Avani Dhar

SOCI 387

Reading 1:

Small D (2004). “Mental Illness, Addiction and the Supervised Injection Facility”. Visions: BC's

Mental Health and Addictions Journal. (37-39) Retrieved, July 22, 2021

Social phenomena come with narratives, a story attempting to decipher group behaviour

and assign certain values to it. Small (2004) via the means of experiential and theoretical

knowledge about addiction, decodes the foundational narratives that build a culture disdainful of

drugs and drug users. We often hear about 'The Drug Problem' as a law enforcement issue, that

drug consumption is a choice, and the criminalization of this choice is the only way to curb

addiction and distribution of drugs. Small (2004) identifies that addiction remains isolated from

mental illness as a result of "therapeutic narratives" held by professionals that determine the

treatment and/or prevention of addiction (38). These narratives manifest incorrect judgements

pertaining to an individual's personhood; in turn perpetuating a cycle of stigmatized structural

subjugation. This article helps surface and dismantle the socio-cultural facets that makeup

narratives surrounding drugs; it encourages the implementation of harm reduction as a measure

for cultural change.

Small's insistence on therapeutic narratives as the driving force influencing the lives of

drug users connects closely to a video by Vice (2020) examining the response of Portugal in

comparison to the Philippines in their fight against drug epidemics. Portugal legalized all drugs

and chose harm reduction to prevent drug overdose saving thousands of lives, whereas the
Philippines implemented the 'War on Drugs' approach, resulting in countless deaths. Not only

does this demonstrate how narratives can change lives, but also how the adoption of different

narratives can create genocidal conditions in a country.

Reading 2:

Alexander BK, Beyerstein BL, Hadaway PF, Coambs RB (1980). “Effect of Early and Later

Colony Housing on Oral Ingestion of Morphine in Rats”. Pharmacology, Biochemistry &

Behavior (571-6) Retrieved July 22, 2021.

The infamous Rat Park experiment conducted by Alexander et. al (1980) marks the advent of a

new narrative attempting to decipher drug addiction. Designed to analyze the effects of housing

on rats, it uncovers the effects of dislocation and socio-psychological factors involved in the

consumption of drugs. Rats tend to consume lower amounts of MHCI in a colony due to its

interference with their social behaviour, whereas isolated rats depend on morphine for solace

(Alexander, 1984). These findings debunk the drawbacks associated with addiction research that

primarily put the subject (rat) in a psychologically distressing setting, aiding the excessive intake

of psychoactive substances that cause addiction. Moreover, it situates addiction as a mental

illness into a sociological sphere, often directly or indirectly caused by societal factors such as

war, unemployment, or anomie.

Reading this article reminded me of the Netflix docu-series 'How to Fix a Drug Scandal' (2020),

the trial of a state drug lab chemist in Massachusetts addicted to heroin, which led to the

wrongful conviction of thousands of innocent people. The series blames a monotonous and

isolated lifestyle of a chemist for her addiction. Social isolation as identified by Alexander

(1980) is one of the leading causes of addiction, and in the case of the chemist, her isolation in
the drug lab pushed her to wrongfully assess drug samples. This further reinforces the housing

effect; hence feelings of loneliness and social isolation can aid addiction.
Reading 3:

Small D.(2005) “Looking into the Cultural Mirror: Addiction, secret lives and lost personhood.”

Vision Journal (29-30). Retrieved July 23, 2021

Small (2005) analyzes addiction by employing a humanistic analogy of the cultural

mirror. By posing pertinent questions addressing addiction as biological, social and

psychological suffering, Small engages in inter-subjectivity, placing the reader in the shoes of a

drug user. He describes addiction in a personal sense rather than reducing it to statistics;

appealing to the emotions of a reader, he attempts to synthesize individual experience of the loss

of personhood into a source of theoretical knowledge. "Turning the analysis inward" to uncover

values and narratives associated with addiction provides the methodology for an ethical

examination of substance abuse (Small, 2005, pg 29). By committing sociology while addressing

a psychological issue, Small reiterates a Durkheimian philosophy to explain addiction as a social

phenomenon, further adding to the scholarship of drug use.

I recently stumbled upon the story of 80s rock band Motley Crue through the Netflix film

The Dirt (2019). A biographical story, it surrounds the life of lead singer Nikki Sixx, who, due to

his heroin addiction; almost loses his life and career. The movie represents the outcome of an

abusive childhood that comes to haunt Nikki Sixx as drug addiction. Excluded by his band due to

addiction he spirals into psychological and social turmoil. It shows how even the society's most

beloved can become prey to the horrors of faulty narratives and prejudice.
Movie 1:

Anderson, R. (1946) “Drug Addict.”Canada: National Film Board;. Retrieved July 25, 2021

Anderson's Drug Addict (1946) is a comprehensive analysis of the twentieth century

narrative on drugs. From manufacturing, to distribution, to consumption of illegal drugs; it

examines the actors involved in these processes. Although Anderson presents stereotypical and

prejudiced analyses, he puts forth perspectives employed by authorities to combat the use of

illegal drugs. However, by providing insights into the issue of drugs being a criminal justice

concern, he assigns meaning to drug use, delegating a position of moral inferiority to drug users.

Every war comes with propaganda, in the case of 'war on drugs', media representations like

Anderson's (1946) film act as catalysts to accelerate the transmission of false narratives

surrounding addiction. This film demonstrates the power of social construction. The construction

of collective values and norms concerning substance abuse, that can not only transform opinions,

but can also have long-lasting detrimental effects.

The modern-day equivalent of influential media has to be through Facebook. Netflix

documentary The Great Hack (2019) explores the dark side of social media, filled with fake

news and propagandist speech that can literally determine the fate of a country. Similar to mid-

twentieth century documentaries like Anderson's Drug Addict (1946) that used addiction and

drug use to criminalize marginalized people, social media is weaponized to transmit fake news in
order to construct false narratives. These narratives are further institutionalized to subjugate the

drug user.
Reading 4:

Alexander BK.(2019) “Addiction: a structural problem of modern global society”. In: Pickard

H, Ahmed SH, eds. The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Science of Addiction. London:

Routledge (501-10). Retrieved July 25, 2021.

Addiction scholar Bruce Alexander (2019) proposes the dislocation theory as a possible

explanation to addiction. This theory situates the source of addiction in social dislocation that

takes into account the socio-historical framework of a society. Societal fragmentation resulting

from geo-political, economic and technological modernity causes psycho-social dislocation, a

state of anomie in Durkheimian terms. Drugs then become a safe haven for addicted individuals

to escape the complicated globalized modernization of society by providing a sense of identity

and belonging (Alexander, 2019). Alexander (2019) further suggests social change to be the

comprehensive solution to addiction epidemics. This article provides the basis to the philosophy

behind harm reduction. By fulfilling "social and spiritual needs" macro-level social change now

adopted by many countries such as Portugal can not only prevent addiction, but also curtail the

mental health crisis associated with social isolation (Alexander, 2019, pg.7).

The dislocation theory can be aptly applied to understand the discrepancy of addiction

rates among the LGBTQ+ community in comparison to cis-heterosexual people. Logo's video

interviewing members of the LGBTQ+ uncovers the reasons behind the intersectionality of

sexuality and substance abuse. Queer individuals growing up in homophobic households,

closeted to prevent judgement and hate crimes largely depend on substances for solace. Their
social and psychological dislocation resulting from euro-centric ideals of sexuality isolate them,

where the only sense of belonging they gain are from drugs.
Reading 4:

Hart CL (February, 2017). “Viewing addiction as a brain disease promotes social injustice”.

Nature Human Behaviour Retrieved July 25th, 2021.

Psychologist C.L. Hart dismantles an extremely significant facet of the '"cultural

scaffolding" surrounding drugs. The correlation between mental illness and substance abuse

cannot alone explain addiction, the involvement of socio-cultural factors that create intersections

of marginalization play a huge role in determining addiction. By considering drugs to be a "brain

disease" and simply removing drugs from the picture through excessive law enforcement

measures, socioeconomic factors are concealed behind mass incarceration of racialized peoples.

Moreover, he highlights the discrepancy in punishment between the possession of crack cocaine

compared to powder cocaine and recognizes the cause behind this discrepancy to be racism. Hart

believes the result of the "brain disease" narrative to be social injustice and racism. He captures

the intersectionality in the struggle against addiction and untangles dominant normative

narratives around drugs. Proposing to combat the fight against drug epidemics through justice, he

identifies the relationship between social injustice and hegemonic ideologies about drugs.

Reading this article reminded me of the Netflix documentary ‘13th’ (2016). A horrific

analysis of systemic institutionalized racism in America post the civil rights movement. It brings

to surface the real reason behind harsh drug laws, the subjugation and vilification of African

Americans. By incarcerating addicted Blacks, the American worsened the cycle of poverty and
drug abuse among racialized communities. Hart enumerates on this very point, attempting to

shift the narrative from 'no drug, no addiction' narrative to a 'social justice, no addiction' policy.

.
Reading 6:

Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT. Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model

of Addiction. New England Journal of Medicine 2016; 374(4): 363-71

The Brain disease model explores the neurological stages involved in the

addiction to substances (Volkow, et.al, 2016). It proposes a three-stage cycle of

addiction characterizing the result of consuming drugs, but does not question why

someone indulges in such behaviour. Focusing just on the biology of addiction, it

acknowledges the socio-economic layers of this phenomenon. Additionally, it

also provides an explanation for the obsessive behaviour involved to procure

drugs that often push people into crime or sex work Beneficial for the regulation

of public health policies against drug use, this model adds to the scholarship of

drugs, making it a biological issue, however, not reducing it to the anatomy of the

brain. By categorizing addiction as a disorder, it takes the narratives of moral

inferiority away from the drug user, aiding the prevention and treatment of

substance abuse.

I believe this article to be very helpful in understanding the psyche of a drug user.

Frere (2015) in his article diving into Rapper Eminem's struggle with addiction,

recounts the behaviour Eminem indulged in. Due to Vicodin addiction, the rapper

would constantly eat in order to avoid stomach aches from excessive vicodin

consumption, get into fights over drugs and eventually get involved in gangs.
Preys to their addiction, drug users are often polarized from society due to such

erratic behaviour and reduced to moral judgement instead of treatment.

Reading 7:

Lindesmith AR (1938). “A Sociological Theory of Drug Addiction”. American Journal of

Sociology (593-613) Retrieved, July 26, 2021

Social psychologist A.R. Lindsmith (1938) provides a robust and rigorous account of the

nature of drug addiction. Analyzing the different aspects involved in drug use, he contextualizes

addiction by differentiating between the physical reactions of drug withdrawal and its

psychological experience. He hypothesizes that addiction comes out of the conscious decision to

use substances in order to relieve abstinence symptoms. Ergo, deprivation of drugs becomes the

driving force fuelling cravings. Citing various cases of abstinence symptoms endured by people,

Lindsmith adds that it is not only physiological symptoms of withdrawal creating addicts, but

also the psychological effects of socio-cultural or economic hardships that result in addiction.

Lindsmith's theoretical research holds a prominent role in supporting the model of harm

reduction. It removes moralistic perspectives that demean addicts and integrates a conceptual

understanding of addiction that focuses on holistic treatments.

A Netflix documentary called Explained, Cults (2015) dives into the socio-psychological

factors that push people into joining and remaining a part of a cult. This resonates closely with

the psychological cravings for drugs, cult members derive a sense of stability and identity by

joining cults, similar to addiction, the documentary recounts that cult members are often pulled

back into the cult after leaving due to the loss of belonging. Although addiction involves
physiological effects, they are often pulled back into indulgence to gain a sense of equilibrium

that substances provide.

Reading 8:

Merton RK. (1938) “Social Structure and Anomie”. American Sociological Review. Retrieved

July 27th, 2021.

Merton (1938) in his theorization of modern society proposes the anomie theory,

postulating that most people strive to achieve culturally recognized goals. A state of anomie

develops when access to these goals through institutionalized means are taken away, leading to

what he calls Retreatism (Merton, 1938). It involves "aim inhibition" that makes individuals

"aliens" to society (Merton, 1938, 677). Addiction often falls under this category, whereupon the

removal of institutionalized means meant to fulfill cultural goals are often designed against these

drug users due to insistence on cultural schemas. Moreover, emphasis on "culturally-induced

success goals" invites innovation, characterized by the non-conformity of institutional means;

this category involves the illegal trade of drugs (Merton, 1938, 676). Drug cartels, smugglers and

peddlers break laws by selling illegal drugs, often at a profit through the adulteration of the

substances they sell. Therefore, it is apt to say, Merton's conceptualization of anomie provides a

theoretical understanding of drugs and society. It's not only an appropriate source of sociological

explanation but can also be used to regulate policy pertaining to the illegal distribution of drugs

and fair justice towards marginalized peoples.

I would like to connect this theory of anomie to a Vice documentary, exploring the

exorbitant price of powder cocaine. They describe the process of manufacturing, distribution and

trade of cocaine, the different cuts each party involved takes, and how the conspicuous

consumption of cocaine becomes a status symbol in some communities. Innovation in the form

of a capitalistic model for the sale of cocaine thus encourages a state of Retreatism.
Reading 9:

Room R. Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug and Alcohol Review, 2005;

24(143-155)

Room (2005) essentially enumerates on how our society continues to abuse a drug user,

institutionally and morally. By connecting social factors that correlate with alcohol and drug

abuse such as poverty and inequality, Room (2005) expounds on the societal forces that

accompany the stigmatization and marginalization of drug users. Moreover, they present data

showcasing the stigma around certain diseases, and addiction constituted the highest number.

This data is pertinent in distinguishing between addiction and other illnesses to recognize the

social aspects worsening drug and alcohol abuse. Use of pejorative terms, media representation

and propagandist narratives all represent drug users as social failures, prohibiting research on

drugs such as medicinal illegal drugs like psychedelics and Marijuana. This article shifts focus

from the individual to society, challenging the structural forces involved, and employing the

sociological imagination to change narratives around the moralistic culture surrounding drugs.

Vice (2021), a documentary channel created the War on Drugs show, inspiring me to

critically think inward, questioning my values surrounding drug use. Their video titled, "The

Media Lies About Drugs", demonstrates the innuendos powerful and racist peoples have

indulged in through media representation of drugs. Calling Marijuana a "gateway drug" can have

detrimental effects on users, often ostracized and sometimes arrested due to practices sacred to
them or their community. Therefore, Room's conjectural analysis of social stigma can be proved

through this video.

Movie 2:

Lambert, Olly. 2008. "Ben: Diary of a Heroin Addict." Gecko Productions/Junction 15

Ben: Diary of a Heroin Addict is a very real and grim representation of addiction.

Suffering from severe heroin addiction, a loving child of a beautiful and supportive family finds

himself fighting a battle with addiction. Ben undergoes many treatments and interventions while

making a video diary showcasing his addiction, his cheerful highs and lowest lows. Ben portrays

what it physically, psychologically and socially means to be addicted. He detaches himself from

the social world, curses himself for manipulating people, and endures extreme illness that

eventually takes his life. A traumatic account of how far addiction can push people, this

documentary demonstrates the severity of the drug epidemic. It shows that if as a white male,

from a well-to-do family; drugs can turn one's life around, then being in a socially marginalized

position can inevitably be worse due to lack of social and institutional support.

Jacki Hillios Ted Talk on addiction and treatment uncovers the reality of detox

treatments. Ben, who died from withdrawal related complications, is one of the many who

undergo treatments based on unscientific approaches. Harm reduction is the only viable option

for severe addiction, because in the end we need users to be alive to stop using. Perhaps, Ben

could have still been alive, if he was not forced to go 'cold turkey'.
Reading 10:

Richardson L, Sherman S, Kerr T. Employment among people who use drugs: A new arena for

research and intervention? International Journal of Drug Policy 2012;

Presenting an excellent model for harm reduction through "targeted employment and

skills development", Richardson et al. (2012) examine the various approaches applied for the

effective integration of drug users into productive members of society (pg. 3). They identify the

significance of employment among drug users along with the drawbacks associated with a user

in the professional field. Stigma from employers, mandatory drug tests before employment as

well the impact of a criminal record all prevent drug users from finding appropriate jobs in turn

resulting in further social isolation and poverty. Richardson et.al suggest contingency

management approaches which involve reinforcing workplace attendance with financial benefits.

Although, the authors highlight ethical/philosophical problems involving this model, they

recommend assimilating harm reduction into employment training practices for drug users. This

article acknowledges the most essential part of socialization, productivity and income generation

through employment. Not only does employment provide the user with a sense of belonging, it

also influences abstinence by mental and physical wellbeing.

xCodeh a cannabis using YouTuber made a video with tips on passing a drug test. While

he recognizes the perplexity of the situation he moves forward by advising users to workout

more, drink more water and eat healthy food. I find this article to be the perfect explanation for

such a phenomenon, people recommending hard reduction and precautionary practices as a result
of a failed system, that constantly blames the user for their addiction and/or poverty, but is hardly

helpful in removing them from it.

Movie 3:

Jereki, Eugene. (2015). “ The House I live In” Retrieved July 26,

Directed by Eugene Jereki, the House I Live In (2013) is an exploration into America's

War on Drugs. The film uncovers demographic disparities and imbalances in drug-related

incarceration, in which African Americans have been vilified. By interviewing professionals,

victims, their families and drug dealers, Jereki exposes the discriminatory drug policies aimed to

target specific racial and ethnic groups. Lives were ruined not only by drugs, but also by

institutionalized racism. Using Nannie Jeter; his childhood caretaker; to portray the adversity of

racist policies, Jereki provides an unbiased examination of drug use and distribution. By

including statistics and personal accounts he shows the stark difference in the amount and

demography of people using drugs compared to the demography of people imprisoned. This

documentary appeals to the psyche of the audience and compels people to look through the false

representation of the war on drugs, and analyze the social implications of a racists schema.

The War On Drugs is Designed to Discriminate, a documentary by Vice (2016) shows

clips of Black Americans being pulled over for random search. Not a surprise to Black people in

America, the documentary explores mass incarceration among Black communities, losing their

youth to imprisonment. The House I Live In (2013) and this documentary both provide different

sides of the War on Drugs story, but even from the different sides, we see racist propaganda

snatching away the lives of racialized people.

 References:

Small D (2004). “Mental Illness, Addiction and the Supervised Injection Facility”. Visions: BC's

Mental Health and Addictions Journal. (37-39) Retrieved, July 22, 2021

Vice Asia. December 14, 2020. “Decriminalization or Death: Portugal’s Drug Policy vs.

Philippines” Retrieved July 22, 2021

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DJZulTESVoY

Alexander BK, Beyerstein BL, Hadaway PF, Coambs RB (1980). “Effect of Early and Later

Colony Housing on Oral Ingestion of Morphine in Rats”. Pharmacology, Biochemistry &

Behavior (571-6) Retrieved July 22, 2021.

Lee Car, Erin, April 1, 2020. “How to Fix a Drug Scandal” Netflix. Retrieved July 22, 2021.

https://www.netflix.com/watch/80233339?trackId=13752289&tctx=0%2C0%2C60528af12077f

274f462195e97964855a3ae1d55%3Adbb9ed70db5f796eabbfff79a2cf033ca1768336%2C60528a

f12077f274f462195e97964855a3ae1d55%3Adbb9ed70db5f796eabbfff79a2cf033ca1768336%2

Cunknown%2C

Small D.(2005) “Looking into the Cultural Mirror: Addiction, secret lives and lost personhood.”

Vision Journal (29-30). Retrieved July 23, 2021

Tremaine, Jeff. (2019) “The Dirt” Retrieved July 23, 2021

Anderson, R. (1946) “Drug Addict.”Canada: National Film Board;. Retrieved July 25, 2021

Amer, Karim. Noujaim, Jehane (January 26, 2019). “The Great Hack” Netflix. Retrieved July 25,

2021.

Alexander BK.(2019) “Addiction: a structural problem of modern global society”. In: Pickard

H, Ahmed SH, eds. The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Science of Addiction. London:

Routledge (501-10). Retrieved July 25, 2021.

Logo (August, 16, 2016) “Is Sexuality and Substance Abuse Correlated Within the LGBT

Community?” Retrived July 25, 2021.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJspLQpsRUI

Hart CL (February, 2017). “Viewing addiction as a brain disease promotes social injustice”.

Nature Human Behaviour Retrieved July 25th, 2021.

DuVernay, Ava (October 7, 2016) “13th”. Netflix. Retrieved July, 25th, 2021

Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT. Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model

of Addiction. New England Journal of Medicine 2016; 374(4): 363-71

Frere, Jackie (August, 2015) “Eminem Battled Drug Addiction with Running” Billboard.

Retrieved July 26, 2021

https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/the-juice/6649647/eminem-drug-addiction-weight-

gain-mens-journal

Merton RK. (1938) “Social Structure and Anomie”. American Sociological Review. Retrieved

July 27th, 2021.

Vice, (2020) “Why Cocaine Is Worth $150,000 Per Kilo”. Retrieved July 27th, 2021.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=01ped04I84Q&t=292s

Room R. Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug and Alcohol Review, 2005;

24(143-155)

Vice, (2022) “The Media Lies About Drugs” Retrieved July 26th, 2021

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xf5qFIpJ2sk

Lambert, Olly. 2008. "Ben: Diary of a Heroin Addict." Gecko Productions/Junction 15

Hillios, Jacki (2013) “Transcending addiction and redefining recover” Ted Talk Retrieved July

26th, 2021
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gzpTWaXshfM

Richardson L, Sherman S, Kerr T. Employment among people who use drugs: A new arena for

research and intervention? International Journal of Drug Policy 2012;

xCodeh (2021). “Stoner Tips: Passing a drug test” Retrieved July 27th, 2021

Jereki, Eugene. (2015). “ The House I live In” Retrieved July 26, 2021

Vice (2016). “The War On Drugs is Designed to Discriminate '' retrieved july 28th, 2021

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xf5qFIpJ2sk