance between my town and RIYYADH is 7 miles exactly. The
name of this is ALMASANI that means in English factories. It takes this name
from people carrier. It was simple. The most people was farmers.
this example explains simply, the way we react to ungrammatical language forms.
We try to make its sense rather than rejecting it. This is an interpretation of what
writer meant to coney.
Cohesion: Cohesion is defined as the grammatical and lexical linking within a text
or sentence that holds it together and gives it meaning.
Example: I bought some humus to eat with celery. Green vegetables can boost your
metabolism. The Australian greens is a political party. I could not decide what to
wear to the new year’s part.
IN above example, there lexical links from one sentence to the next; cohesive ties
are used to connect the sentences. There are, evidence of lexical repetition such as
the words green, party, and new year.
Coherence: coherence is defined as degree to which a piece of discourse makes sense.
Example:
A: can you go to Lahore tomorrow?
B: yes, I can.
there is coherence in above sentences because b has given appropriate answer to A.
Speech Events: A speech event can be defined by a consistent set of components: the same
communication goal, the same topic, the same participants and the same language variety.
Example: exchanging greetings, telling jokes, giving speeches.
Conversation Analysis: conversation analysis is a method for studying social interaction

and talk- in – interaction that, while rooted in the sociological study of everyday life, has had a
significant impact on the humanities and social sciences, including linguistics.
comprehend, and respond to other when it is their turn to speak. The emphasis is on how these
action sequences are generated.
.Example:
A: Didn’t you know [know who-]
B: [ but he must have been there by two
A : yes but knew where he was going
here square brackets are used to show where overlapping speech occurs.
Turn Taking: Turn taking is a term used in conversation analysis to describe how an Orderly
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conversation is normally conducted. The term itself can provide a basic understanding: it is the
idea that participants in a conversation take turns speaking.
Example:
A: nice weather today….. It is, isn’t it?
B: I hope it stays sunny over the weekend.
A: me too….I have plans to go kite flying,
B: that sounds fun….. I have seen extraordinary kites in the city park.
The Cooperative Principle: The cooperative principle assumes that participants in a
conversation will normally try to be informative, truthful, relevant and clear. Each participant
recognizes in them to some extent, a common goal or set of goals or at the very least a mutually
agreed-upon direction.
Grice expanded his cooperative principle with the four following conversational maxims,
1: QUANTITY MAXIM: Say no less than the conversation requires
2: QUALUTY MAXIM: don’t say what you believe to be false.
3: MANNER MAXIM: don’t be obscure
4: RELEVANCE MAXIM: be relevant
Example
husband: where are the keys?
wife: they are on the table in the hall
the wife has answer clearly. she has replied precisely what she meant, no more no less.
Hedges: A hedge is word phrase in a sentence to express ambiguity, probability, indecisiveness

about the reminder of the sentence rather than full accuracy in the linguistic subfields and
pragmatism
Example: There might be a few insignificant problems we need to address.
Implicatures: Implicature is technical term that refers to what is suggested in an utterance,
even though neither expressed nor strictly implied.
Example:
john is meeting a woman this evening
the woman john is meeting in the evening is not his mother his sister or his wife.
Background Knowledge: it is the information that is essential to understanding a solution

por problem.
Example
“ the embassy filled him in on the background of the ancient”
background knowledge acquired through study or experience or instruction.
Schemas and scripts:
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Schemas Scripts
schemas is an organized body of information A schema that includes a series of predictable
about something events about a specific activity
example example
like a file of information you hold in your mind An example of script is calligraphy
about something.
LANGUAGE AND BRAIN
NEURO LINGUISTICS: The branch of linguistics dealing with the relationship between
language and the structure and functioning of the brain is called neurolinguistics.
Language area in the brain:
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Broca’s Area: Broca’s area also known as Broca convolution is a brain region that contains
neurons involved in speech function. This area which is located in the frontal part of the left
hemisphere of the brain was discovered in 1861 by French surgeon PAUL BROCA, who
discovered that it plays an important role in the generation of articulate speech.
WERNICK’S AREA:
IN 1870, a GERMAN doctor, CARL WERNICK discovered this area which is important for
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language development. It is located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and is in
charge of speech comprehension.
MOTOR CORTEX: The motor cortex is the cerebral region involved in the planning,
control, and education of voluntary muscles. This area sends messages to mouth cavity to
produce words.
ARCUACTE -FASCICULUS: The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of axons in the brain
that connects the Broca’s area and the WERNICKE’S area. It is a fiber tract that connects the
caudal temporal cortex to the inferior frontal lobe.
THE LOCALIZATION VIEW: Language localization can be seen in WERNICK’S
AREA and BROCA’S AREA, both of which appear in the left hemisphere; these areas
demonstrate how language localization works.
TONGUE TIPS AND TONGUE SLIPS:
TIP OF TONGUE PHENOMENON:
The tip of the tongue is a metacognitive phenomenon that refers to knowing something but being
unable to recall it right away. TOT is a memory recollection experience characterized by
difficulty recalling a well-known word or a familiar word.
EXAMPLE: speakers produced transcendental meditation, but instead of meditation.
SLIP OF TONGUE PHENOMENON: slip of tongue is a mistake in speech that is usually
trivial but can be amusing at times. Also known as tongue as tongue slip. Studies of tongue slips
have revealed a great deal about the neuropsychological processes that underpin speech.
EXAMPLE: Example is the replacement of one word with another that can add up to something
far from what we meant to say.
SLIPS OF EAR PHENOMENON:
Misperception error in listening; mistaking a word or phrase in speech or conversation for a
similar-sounding word or phrase.
EXAMPLE: He hear great ape but actually the speaker said “GRAY TAP”
APHASIA: A disorder of central nervous system characterized by partial or total loss of the
ability to communicate, ESP in speech writing.
.
BROCA’S APHASIA: Broca’s aphasia is a type of non-fluent aphasia. Broca’s aphasia is

caused by damaging to the Broca’s area of the brain. It effects a person’s ability to process, use
and understand language.
WERNICK’S APHASIA: IN WERNICK’S aphasia the ability to grasp the meaning of
spoken words and sentences is impaired while the ease of producing speech is not very affected.
CONDUCATION APHASIA: Conduction aphasia also known as associative aphasia is a

rare type of difficulty speaking. It is acquired language disorder with intact auditory
comprehension, coherent speech production but poor speech repetition.
DICHOTIC LISTENING: Dichotic listening is a psychological test used to investigate
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selective attention and lateralization of brain function within the auditory system. It is used
within the field of cognitive psychology and neuroscience
CRITICAL TIME PERIOD: A critical period is a period in which brain cell connections
are more plastic and receptive of the influence of a particular type of life experience. During this
time these connections known as synapses can form or strengthen more easily.
EXAMPLE: The critical period for the development of a human child’s binocular vision is
thought to be between three and eight months, with sensitivity to damage extending up at least
three years of age.
REFRENCES
The study of language 4 EDITION (GEORGE YULE)
linguistics.utah.Edu/secondlanguagepedagogy.php
Oxford Dictionarie
Aphasia - definition of aphasia by The Free Dictionary

www.thefreedictionary.com/aphasia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotic_listening.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphic_speech
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio-lingual_method
Interlanguage | Definition of Interlanguage by Merriam-Webster
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interlanguage
Searched and Composed By: Nimra Asghar.

Roll no: 1312.
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First language Acquisition:

Acquisition: Is the process by which human acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend
language (in the other words, gain the ability to be aware of language and to understand it) as
well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Human language capacity is
represented in the brain.
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Example: If the baby hears the word “milk” often enough write before being fed from the bottle
he shall soon learn what that word means.
Input: The input refers to the processible language the learner is exposed to while listening or
reading (i.e., the receptive skills)
Caregiver speech: The characteristically simplified speech style adopted by someone who spend
a lot of time interacting with a young child is called caregiver speech.
The acquisition schedule: It has the same basis as the biological determined development
of motor skills (sitting up, crawling, standing, walking, using the hand and many other physical
activities. This schedule is related to the maturation of the infant’s brain.
Cooing and babbling:

Cooing: it is the stage of infants prelinguistic speech development and consist of a single word
syllable vowel like sound i.e., Laughing and crying of the baby
Babbling: Is a stage in child development and a stage in language acquisition during which an
infant appears to be experimenting with uttering articulate sounds but does not yet produce any
recognizable words. i.e. When child say ba-ba-ba and ma-ma-ma
The one-word stage: The developmental period between approximately 10 and 18 months
when children use one word at a time speaking. Complex ideas are sometimes expressed with a
single word accompanied by gestures and emphasis. I.e. (milk, cookie, cat, cup)
The two-word stage: It typically occurs within the age range of 19-26 months i.e. (baby
chair)
Telegraphic speech: Is a concise message characterized by the use of three words short
phrases or sentences made up of main content words such as noun and verbs and avoid of
function words and grammatical morphemes. I.e. (Touch a photo of your child and say.” My
baby” on your child's turn. He gets to be the leader and you have to be copy what he says and
does.
Developing Morphology: The development of morphological processing has been focal

topics in debate over the nature of language, learning and the mind in cognitive science.
Particular attention has been paid. I.e. (Children tend to go through a phase of saying “mouse”)
Developing syntax: Speech production has been found in studies of the syntactic structures
used by young child. One child specifically asked to repeat what he heard.
For example: The owl eats candy and run fast and then children repeat this sentence.
Forming question: The child first stage has two procedure simply added the wh’form. I.e.
( where kitty)
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Forming negatives: It involves simple strategy of putting no or not. I.e.( He don’t bite you,
No mitten)
Developing semantics: In this phase child learning the meaning of word.
Second language learning:

In this learner learns the other language instead of their national language is called second
language.
Acquisition and learning: Are used to refer the gradual development of ability in a
language by using it naturally in communicative situation with others who know the
language. The term learning however applies to a more conscious process of the
accumulating knowledge of the features. Such as vocabulary and grammar.
Acquisition barriers: it is dialect. People can technically be speaking the same language
but dialectically differences can create misunderstandings and gaps in communication. And
its another kind like
 Affective factors
Focus on method: focus on method has three different kinds
 The grammar translation method
 The audio-lingual method
 Communicative approaches
Focus on the learner: The most fundamental change has been shifting from concern to
teacher. It has also different kinds like
 Transfer
 Interlanguage
 Motivation
 Input and output
Communicative competence: Can be define as the general ability to use language

accurately, appropriately and flexibly. This language has different kinds
 Grammatical competence
 Social linguistic competence
 Strategic competence
Applied linguistic: In this linguistic we have to appeal to ideas not only from linguistic
analysis but from other fields such as communication, studies education, phycology and
sociology.
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Language and regional variations:

The language variations: it refers to the regional, social or in the contextual difference in
the way that a particular language is used (all aspects of language, including phonemes,
morphemes, syntactic structures and meanings are subject to variations.
Importance: it is considered important in language teaching because its contribution of

cultural values regards to the difference ways of using the language functions or other aspects of
language like vocabulary and pronunciation.
The standard language: the standard language also standard variety, standard dialect; is a
variety that has undergone substantial confiscation of grammar and usage and is employed by a
population for public communication.
Accent and dialect:

Accent: we think, we speak standard variety or not. We all speak with an accent. Technically the
term accent, is restricted to the description of aspects of pronunciation that identify with an
individual speaker is form regionally or socially
Dialect: which is used to describe features of grammar and vocabulary as well as known as
aspects pronunciation
Dialectology: it is the study of dialects and variations most commonly occurs as the result of
relative geographic or social isolation. It may affect as vocabulary and pronunciation.
Regional dialect: it is a distinct form of language spoken in a particular geographical area. If

the form of speech transmitted from a parent to a child is distinct regional dialect.
Isoglosses and dialect boundaries: A language boundary are the line separating two
language areas
Example: American refers to the carbonated beverages.
Dialect continuum also include in this.
Bilingualism and Diglossia: At the level of individually tends to be a minority group. A

minority member grows in a linguistic group i.e. (welsh in Britian or Spanish in the united states.
Language planning: in language planning Government legal and educational organization in

many countries which variety of variety have spoken in the country.
Pidgin and creoles: A pidgin are a variety of language that develop for some particular
purpose. There are believed to be between six and twelve million people still using pidgin
language and between seventeen and twelve million people using descendants from pidgin.
When a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade or contact language and becomes the first
language of a social community called creoles.
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Language and social variations

Social linguistics: It is used to study between the language and society.
Social dialects: social dialects have been mainly concerned with the speakers in towns and
cities. It is social dialect that is mainly use to define groups or speakers has having something in
common. We treat with the class social variable and linguistic variable.
Education and occupation: Although the unique circumstances result of each in us having
an individual way of speaking a personal dialect or idiolect. We generally tend to sound like
others with whom we share similar education, backgrounds and occupation.
 Social marker also includes in this.
 Social marker: upper middle class:32
Lower middle class: 20
Upper working class: 12
Lower working class: 0
Speech style and style shifting: The most basic distinction in speech style is formal uses
and informal uses. Formal style is we pay more attention to the speaker and in informal style we
pay less attention to the speaker.
Style shifting: A change from one to other by an individual is called style shifting.
Prestige: Is the way of explaining the direction in which certain individual change their speech
It has also two types:
 Over prestige
 Cover prestige
Speech accommodation: In this our ability modify our speech style toward or away from
the perceived style of the person.
Register and jargon: A register is convectional way of language that is appropriate in a

specific context which may be identified as situational i.e. (in church)
Jargon: which is special technical vocabulary (plaintiff, suffix) associated with a specific area
of work or terms in social work. Many slang varieties are also included in these topics which are
given below.
Slang:
 African American English
 Vernacular language
 The sounds of vernacular
 Grammar of vernacular
Language and culture
42
The Sapir - Whorf hypothesis: The general analytic Perseptive we are considering of
what part is known as the Sapir Whorf hypothesis. During the middle of the 20th century. At a
time when American linguistic was still nearly carried out by the scholars with strong
background in anthropology. He presents this hypothesis but many English speakers have
made many arguments
In Whorf's words: we dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language. (See
Carrol ,1956)
Social categories
 Addressed terms
 Gendered words
 Gendered speech
 Gendered interactions
These categories of language are included in this Sapir wharf's hypothesis.
Searched and Composed By: Iqra Irshad

Roll No: 1314
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Complete Guide To Linguistics

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INTRODUCTION TO

Institute of Education and Research

Phonetics: The study of speech sounds.

Phonology: The study of speech sounds in their cognitive aspects.

Morphology: The study of the formation of words.

Semantics: It means the meaning of a word, phrase, or text.

For example: if someone say OMG instead of OH MY GOD.

Comparative Linguistics: It is the type in which we compare two languages in order to

For example: Toponymy is the study of place names.

The origins of language:

The natural sound source:

For example: Miyav is a word which refers to cats originally.

Animal and Human Language:

For example: I am sick today.

Informative signals: Sending the information unintentionally to someone.

For example: red nose, sneezing etc.

Properties of human language:

For example: cup, tree and cat

For example: in English splash(water), buzz(bee), boom(explosion).

For example: 1. Boys are working

2. They are working

For example: song birds.

Duality: Language can be used as different levels.

The sounds of Language:

Two major classifications of English Sounds:

Front vowels Central vowels Back Vowels

[ɛ] bed, dead, said [ɔ] born, caught, fall, raw

[æ] bad, laugh, wrap [ɑ] Bob, cot, swan

1. Vertical adjustment of tongue (high-mid-low) openness of mouth.

For example: /peep/, /poop/, /bead/.

No constriction of air, lowering of jaw and tongue lowering,

For example: /map/, /tap/.

Air constriction occurs between front tongue and hard palate.

For example: /bee/.

Constriction between back tongue and velum.

For example: /two/.

It works on a scale of rounding (from spread-neutral, close, and open rounding).

For example: /bee/, /bet/, /boot/, /bought/.

E /e/ pet, red.

O /ɒ/ pot, lot.

U /ʌ/ duck, sun. /ʊ/ book, good.

/ə/(schwa) apart, pilot.

A /a/ car, lava.

E /ɜ/ sheep, peach.

I /i/ her, learn.

O /ɔ/ law, brought.

U /u/ tooth, June.

/aɪ/ five, eye.

/aʊ/ now, out.

/eɪ/ say, eight.

/oʊ/ go, home.

/ɔɪ/ boy, join.

/eəʳ/ where, air.

/ɪəʳ/ near, here.

/ʊəʳ/ pure, tourist.

There are 8 places in the consonants:

(Bilabial, Labio-Dental, Dental, alveolar, Post alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal)

Like: [p] [b] [m]

[p] is voiceless and [b] [m] are voiced.

/p/ as in “pin”, “purse”, “pet”

/b/ as in “bin”, “black”, “bad”

/m/ as in “man”, “mad”, “lemon”

[f] is voiceless, and [v] is voiced.