1. Translation.

Types of Translation
Translation is the process of translating words or texts from one language into another. The first
classification of types of translation was given by John Drydon. He created the first classification
of types of translation. There are three main kinds of translation: technical translation, scientific
translation, literary translation.
1. Technical translation in the kind that can be considered one of the most highly demanded.
Technical translation refers to certain fields such as engineering or manufacturing and deals
with text such as manuals, instructions, test reports and similar documents. Technical
translation is a highly complicated field.
2. Scientific translation. To this kind may be referred medical translations, translations of
scientific works in various fields of studies, different research works.
3. Literary translation. Literary translation deal with literature texts such as poems, novels,
theater plays and so on.
There are also many other different kinds of translation: administrative translation, audio
translation, commercial translation, legal translation, medical translation and so on
Administrative translation that consists of translating texts used by businesses, organizations
and governments which are used in day-to-day management.
Audio translation is about translating audio contents from one language into another
Commercial translation is about translating documents used for corporation purposes, such as
tender documents, accounting records, comercial correspondences Etc.
Legal translation deals with legal documents such as contracts, statues, petitions etc. Medical
translation deals with texts such as manuals for medical equipment, packaging of medicine,
medical books etc.

2. The History of Translation in ELT

The authority in this area is Howatt and he traces the development of English Language
Teaching far further back than most people realise it goes. He records the use of dialogues,
often parallel translation ones, to demonstrate rather than inform. Here's an example, taken
from a set of materials enabling French speakers to compare the English way of expressing
things with their own language. \
The 19th century saw the first fundamental change. The approach had five main strains:
1.Conscious memorising of grammatical rules
2.Focus on the sentence as the unit of study
3.Conscious memorising of lists of lexis with their mother-tongue translations
4.Translating in and out of the target language as practice
5.Reading the literature of the target language
By the end of the century, the Reform Movement's fundamental principles had been
established by Henry Sweet as: the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as
the kernel of the teaching-learning process, and the absolute priority of an oral methodology in
the classroom. Methods arising from the Reform Movement include a very wide range of
inventions , the first two of which are still influential:
1.The Natural Method which sought to emulate the ways in which children learn their first
language
2.The Direct Method which arose from it and was popularised by Maximilian Berlitz and still in
use in many schools. The Berlitz Method is now a registered trade mark. The Direct Method
was so called because it insists that only the target language is used from day one of the course
and meaning is conveyed by pointing, gestures, tone of voice etc.
3.The Gouin Series teaching, developed by François Gouin, is one in which language is
presented as a series of logically sequential steps in undertaking everyday activities. For
example, at the end of a lesson, I gather up my books and papers, I put them in my bag, I stand
up and walk to the door, I open the door, I go through the door, I leave the building.

3.THE NOTION OF EQUIVALENCE

Translation equivalence is defined as a measure of semantic similarity between source text and
target text. There are several types of translation equivalence. There is a one to one
correspondence between some units and their equivalents. For example, ”London”, “hydrogen”
always translated into Azerbaijani as “London” and ”hidrogen”
Regular equivalents can be classified as lexical, grammatical or phraseological.
In some cases, the words in two languages may not correspond fully identical in their
semantics. A variety of equivalents may result from a more detailed description of the object in
the target language. For example: ”attitude” is translated like “yanaşma, mövqe, siyasət” The
linguistic context of the sentences can help the translator to make a correct choice.
1.I don’t like your attitude. (yanaşma)
2.He stood there in a threatening attitude. (təhlükəli vəziyyət)
Phraseological units and idioms may have permanent or variable equivalents. For example
“Strike while the iron is hot” translated by Azerbaijani idiom “Dəmiri isti-isti döyərlər.”
Grammatical equivalents are often interchangeable and the translator has a free choice
between them. “He was the guest of honor at the reception given by the government.”-“O
hökümət tərəfindən verilmiş ziyafətdə hörmətli qonaq idi.”
National phenomenas,such as the English words “qualifier,conservationist” may be equivalent-
lacking.Some grammar forms can also be equivalent-lacking.These grammatical forms can be
classified under three main headings;
1.Zero translation; “By that time he had already left Britain” - Bu vaxta qədər o, (artıq)
İngiltərəni tərk etmişdi.In that case,the idea of priority expressed by the Past Perfect Tense
needn’t be seperately noticed as the presence of “by that time” and “already”
2.Approximate translation; “I saw him enter the room”-Mən onun otağa daxil olduğunu
gördüm. As there are no complex object in Azerbaijani the translator makes partially
equivalence.But the meaning of object clause is a sufficient approximation.
3.Transformational translation;The translator applies to one of the grammatical
transformations. “Your presence at the meeting is not obligatory.Nor is it desirable.”-Sizin
iclasda iştirakınız zəruri deyil və hətta arzuolunmazdır.”

4. Didactic Suggestions for Teaching General Translation.

The teaching methodologies that we would like to apply in our lessons to achieve most of our
goals:
1) Collaborative Learning: It is a teaching style where the students play a key role. They have to
work with every other learner in the class.
2) Learning by Teaching: This is a teaching method where the students play an active role again.
The students put themselves in the shoes of their teacher. What does it really mean?
3) Learning Objects: In this case, the teaching process depends on the objective we would like
to achieve. The result is what defines the strategy of teaching.
4) Coaching: The teacher has to encourage their students in every single step of their learning
process.
• Loud and Silent Reading:
Loud and Silent Reading (both Source and Target language: mother tongue): The teacher will
offer their students one text in the source (mother tongue) language. First, they will read it
loudly. After that, the teacher will ask them what the text was about, so they will have to write
in a sheet of paper all the information they remember. Second, the teacher will give them time
to read again the same text silently. They will have to repeat the process below,
• Paraphrasing: In this activity, someone explains with his/her own words, what others have
said. It is a very effective exercise for students, because it will help them to enrich their
vocabulary.
• Let students play an active role: When the teacher becomes the center of attention, his/her
students are more relaxed and sometimes they get bored or miss information. If they feel that
they are useful, they will be more motivated and will work more effectively. Hence, they will
learn more.
• You are not only a teacher; you are also a host/hostess: Try to be just a guide for your
students. A teacher is a person who has deep knowledge of one field and who is usually older
than his/her students, i.e. who has a richer experience. Advices and experiences can be very
helpful for our students, even if nowadays they seem to be undervalued.
• Bring reality to classroom: If we use the press as a source of our texts, we will have complete
the half part of our task.
• Unity makes strength: Working in groups can be sometimes a nightmare, because it is not
easy to work with other people. It is a good opportunity for students to experience real
situations.

5. Translation techniques in teaching English

Translation teaches learners about language, but not how to use it. There are different
techniques of translation.
1. BORROWING - Borrowing is a translation technique that involves using the same word or
expression in original text in the target text. The word or expression borrowed is usually written
in italics. This is about reproducing an expression in the original text as is. In this sense, it is a
translation technique that does not actually translate. Example: He was eating dolma.
2. CALQUE - When a translator uses a calque, he or she is creating or using a neologism in the
target language. Example: The English term skyscraper is göydələn in Azerbaijani.
3. LITERAL TRANSLATION - Usually this is called a literal translation or metaphrase. This means
a word-for-word translation. A literal translation can only be applied with languages which are
extremely close in cultural terms. Example: O, bilir – She knows.
4. TRANSPOSITION - Transposition involves moving from one grammatical category to another
without altering the meaning of the text. This translation technique introduces a change in
grammatical structure. Example: The President thinks that ⇒ prezidentin fikrince
5. MODULATION - Modulation is about changing the form of the text by introducing a semantic
change or perspective. Example: it must be a lie – bu dogru ola bilmez!
6. EQUIVALENCE OR REFORMULATION - This is a translation technique which uses a completely
different expression to transmit the same reality.
Example: “Strike while the iron is hot”- “Dəmiri isti-isti döyərlər.”
ADAPTATION - Adaptation, also called cultural substitution or cultural equivalent, is a cultural
element which replaces the original text with one that is better suited to the culture of the
target language. Example: baseball ⇒ football

6. Using infinitive in translations

The form of verbal( infinitive) doesn't show whether the action it denotes refers to the present,
past or future. It shows only whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with
the action expressed by the finite verb or prior to it.
He doesn't like to ask questions- O, sual verməyi xoşlamır(indefinite inf)
He seems to be sleeping- Görünür, o yatır(continious inf)
İ'm sorry to have troubled you- sizi narahat etdiyim üçün üzr istəyirəm(perfect inf)
*The infinitive in the function of a subject can be rendered into Azerbaijani by infinitive:
To solve this problem is very important- bu məsələni həll etmək çox vacibdir
*The infinitive in the function of an attribute is rendered into Azerbaijani by infinitive:
The question will be discussed at the conference shortly to open in Moscow - Tezliklə Moskvada
açılmalı olan konfransda məsələ müzakirə ediləcək
*Infinitive can be translated either as a subject or as an adverbial modifier of purpose with
words "üçün" ," ona görə ki":

To work well is to live well- Yaxşı işləmək yaxşı yaşamaq deməkdir

To work well I must read a lot- Yaxşı işləmək üçün çox oxumalıyam
*The infinitive in the function of an object causes no problems in the translation process. İt is
rendered into Az. B by 1) infinitive, sometimes by 2) the clause.
They decided to submit a new proposal-1)Onlar yeni təklif irəli sürməyi qərara aldılar 2) Onlar
qərara gəldilər ki, yeni qərar irəli sürsünlər
*The infinitive as an adverbial modifier of result and consequence occurs after the adjectives
modified by words : such....(as), enough, so...., too..., only. It is translated into Az. by an
infinitive or a seperate sentence with a conjuction "və".
They are too young to make such decisions-Onlar belə qərarları vermək üçün çox gəncdirlər və
belə qərarları verə bilməzlər.
*The infinitive with the verb "to fail" or the noun "failure" axpresses a non-realized attempt to
perform an action and it is translated into Az. by the finite form of the verb:
The negotiators failed to come to an agreement- Saziş iştirakçıları razılığa gələ bilmədilər

7. Using Gerund in Translation.

There is no gerund in the Azerbaijani language. And the English gerund can be rendered into
Azerbaijani in different ways.
1) By a noun. Ex: Dancing had not begun yet. (Rəqslər hələ başlamayıb)
2) By an infinitive. Ex: He had tea before leaving. (Getməmişdən əvvəl o çay içdi)
3) By the so called “feili bağlama” in Azerbaijani. Ex: On seeing Bella he stopped. (Bellanı
gördükdə, o dayandı)

4) “To have to” can be used as a gerund. It’s translated into Azerbaijani by –malı, -məli +
mənsubiyyət şəkilçisi or –malı –məli + olmaq. Ex: I bet the secretary was annoyed at having to
write it again (Mərc gələrəm ki bunu yenidən yazmalı olması katibəni təngə gətirmişdi)
5) Negative sentences with the gerund can be expressed both by “no” and by “not”. Ex: For
not having friends in London he had to stay in a hotel. (Londonda dostları olmadığından o
mehmanxanada qalmalı oldu)
6) The gerund is widely used in advertisements to express prohibitions or warning. Ex: No
parking! No helping!
7) İt is possible to see sentences with the gerund and two negations. Ex: There is no danger of
not learning those questions ( O sualları öyrənməməyin qorxusu yoxdur)
There are cases, when the differentiation between the gerund and the participle presents some
difficulty. For instance, it’s not always easy to distinguish between a gerund as a part of a
compound noun and a participle as an attribute to a noun. Ex: a Dancing hall (a hall for a
dancing). A cooking stove ( a stove for cooking) etc. – gerunds.
Ex: A dancing girl (a girl who dances) , A singing child (a child who sings) etc. – participles.
The gerund used as a subject may follow the predicate. In these cases the sentence opens with
the introductory “it” or with the construction “there is”. Ex: It is no use talking like that to me (
Mənimlə belə danişmağın heç bir xeyri yoxdur)

8. The role of participle in translations.

The İndefinite Participle Active and Passive denotes an action simultaneous with the action
expressed by the finite verb. It may refer to the present, past or future. The perfect participle
active and passive denote an action prior to the action express by the finite form. Ex: Reading
this book the student found out many interesting facts. (Kitabi oxuyarkən, tələbə çoxlu maraqlı
faktları aşkar etdi)
The Present Participle Active (doing) in the function of an attribute can be substitute by an
attributive clause in the continuous form. İn Azerbaijani this participle phrase is rendered by –
an/-ən, -yan/-yən. Ex: The boy running at some distance looked tired. (Uzaq məsafədə qaçan
oğlan yorğun görünürdü)
In Azerbaijani the Past Participle Passive (done) is expressed by the endings “-mış4/-an2”.
Ex: The articles published by this scientist are translated and reprinted abroad (Bu alim
tərəfindən çap etdirilən (etdirilmiş/olunmuş) məqalələr xaricdə yenidən nəşr olunur)
The Present Perfect Participle is not used in the function of an attribute. This meaning is
expressed by a relative clause. Ex: The man who created this project lives abroad. (Bu layihəni
yaradan şəxs xaricdə yaşayır.)
Like other verbals participle can form predicative constructions which consist of two elements:
a nominal and a verbal. The verbal element stands in a predicate relation to the nominal
element. İn most cases predicate constructions form syntactic units, serving as one part of the
sentence. The constructions are translated into Azerbaijani by objective, adverbial or other
subordinate clauses.
The Objective Participal Construction. İn the sentence this construction has the function of a
complex object. İn Azerbaijani we nearly always use a subordinate clause with the conjunction
“ki” and by the endings “-an/-ən”. Ex: I saw him repairing the car. I saw the car being repaired.
(Mən onu maşını təmir edən gördüm. Mən maşının təmir edilməsini gördüm)
The Subjective Participal Construction. İn the sentence this construction has the function of a
complex subject. İn Azerbaijani it is translated by a passive voice. Ex: they were observed
leaving their house. (onlarin evlerini terk etmesi müşahidə edilirdi)
The Nominative Absolute Participal Construction. İt is used only in the function of a complex
adverbial modifier. This construction is expressed by the subordinate clauses introduced by
such conjunctions as: çünki, görə, bu səbəbdən, halbuki, baxmayaraq ki, əgər, -da, -də , sonra.
Ex: The signal given, the rocket starts immediately. (Siqnal verilən kimi raket səmaya uçur)
The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction is introduced by the preposition “with” and
is used in the function of complex adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. The
preposition “with” is not translated and this construction is rendered into Azerbaijani by a
subordinate clause. Ex: We continued our work, with our laboratory assistants helping us.
(Köməkçilər bizə kömək edə-edə biz işimizə davam etdik.)

9. Levels of grammatical correspondence

Every language has a peculiar system which differs from that of any others. English belongs to
the Germanic group of Indo-European family.
there are no pure analytical or syntectical languages. The principal grammatical means of
expression in language possessing analytical character is order of words and the use of function
words, though all the four basic grammatical means grammatical inflections, function words,
work order and intonation patterns are found in any language.
For example in English the sentence: "the hunter killed the wolf" is translated into azerbaijani
as: Ovçu canavarı öldürdü.
In English the order of words is fixed. The model of simple declarative sentence is as follows:
Subject+Predicate
The principal types of grammatical correspondence between two languages are as follows. 1)
Complete correspondence; 2) Partial correspondence; 3) The absence of correspondence
*A complete morphological correspondence is observed when in the languages considered
there are identical grammatical categories with identical particular meanings. In English and
Azerbaijani there is a grammatical category of number. House-houses, ev-evlər
*Partial morphological correspondence is observed when in the languages there are
grammatical categories with identical categorical meanings but with some differences in the
partial meanings. In English and Azerbaijani there is a grammatical category of case in nouns.
The English language has two particular meanings (nominative genitive ) while Azerbaijani
language has 6 cases.
*Absence of morphological correspondence is observed when there are no corresponding
grammatical categories in the languages examined. In English, we used certain grammatical
means i.e. articles to express definiteness and indefiniteness. But there are no equivalent
grammatical means in Azerbaijani.
*Complete syntactic correspondence: by complete syntactic correspondence is understood the
conformity in structure and sequence of words in Word combinations and sentences.: Adj.+N
red flags – qırmızı bayraqlar

*Partial syntactic correspondence: by partial syntactic correspondence in word combinations

the conformity in meaning is understood but discrepancy in the structure of the phrase.
Noun+Noun glass tube- şüşə borucuq.

10. Using Predicative Constructions in translation

All the verbals can form predicative constructions. They are translated by the object,
attributive, adverbial or other subordinate clauses.
1. The objective-with-the infinitive construction. Here the infinitive is in a predicate relation to a
noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case, Has the function of a complex
object. In translating we nearly always use a subordinate clause with the conjuction "ki": I saw
him pass the paper to the secretary/Mən gördüm ki o sənədi katibəyə necə ötürdü.
2. The subjective infinitive constuction, or traditionally called The nominative-with-the-infinitive
construction. One of its parts has the function of subject, the other forms a part of a compound
verbal predicate. And usually translated by the indefinite-personal sentences or by "ki": Jane
was seen to go home/Ceynin evə getdiyini görüblər.
3. The for-to-infinitive construction. Here the infinitive is in a predicate relation to a noun or a
pronoun preceded by the preposition "for". In translating a subordinate clause with the
conjuctions "ki" or an infinitive is used. It is quite possible for them to accept your
proposal/Mümkündür ki, onlar sənin təklifini qəbul etsinlər.
4. The absolute infinitive construction. Is formed when the infinitive also has a subject of its
own. Is intoduced by the preposition "with". The infinitive is used with the particle "to". Has
the function of an adverbial modifier of attending circumstances: he is below with a carriage to
take you home\ o sizi evə aparacaq olan faytonla aşağıdadır.
 The gerundal construction consists of a verbal element expressed by gerund and a nominal
element expressed by a noun or pronoun.
1. The objective participial construction. The participle stands in apredicate relation to a noun in
the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentencwe has the function of a
complex object.I saw him repearing the car/ Mən onu maşını təmir edən gördüm.
2. the subjective participial construction. The participle (mostly present participle) is in a
predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. Has the
function of complex subject. Translated to Azerbaijani by a passive voice: Protons were
observed leaving various elements-Protonların bir çox elementdən çıxdığı müşahidə edilirdi.
3. Nominative absolute participial construction. The participle ( the present, perfect, past)
stands in apredicative relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun i the nominative
case. has only the function of complex adverbial modifier. Is expressed by the subordinate
clauses introduced by such conjuctions as: çünki, görə, bu səbəbdən, halbuki, baxmayaraq ki,
əgər, - İt being Sunday the library was closed-Bazar günü olduğundan kitabxana bağlı idi. The
signal given, yhe rocket starts immediately-Siqnal verilən kimi roket səmaya uçur.
4. The prepositional absolute participial construction. Is introduced by "with" and is used as
complex adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.. We continued our work, with our
assistants helping us.- Köməkçilərimiz bizə kömək edə-edə biz işimizə davam etdik.

11. Using tenses in the Active Voice in translation

The active voice describes a sentence where the subject performs the action stated by the verb.
It follows a clear subject + verb + object construct that's easy to read.
In grammar, an active voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which a subject performs an
action and expresses it through its representative verb. To simply put it, when a subject
performs an action directly, it is in active voice.
Sentences written in an active voice flow better and are easier to understand in translation.
Using active voice places the emphasis on the subject of the sentence and makes the sentence
more straightforward and concise.
What is the formula of active voice?
Active voice formula : subject+verb+object
In English there are following tense forms:
Present simple, past simple, future simple,
Present/past/future continuous, the present/past/future perfect, the present/past/future
perfect continious and so on.
Example:
1) the sun sets in the west
2) she was wearing a red dress
3) she will be working in the field at 2 o'clock tomorrow
If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what
is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a by
the... phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a
form of be + past participle.

12. Using tenses in the Passive Voice in translation.

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.
Ex: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however,
who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You
have made a mistake.).
Form of Passive:
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) Ex: A letter was
written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)
Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two
objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a
subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

13. Word Order and inversion in translation

The arrangement of words in the sentence is called word order. English word order is strict and
rather inflexible. As there are few endings in English that show person, number, case, and
tense, English relies on word order to show relationships between the words in a sentence. We
cannot change the position of different parts of the sentence especially that of the subject and
the object. Changing standart word order is called “inversion”.
For example: Never before have I seen such beauty.
Inversion is required in the construction “there is”, “there are” and in cases where a modal
verb or a main verb is used in such constructions. In some cases these sentences are translated
into Azerbaijani by the following verbs: “ var, movcud olmaq”.
Example: There is an interesting article about Spain in today’s paper/ Bugunku qezetde Ispaniya
haqqinda maraqli bir meqale var.
Inversion takes place in sentences beginning with the adverb “here” or “there”. But that
adverbs have idiomatic character. These sentences are translated into Azerb. “ budur, bax
budur” Also, inversion is required in responses like “So do I” and “neither do I” and in
compound sentences with “so and neither”. Inversion is required in the subordinate clause of
conditional sentences in which the subordinating conjuction “if” is omitted.
Inversion in such cases consists in moving the auxiliary verb, and in some cases the main verb,
into the position before the subject
• Ex: Gone are the days when he was yough and full of energy ( after adjectives and
participle) The days when he was young and full of energy are gone
• Right in front him stood a huge two-headed dragon ( after adv mod of place) – A huge
two-headed dragon stood right in front of him.
• The doors opened, and out ran several people ( after postpositions)
Inversion is required in negative sentences beginning with the following negative adverbs and
adverbial expressions: never, never before, not only…but also, not until, no sooner, at no time,
on no account, under no circumstances.
Ex: Never before have I felt such fear.- I have never felt such fear before.
Not only was the princess strikingly beautiful, but she was also extremely intelligent.
No sooner had she put down the phone than it started to ring again.
The negative particle is not used before adjectives or adverbs beginning with the prefixes un-
,in-(il-, im-, ir-,) dis- have an emphatic meaning and all these combinations correspond to
Azerbaijani words: “tamamile, tam, lap, cox)
The combination “it is not until(till)…that” is used for emphasizing the adverbials of time and
adverbial clauses. In Azerbiaijani these meanings are expressed by: Yalniz, birce, tekce. Ex: It
was not until midnight that the vessel started.( Gemi yalniz gece yola dusdu)
Ex: His theory is very difficult; few people understand it.
14. The role of articles in translation
The main problem in translating Azerbaijani nouns into English is the problem about the use of
articles. Though in Azerbaijani there are no articles and in many sentences the translation of
articles is omitted it is important to note some meanings of the articles need translating into
Azerbaijani. The article usually stands before a noun or its attribute, for example, a topic.
However, the indefinite article may stand between a noun and its attribute, if it is preceded by
the following words: what, such, many, quite, so, too.
The indefinite article can be translated:
1) By a numeral one (bir) Ex: Not a word did she say( O bir soz de demedi)
2) By an indefinite pronoun “hansisa(bir), bir” Ex: A passenger was looking for place to put
his bag (Hansisa sernishin cantasini qoymaga yer axtarirdi)

The definite article often keeps its lexical meaning of the demonstrative pronoun “bu” in
Azerbaijani. Ex: The matter will be discussed in the next chapter. ( Bu mesele novbeti fesilde
muzakire olunacaq)
The ordinal numerals are usually used with the definite article. However there are many cases
where the ordinal numerals are used with an indefinite article.
The indefinite article may also be used with “fisrt”, “second”, etc.
Ex: A second voyage=an additional voyage=one more
The definite article before the cardinal numerals keeps its original meaning of the
demonstrative pronouns. The two-“bu ikisi ve ya her ikisi”
Ex: The two girls began to quarrel again.
If two nouns are connected by the conjuctions (and, or, but, than) the article is often omitted
after the conjuctions. Ex: It is liquid or solid.
There are many words whose meanings depend on the us of articles. The noun “number” with
the definite article has a meaning “say” , with the indefinite article has a meaning “bir sira” in
Azerbaijani.
Ex: The number of scientists participating in the conference is unknown (Konfransda istirak
eden alimlerin sayi melum deyildi)
A number of scientists have confirmed this suggestion ( Bir sira alim bu teklifi tesdiq etdi)
The indefinite article deeply changes the meaning of the words “few”and “little”. Without
articles, “few” and “little” usually have rather negative meanings. They often suggest “not as
much/many” as one would like or “not as much/many as expected”. But “A few’ and “ A little”
are more positive; their meaning is closer to “some”.
Ex: His theory is very difficult; few people understand it.
 15.The Specific cases of the Adjective translations
Some combinations with adjectives cause problems in translating process/
1)The combination “as…as” is used when we say that two things are the same in some way. The
combination is translated into Azerbaijani by such conjunctions as “qədər”, “kimi”.
Ex:In English- This boy is as tall as that boy. In Azerbaijani – Bu oğlan o oğlan kimi hündürdür.
This combination can also be used with such words as “twice, three times, half quarter, etc”.
These combinations correspond to Azerbaijani and Russian comparatives.
Ex.:In English- This phone is twice as strong as your old phone. In Azerbaijani – Bu telefon sənin
telefonundan 2 dəfə güclüdür.
However, in such combinations it is also possible to use the words: age, size, weight, etc.
accompanies by the definite article “the”.

Ex:In English – My room is half the size of yours.In Azerbaijani – Mənim otağım sizinkinin yarısı
qədərdir.
2)The combination “as+adjective(adverb) + as possible” corresponds to Azerbaijani and Russian
comparatives with such words as “mümkün qədər”.
Ex:In English – Try to find this work as fast as possible.In Azerbaijani – Bu işi mümkün qədər tez
qurtarmağa çalış
3)The combination “the … the adjective(adverb) in the comparative degree” is translated into
Azerbaijani by comparatives introduced by the conjunctions “nə qədər...bir o qədər”
Ex:In English – The longer hours I sleep the worse I feel. In Azerbaijani – Nə qədər çox yatıramsa,
bir o qədər özümü pis hiss edirəm.
It should be noted that in translating process, the wrong translation of lexical units also cause
problems. For example, the meaning of the adjective “fair – gozel” is not common for technical
literature. Here the adverb “ fairly” is often accepted in Azerbaijani as “çox” “tamamilə”, “lap”.
Ex:In English - fairly good; it has fairly low quality. In Azerbaijani – lap yaxşı; bunun çox aşağı
keyfiyyətı var.

16. Translation and Style

Style is the essential characteristic of writing, the outcome of the writer's personality and his
emotions at the moment. Every writer has a literary style and his style is reflected in his writing.
What we demand of translator is not merely the recording of incidents; they should also
contain artistic images that are attractive to readers. It helps the reader to understand the
characters' thought and behavior.
Original translation is not purely a technical change, but it requires that the translator grasp the
spirit of the original, find the most appropriate expression of his own thought, feeling, and
reproduce fully and correctly the content.
If one wants to reproduce the original style satisfactorily, one must keep two points in mind
before translating.
First, the translator must have a macroscopic point of view, namely, a view of the whole, he try
to turn his translation into a work of art which reflects the thought, feelings, and style of the
original.
Second, he must have a microscopic point of view, namely, the linguistic point of view. In the
process of translating, all the paragraphs, sentences and words should be attentively studied so
that the best expressions may be chosen. Every word must be weighed carefully and every
figure of speech dealt with seriously. Proper words in proper places define a style. Natural
paragraphs in a novel, prose, verse or a play refers to chapters. All these must be translated in
their original order.
Sentence order and sentence patterns should be kept as much as possible. Sometimes we have
to make some change in sentence patterns because of the different usage of the target
language. Even if some individual sentences or words were not satisfactorily rendered, they
would not affect the style of the work as a whole.

17.Different translations of “it”, “one” and “that ”

“It” can be used as:
1. As an independent member of the sentence ‘it’ is used
a)as a formal subject in such sentences as “it is winter”. The use of impersonal “it” is rather
limited. It is used only for denoting natural phenomena, time.
It is a quarter past four. - Beşə on beş dəqiqə qalıb.
b)as the subject of the sentence it represents a thing. In these cases “it” is rendered into
Azerbaijani either by the personal pronoun “o” or by the demonstrative pronoun “bu”.
It is my problem not yours. - Bu mənim məsələmdir, sənin yox.
2. a) As an anticipatory word introduces the real subject in sentences with a logical subject
expressed by the infinitive, gerund, their constructions.
In English: He said it was possible for an agreement to be agreed. In Azerbaijani: O söylədi ki,
razılığa gəlmək mümkündür.
b) as a formal object "it " is used after the verbs to think, believe etc. followed by a conplex
object
(nominal element+Infinitive).
In English: He felt it his duty to help the Government.In Azerbaijani: O. hesab edirdi ki, onun
borcu hökumətə kömək etməkdir.
3. In the phrase it is (was)… who "it" is used for the sake of emphasis. By means of this phrase
any member of the sentence and the whole sentence itself can be emphasized. The phrase can
be followed by the relative pronouns and therelative adverbs.
1. One can be used as a numeral and a pronoun. It is used talk about people in general.
2. “One” is used to replace or to avoid repeating. There is also a plurale form “ones”. In this
case “one” is translated into Azerbaijani by a corresponding noun.
“That” can be used as:
1. a demonstrative pronoun. In this meaning it always stands before a noun and it's rendered
into Azerbaijani by the
demonstrative pronouns: o, bu.
In English: The imperialists strived to preserve the colonial system, but that system was falling
apart.n Azerbaijani: Imperialistlər müstəmləkə sistemini qorumağa can atırdılar, halbuki bu
sistem hissələrə parçalanırdı.
2. a conjunction, introducing a subordinate clause. It is translated into Azerbaijani by the
following conjunction: "ki".
In English: The peoples of all countries know that the danger ofa new world war still exists.In
Azerbaijani: Bütün ölkələrin xalqları bilir ki, yeni dünya müharibəsi təhlükəsi hələ də
mövcuddur.

18. Sequence of tenses in translation

The sequence of tenses. In English the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause (mainly an
object clause) depends on that verb in the principal clause. The adjustment of the tense of the
subordinate clause to the tense of the principal clause is called the sequence of tenses. In
English it is important to
observe the rules of the sequence of tenses, especially in indirect speech.
The Azerbaijani sentence "O, yaxşı tennisçi olmuş olduğunu, mənə söylədi" is translated in
following ways: In English actions of the past are expressed by past perfect: He told me he had
been a good tennis player.
It is necessary to mention that in some cases no rules of sequence of tenses are observed. For
example, the Azerbaijani
sentence "Sənə deyiblər ki, Yer kürəsi ətrafında, Ay isə yer kürəsi ətrafinda firlanır" istranslated
as: "You were told
that the earth goes round the sun, and the moon goes round the earth”. There is no sequence
of tenses in this sentence because the subordinate clause states something as universally of tiur
logically true.
No rules of sequence of tenses are observed if the dependent clause contains a comparison (
afterthan, as....as, etc). The verb may be in any tense that is required by the translation,
Compare:
In Azerbaijani: O, ingiliscə səndən daha yaxşı
In English: He spoke English better than you speak
will speak).
If the dependent clause is ar: attributive clause the verb must stand in any tense that suits the
translation.
In Azerbaijani: Sənin hal-hazırda oxuduğun kitabı, mən keçən il oxumuşam.
In English: Last year I read the book you are reading now.

19.Aspects of translation process.

Translation – is the transmittal of a written text from one language into another one.
Psychologically the translating process must include two mental process:
1) Understanding- the translator understands the contents of the Source text;
2) Verbalization -he renders and pronounce the Target text.
Source text-is the text to be translated from
Translated/Target text-is the equivalent text.
Linguistic aspects of translation are important too. The reader of the translated texts knows
only the Target language version.And there may be differences between the source and the
Target text.But good translator has to take consideration troubles with words
,phonetics,grammatical inflections and so on.
There are also cultural and situational aspects of translation.

20. Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is a synthetic form of the Oblique Moods. The subjunctive mood has 3
forms in English:Present Subjunctive Mood,Past Subjunctive Mood and Past Perfect Subjunctive
Mood.
The Present Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences is used to express wish,concession and so
on. Ex.God forbid!
In complex sentences it expresses necessity ,order,recommendation .Ex. I offered that she
come here.(This sentence can also be translated by the Suppositional Mood.)
The Past Subjunctive Mood is homonymous to the Past Indefinite;The Past Perfect Subjunctive
Mood to the Past Perfect .They are used:
1)in sentences beginning with “if, if only,oh if” and translated as “ bircə ,təkcə”.Ex. If only she
were alive now .-Bircə o,indi sağ olsaydi.
2)in adverbial claises of comparison and predicative clauses with the conjunctions “as if ,as
though”
Ex.You speak as if you were winner./You look as if you were ill.
3)in the sentences beginning with “it is time/ high time/about time.”
4)in the object clauses beginning with the verb “wish” and it is rendered as “ kaş”.Ex. I wish I
were young.-Kaş cavan olaydım.

22. The Compound sentences in translation

A compound sentence is a sentence formed from two or more simple sentences, or
independent clauses (IC): Megan cut the wood, and Ryan stacked it.
There are three ways of joining independent clauses into a compound sentence:
•with a coordinating conjunction (one of the fanboys);
•with a semicolon; or

•with a semicolon and a transitional expression.

Method 1: Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (IC, cc IC)
You can use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (cc) to join two or more independent
clauses into a compound sentence. (A coordinating conjunction is one of the fanboys: for, and,
nor, but, or, yet and so.)
For example:The two stopped to eat, for the work had made them hungry.
Note that the comma in the above sentences comes before the conjunction, not after it.If the
independent clauses are very short, parallel and closely related, it is acceptable to use only a
comma or a conjunction to join them:
•Megan cut the wood, Ryan stacked it.
•Megan cut the wood and Ryan stacked it.
But between longer clauses, it is important to use both a comma and a conjunction:
•Megan cut the wood into one-and-a-half-foot logs, and Ryan stacked them carefully along the
rear of the cabin.
Method 2: Use a semicolon (IC; IC)
A compound sentence joins two or more independent clauses with a coordinator such as for,
and, or but, or a semi-colon.Like a period, a semicolon (;) creates a stop between two
independent clauses. However, the clause after the semicolon does not begin with a capital.
For example:The two stopped to eat; the work had made them hungry.
However, it would be awkward to use a semicolon by itself to form some compound sentences.
For example:Incorrect: There was still work to do; they needed to rest and eat.
Method 3: Use a semicolon with a transitional expression (IC; transition, IC)
A transitional expression is a word or phrase that shows the relationship between two ideas. A
semicolon with a transitional expression often makes a smoother connection than a semicolon
alone.
There are many transitional expressions showing different kinds of relationships. Here are a few
common examples:to add a similar idea: also, in addition, moreover,to show contrast: however,
in contrast, on the other hand

23. Using auxilary and modal verbs in translation

While translating the sentences with verbs shall, will, should, would it can be difficult to give the
correct translation of it because it has a number of meanings in different functions.
Shall- In present-day English shall is not purely modal verb. It always combines its modal
meaning in the future tenses. Shall combined with only a non-perfect infinitive expresses:
1. Promise, oaths. In this meaning shall is used with 2nd and 3rd persons: He shall get his
money.
2. Threat, warning. Shall is used with 2nd and 3rd persons: That day shall come.
3. A suggestion or offer. It is used in questions an offers in the 1st person singular and
plural: Shall I read? – Oxuyum?
These meanings are closely connected with old meaning of obligation.
The verb will as a modal verb expresses:
1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is rendered into Azerbaijani by such words as:
mütləq, hökmən və s:. I will write as soon as I can.- İmkan olan kimi mütləq yazacam..
When used in the negative sentences it denotes a refusal: I won't accept your offer.(I refuse...)
2. A Polite request or an offer. It is translated into Azerbaijani by imperative sentences: Will you
pass the sault, please?
3. A command: You will do exactly as I say. An impatient command can begin with will you: Will
you be quiet!- Sən bu gün sakitləşəcəksənmi? But after a positive command will you has a rising
intonation: Sit down, will you?
4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed in this sense. In negative sentences will
and would show that a thing fails to perform its function: The door will not open- Qapı açılmır
ki, açılmır.
5.Characteristic behavior, something naturally expected: Boys will be boys.
6. Disapproval of something expected. In this case we use only would: You would forget-
Əlbəttə ki, siz unutmusunuz.
Should expresses obligation and it is translated into Azerbaijani like: gərək,lazım: He said it
should be viewed in the light of political balance- O dedi ki, buna gərək siyasi tarazlıq gözü ilə
baxılsın.
As an auxiliary we use do in negative sentences and questions for most verbs . It also has
emphatic function and in that case it is translated into Azerbaijani as: doğurdan da, həqiqətən:
In fact his words did show that he was right- Axı həqiqətən də onun sözləri göstərdi ki, o
haqlıdır.

24.Translation of phrasal verbs.

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb
with both an adverb and a preposition. ... The idiomatic meaning allows a phrasal verb to be
replaced with a single word verb
Phrasal verbs are varied in classification. There are some experts who have classified phrasal
verb into several types or aspects. The phrasal verb into two types, there are adverbial
phrasal verb and prepositional phrasal verb.
The four types of phrasal verbs in English are:
• Intransitive.
• Non-separable transitive.
• Optionally separable transitive.
• Obligatorily separable transitive.
Translating phrasal verbs based on pragmatic aspects of phrasal verbs which are divided
into literal and figurative. Literal means the meaning of phrasal verbs can be guessed based
on the meaning of two morphemes(sit down ”əyləşmək”, pick up ”toplamaq/götürmək”,
come back” qayıtmaq”, take back ”geri götürmək”), meanwhile figurative is the meaning of
phrasal verbs is not the total meaning of its components.
The mastery of phrasal verbs is very important because they are frequently used in daily
communication. Besides, there are many written media such as text books, novels, newspapers,
magazines, etc using phrasal verbs. Good mastery of phrasal verbs is very helpful for people to
get the corresponding message of the media.For example: “ Grandma will look after the baby
while we go to the lecture”
The object may come after the following phrasal verbs or it may separate the two parts:
• You have to do this paint job over.
• You have to do over this paint job. When the object of the following phrasal verbs is a
pronoun, the two parts of the phrasal verb must be separated:
• You have to do it over.
Inseparable Phrasal Verbs (Transitive)
With the following phrasal verbs, the lexical part of the verb (the part of the phrasal verb that
carries the "verb-meaning") cannot be separated from the prepositions (or other parts) that
accompany it: "Who will look after my estate when I'm gone?"
Intransitive Phrasal Verbs
The following phrasal verbs are not followed by an object: "Once you leave home, you can
never really go back again."

25. Ambiguity English grammar

Introduction:
When a word has more than one meaning, it is said to be lexically ambiguous. When a phrase or
sentence can have more than one structure it is said to be structurally ambiguous. Ambiguity is
a common phenomenon in human languages. There are two types of ambiguity.
If the ambiguity is in a single word it is called lexical ambiguity. Examples of lexical ambugity are
everywhere. “Note”=”a musical tone” or “Ashort written record”. The sentence “The peasants
are revolting” is ambiguous because it could mean: 1) The peasants are standing in the streets
with placards shouting “we want more pay”. 2) The peasants are horrible.
Types of Ambiguity:
Linguistic theories have identified two main types of ambiguity:
1. Syntactic Ambiguity: Syntactic ambiguity arises when the role a word plays in a sentence is
unclear, as in: Squad helps dog bite victim.
2. Lexical Ambiguity:. Lexical ambiguity arises when a word has more than one generally
accepted meaning, as exemplified in: Drunk gets nine months in violin case.
3. Scope ambiguity : It is still under debate whether this type of ambiguity is a form of syntactic
or lexical ambiguity, or whether it represents a unique class of ambiguity . An example:
Prostitutes appeal to Pope.
4. Phonological ambiguity: This is a subtype of lexical ambiguity that occurs when a set of sound
can be interpreted in more than one way. An instance is the following : Psychotherapist Vs .
Psycho therapist
5. Punctuation Ambiguity : This can be considered as a mix of syntactic and lexical ambiguity
.The ambiguity in this case is also in the surface structure rather than in the deep structure
,notice ,for example : I want you to notice your hand me the glass .
6. Grouping Ambiguity :This is a type of 'syntactic' ambiguity .In this case ,the ambiguity arises
from the precariousness of the clarity as to whether a modifier in a sentence modifies only one
or several objects ;for instance : Hand me the red and yellow balls . Hand me the red ball and
yellow ball . Hand me the balls that are red and yellow.
7. Cross-reference Ambiguity: It is a type of 'syntactic ' ambiguity, that of 'referent ‘, especially
when using pronouns; a good example is : Bob kicked Tom ,and he broke his leg .
8. Structural Ambiguity: According to transformation lists, there are two distinct deep structures
expressing, on the one hand, the fact that : 1-Annie had an umbrella and she whacked a man
with it and , on the other hand ,that : 2- Annie whacked a man and the man happened to be
carrying an umbrella are actually represented in the same surface structure form ; notice : 3-
Annie whacked a man with an umbrella .