Telework Indicators: A Case Study of Slovenia
Siniša Drobnjak, Eva Jereb
University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Sciences, 4000 Kranj, Kidričeva cesta 55a
sinisa.drobnjak@fov.uni-mb.si, eva.jereb@fov.uni-mb.si
Abstract. This research paper describes analysis of
telework indicators in Slovenia. It includes the
teleworker’s place, time and information
communication technology. The approach is based
upon the pilot test, which constitutes the teleworker’s
profile, character, work style and condition. In the
paper first the term of telework is explained and then
the research methodology is introduced. The next step
presents the statistical analysis of the results. Further
the results within the case study of Slovenia are
discussed and some solutions for the labour force are
given. The conclusion brings out a comparison
between teleworkers in Slovenia and teleworkers from
the countries included in Eurostat1 research.
Keywords. Telework, information communication
technology, place, time
1. Introduction
Information and Communications Technology
(ICT) is the main and unconditionally strongest tool
for participating in telework and it deals with the use
of personal computers and communication software to
convert, store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve
information. Telework occurs when ICT is applied to
enable work to be done at a distance from the place
where the work results are needed or where the work
would conventionally have been done [10]. This kind
of work provides virtual, mobile and distributional
working process between the flexible and home
employees.
A cult phenomenon was born in 1973 (California
– United States), when Jack Niles, applied futurist
known internationally as "the father of telecommuting
and telework'', found a solution in the oil crisis that
enabled teleworkers to work from home. In the recent
years, many companies in Europe have implemented
this alternative to simplify work for employees and
improve productivity performance. From our
literature review, there are three common telework
types: (1) home-based telework, (2) centre-based
telework and (3) mobile-based telework. In general,
telework usually covers these types of jobs:
programmer, lawyer, customer-service person,
1
The Eurostat pilot survey’s name: »Recommendations for the
introduction of an ad hoc module on telework in Labour Force
Surveys« was carried out in Belgium, Italy, United Kingdom and
Hungary in February 2003. The project is funded under the
‘Information Society Technologies Programme of the European
Commission’.
salesperson, accountant/auditor, manager,
writer/editor, web worker, artist/designer and help-
desk jockey [14].
Our focus in this paper will be on the telework
enforcement in the labour market and in defining how
the place, time and ICT are connected to telework.
Padilla [12] considers it “a work system in which the
worker can work where and when he/she wishes by
means of ICT. Telework means places of work other
than the usual ones, remote supervision, an
information-based activity, intra- and extra-
organisational electronic communication, and
intensive use of ICT. It may be performed on a full-
time or part-time basis. Teleworkers can become a
virtual team, in other words, a team with a common
purpose and that uses technology to travel across
time, distance and organisational frontiers [4, 11].
Telework has also received a lot of attention in
Slovenia. Through the Eurostat pilot survey we
analysed the current situation in this field of work.
The aim of our research is to identify the impact of
teleworker on the Slovene labour market and to
determine the overall progress here on the basis of
comparison with other countries in this survey. The
case study provides useful input for ICT management
and information society.
2. Methodology
Telework can structure the use and experience of a
range of ICT [5] and allows top-notch workers to be
virtually anytime anywhere [2]. Telework culture is
founded on trust, responsibility, common values and
openness [16]. The surveys, information bulletins,
employees meetings, or relationships on the intranet
or internet can be used to build trust, which proves
that the use of modern ICT in a virtual work
environment is essential [8].
The purpose of this paper is to develop our theory
in order to better understand the structure of the
relationship among the place, time and ICT in
telework. The following hypotheses were set:
• Hypothesis 1: There are more male than
female teleworkers.
• Hypothesis 2: Teleworkers are equally
dispersed among the phases of
adulthood2.
2
I. The first phase of adulthood (21-30 years)
II. The second phase of adulthood (31-43 years)
III. The third phase of adulthood (43-56 years) [9]
 • Hypothesis 3: Teleworkers are equally
frequently employed by the three types of
companies3.
• Hypothesis 4: Employees initiate the
arrangement for telework.
• Hypothesis 5: The arrangement for
telework is an informal initiative.
The survey was carried out in 2006 with the
support of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of
Slovenia and the Faculty of Organisational Sciences,
University of Maribor. The following indicators for
telework were used: (1) core indicators (place of
work, use of ICT and duration of telework), essential
to detect teleworkers, and (2) additional indicators,
useful to describe additional characteristic of telework
[13]. The content of this survey is described in the
next chapter by stating its results. More than 1,000
questionnaires were sent by email to employees who
might be teleworking and are included in tertiary
sector4. We received 251 answers during March, April
and May 2006, when the questionnaire was available
on-line. Judging by the Eurostat’s average response
(179 teleworkers or 71%), we determined a good
result of the sample size (150 teleworkers or 66%).
In our lab three types of tools were used for
carrying out the survey. Outlook Express and Internet
Explorer have enabled the inquiry, while the SPSS
software was used to process the statistical data.
After the analysis of the survey results, some
additional calculations were made on the basis of the
Eurostat’s pilot survey. In accordance with the
conclusions the comparative analysis between the
teleworkers in Slovenia and in other countries1 is
shown.
3. Results
In the beginning of ad hoc module for telework,
each applicant was asked to respond to a series of
general questions.
The first category under analysis was gender,
where the critical value (CV= 3.875) with the 95%
confidence interval confirms the domination of male
over female teleworkers. From 251 respondents there
were 151 teleworkers (60%) and among them 99
males (66%) and 51 females (34%). These results
3
Company Size By Employee Number [6]:
I. Small company: less than 50 workers
II. Middle company: 50 – 250 workers
III. Big company: more than 250 workers
4
Tertiary sector means literally “third sector”, refers to the
“administrative and service sector of the economy” and includes
construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services,
government, and sometimes transportation [1].
proved the first hypothesis that there are more male
than female teleworkers.
In the sample ages ranged from 21 to 60 years,
with a mean of 36 years and 2 month (M=35.82 years
for males and M=36.69 years for females). The results
for teleworkers showed a deviation by one year
higher. A total proportion had the mean of 37 years
and a month (M= 36.79 years for males and M= 37.77
years for females). We concluded, on the basis of the
mean of teleworker’s years combined with the normal
curve (Fig.1), that teleworkers are most frequent in
the second phase of adulthood (50%).
Figure 1. Teleworker’s age
2
In addition, the Chi-square test ( χ = 2.867; α=
0.05; pα= 0.602) confirmed that there are some
differences among the phases of adulthood, so the
second hypothesis was proven wrong. Overall, a
teleworker is someone, who has a university degree
and has some working experiences.
A surprising aspect of teleworkers is the small
number of those who have children (34.7%). The
question about children was added in the survey,
because this factor was expected to be one of the
reasons for teleworking. A similar step was done with
the question pertaining to the care of an elderly
relative where a resembling result was obtained: only
18% of applicants are facing this situation.
Telework is a great solution for the physically
disabled so, at this point, we took a look into their
integration. In the sample size, only 2% of
teleworkers are physically disabled which shows that
they are more likely to be ignored by this labour force
as well.
Just as teleworkers are changing, so is the
structure of companies. Our third hypothesis claims
that teleworkers are equally frequently employed by
the three types of companies. Surprisingly, the trend
toward small-sized companies is generally evident in
tertiary sector, because 58% teleworker respondents
are located there, while 23% are in middle-sized
companies and 19% are in large companies. The Chi-
 2
square test ( χ = 1.716; α= 0.05; pα= 0.602) did not
prove the third hypothesis correct.
From the analysis of workplace, managers (48%)
and experts (39.3%) seem to be the most suitable
profiles for telework, while administrators (11.3%)
and assistants (1.4%) occur in small proportion.
In order to have good ICT skills, workers in
tertiary sector should have at least University
education. Therefore, they must have a basic
knowledge of ICT and entrepreneurship, which is
unconditionally needed for their job. As we see in Fig.
2, the mean of education degree5 among teleworkers
is 6.29 (M= 6.15 for males and M= 6.59 for females)
and it is a little higher than the mean of the sample
(6.24).
Figure 2. Education degree among
teleworkers
Developing the virtual work environment is a
flexible imperative for a teleworker. This statement is
confirmed by our research, when we were
investigating the size of teleworkers’ need for
adaptable working hours. Among the participants of
survey there are resembling proportions between
teleworkers with a big need (42.4%) and a middle
need (41.7%) for flexible work-time. Only 15.9%
teleworkers are being loyal to the fixed work-time.
In the virtual office in particular, social isolation is
still the main problem for teleworkers. The survey has
revealed obvious difficulties in this domain among
them. The great meaning of personal contact is
important for 67.3% teleworkers, while the others
(30.7%) swear on a medium importance for face to
face relationship.
The aim of core module was to pinpoint telework.
5
(I) not finished primary school, (II) finished primary school (8
years), (III) secondary school (2 years), (IV) secondary school (3
years), (V) secondary school (4 years), (VI) two year study, (VII)
high education, and (VII+) master’s degree, doctor’s degree.
The next factors will try to deduce the definition of
this phenomenon. The 99.3% use of ICT, internet and
email at work among participants is a decisive
indicator of the working process in telework. Like we
mentioned before, ICT is imperative for teleworkers.
Telework can be done at various places. Table 1 is
showing the locations of telework. Teleworkers’
proportions are not coordinative, because respondents
had a possibility of multiple answers. There is an
extensive reflection on telework at home (83%),
including customer premises (51%) and ‘mobile
office’ (41%), while the other locations are not so
emphasized.
Table 1. Telework location
Teleworker’s
Location of telework
proportion
At home. 83%
Locations belonging to a third party
51%
(as customer premises).
On the move (while traveling). 41%
In more than one location belonging
34%
to customers or clients.
Other places different from
traditional workplaces (hotels, 12%
conferences, etc.).
In more than one location belonging
21%
to the employer.
At just one location belonging to the
11%
employer.
Other traditional workplaces. 1%
Research of the duration of telework reviewed
how many hours a week, on average, the respondents
spend working at a distance, out of employers’
location (Fig.3). It seems that teleworkers usually
work at a distance 13.38 hours a week (A= 13.38
hours for males and A= 13.39 hours for females), that
means 2.68 hours a day.
Closing the core module, we asked teleworkers
about the possibility of working in this way without
the ICT. 97.3% of them responded that ICT is the key
tool for their work.
In the essential mode of survey, we concentrated
on the detection and intensity of telework process.
Starting with the frequency of teleworkers’s
connection to employer or customer, we were not able
to determine a noticeable difference between the
phone and data connection (Table 2). In both
columns, teleworkers mostly contact theirs parties
several times a day (39% and 34%), while other
frequencies deviated much more from this proportion.
 6.45% are bound until the end of contract and 16.13%
can not stop teleworking. It is extraordinary how
telework is still not legally regulated.

Table 3. Teleworker’s use of equipment

and the way of data transfer
TELEWORK PROCESS
The way of Teleworker’s
Equipment
data transfer proportion
Personally 39% 91% Computer
Post courier 19% 25% Intranet
Fax 20% 33% Fax
Telephone 43% 75% Telephone
Figure 3. The average time working at Email 89% 92% Email
distance Internet 42% 81% Internet
Software for Software for
Table 2. Frequency of teleworker’s remote 12% 12% remote
connection to company or customer collaboration collaboration
Other 3% 3% Other
Frequency of Phone Data
teleworker’s connection connection connection Telework interests people in many ways, but most
of them usually have a specific reason for choosing
The whole working day 17% 18% telework. In Table 4 we explored the sources of
Several times a day 39% 34% telework among the applicants. As we can see, there
Once a day 9% 11% are two general types of reasons; job requirements
At least once a week 16% 17% (28%) and finishing with work (26.7%). We also need
Less than once a week 5% 7% to mention the proportions of reducing the expenses
and the commuting time (10.7%) and greater
Never 1% /
autonomy or independence (16%), which are the big
priorities in economical and physical way for
A teleworker may transfer work results in many teleworker.
ways. Judging from ICT equipment we can use a lot A key target in this survey has been the question
of methods to connect with others. To ensure a better about continuation with telework. If 90.7%
view in this situation, we again allowed multiple teleworkers claimed that they want to continue with
responses for respondents. In Table 3 we put their work, than we need to regulate this matter
combined teleworkers’ use of equipment and their rapidly. It seems that telework deserves more
way of data transfer to see the comparison among the attention in the labour market and much more space in
same factors on both sides. A detailed study found legislation.
some convergence results like email and software for
remote collaboration. But on the other hand, there Table 4. Reasons for telework
were also big distinctions among the internet,
telephone and fax.
Reasons for telework Proportion
A complete analysis of initiating the arrangement
for telework among teleworkers surprisingly did not To finish or catch up with work. 26.7%
prove correct the fourth hypothesis (CV= -5.247; α= To avoid interruption. 5.3%
0.05). Only 26% of teleworkers initiated the telework
Poor working environment or working
employment. 0.7%
relationships.
To check the results obtained, we wanted to verify
the fifth hypothesis which detects an informal Required by work or employer. 28%
initiative for telework arrangement. Among the To coordinate work schedule with
applicants there were 78% of those who work under 8%
personal or family needs.
the ‘verbal contract’, so the hypothesis with the high
critical value (CV= 7.481; α= 0.05) is proven. The Experimentation. /
other 22% of teleworkers with the formal agreement To reduce commuting time or
10.7%
expenses.
further had to deal with the sub-question, asking them
about stopping with telework by this agreement. A Health reasons (physical condition). 0.7
good half of them (54.48%) confirmed that fact, while For greater autonomy or
16%
independence.
22.58% said that it would depend on the employer,
Other reasons. 2%
 Teleworking leads to changes in the time, place
and relationships with co-workers. In the next
question we were asking if the level of work pressure
has changed since they began teleworking. The results
showed that a similar number of respondents had less
work pressure (33.3%) and equal work pressure
(34%), while 17.3% had more work pressure, 8% do
not know about a change and 6% can not judge
because they do not have any other experiences. In
practice, we can not conclude the amount of work
pressure, because it depends on the employer’s policy
and teleworker’s position in the company.
Since the location of teleworker is generally his or
her home, we raised the question about the room, in
which he or she works. Most of them work from their
study room (56%) and living room (24.7%). The other
locations, like bedroom (5.3%) and kitchen (4.7%)
took small portions. Except for the study room, it is
obvious that teleworkers are exposed to a lack of
Figure 4. Percent of time using PC at work
space which leads to disruptions in their work.
per day
Teleworkers are satisfied if they are well
supported with ICT. As regards the question of who
Table 5. Work-related activities
provides ICT equipment for teleworking, the results
showed the employers’ domination (38%) over the
employees’ (22%). We supplied also a third Work-related activities Proportion
possibility in the answer, where both sides contributed Looking for a job/sending job applications. 33%
in purchasing ICT equipment (38%). Finding information relating to
78%
The results for the proportion of time using PC at work/business.
work were generally satisfactory. The mean of time Sending work to the work place. 53%
that teleworkers use a PC is 41.59% per day (M= Accessing files on the employer's server. 61%
42.55% for males and M= 39.39% for females). These Communication (including email). 90%
results show that a PC is an important and
Other work-related activities. 11%
unconditional factor in the telework system (Fig.4).
Telework can support social inclusions by using
internet for the work-related activities. In the 4. Discussion
questionnaire with the multiple answers we inquired
about some alternatives that internet could enable for Theory development is a process which begins
teleworker. Table 5 illustrates a key role in with a set of observations. Because the theory specific
communication (90%), in finding information relating to effects of telework on business travel is not well
to work/business (78%) and in accessing files on the developed, it is often difficult to know which
employer’s server (61%). Sending work to the work particular observations could be a factor or an
place (53%) and looking for a job (33%) are lateral indicator [10]. Our approach, based on Vaus [15], is
factors in this case. to locate the commonality between factors in
We closed this chapter with the telework control literature with similar outcomes.
from employer’s location, which could be carried out The comparison with Eurostat pilot survey
in two ways; by direct and non-direct supervision. interpreted the combination of workplaces among
With two maximum answers, the respondents had teleworkers (Table 6). This operation is aimed at
strongly declared for the second way of control by constructing a typology of teleworker based on the
delivery of output within specified deadlines (52.7%), work location(s) the respondent worked from in the
by definition of individual goals (31.1%) and by reference period [13]. Un-proportional share of
definition of team goals (25%). In the supervision Slovenian results is the outcome of multiple answer
control only the direct supervision was perceived possibility that our applicants had. The last column in
(25.7%). The main positive benefit for teleworkers is Table 6 with the sign ‘A’ shows a proportional
the trust that employers gave them, but at the same average of telework’s type for these countries.
time they are left to their own resources, capabilities
and inventiveness. It is hard to expect productivity
from teleworkers, if they are not self controlled,
responsible and competent in their work
 Table 6. Comparing typology of teleworker (Belgium) to 15 % (Hungary), except Slovenia which
again strongly deviated from all (almost 50%).
Countries &
B I UK H SI ‘A’ The next row examined closely the responses
average received from mobile and remote workers. The order
Typology of of results was switched in relation to the previous
% % % % % %
teleworker6
typology, with only one exception. With Slovenia at
Traditional
33 47 19.9 7.1 40.2 29.4 the top (30.6%), Belgium took the second place
workers
(15.9%) and was also above an average (15.6%),
Mobile no
/ 3 / / / / while Hungary (12.1%) got more close to Italy (10%)
teleworkers
and United Kingdom (9.4%).
Mobile workers 2.8 0 1.5 2.9 24.7 6.4
An overview of stationary and remote workers
Tele-home workers 10.2 13 10.4 15 49.8 19.7 brings a total change in results. A small proportion of
Mobile and remote the cases were seen in Slovenia (6.7%) and United
15.9 10 9.4 12.1 30.6 15.6
workers Kingdom (7.9%), while Hungary (40.7%) took an
Stationary and obvious leading role. Italy (24%) exceeded the
14.8 24 7.9 40.7 6.7 18.8
remote workers average (18.8%) and Belgium possessed a lower part
Stationary and (14.8%).
15.3 0 6.4 9.3 7.1 7.62
mobile workers Data of stationary and mobile workers showed
Stationary, remote that Belgium (15.3%) together with Hungary (9.3%)
and mobile 8 3 45 7.1 12.3 15.1 belong to higher proportion group, because both
workers
countries outmatched the average (7.6%). In Italy
No answer / / / 5.7 / / there was no sign of these employees, while United
TOTAL (%) 100 100 100 100 * * Kingdom (6.4%) and Slovenia (7.1%) were close to
the average.
TOTAL (N) 176 200 202 140 251 194
The best combination of stationary, remote and
B–Belgium, I–Italy, UK–United Kingdom, H–Hungary, SI–
Slovenia
mobile workers operates in United Kingdom (45%).
Other countries, except Slovenia (12.3%), show
If we look at the sample size of survey, the humble scores even when they are compared with the
average is 194 applicants. Slovenia has 251. When we average (15.1%). At the end of this comparison,
discuss the number of non-teleworkers, only Italy Hungary was the only country where 5.7%
(47%) ranges better than Slovenia (40.2%), while respondents gave no answer.
Hungary (7.1%) has the smallest proportion. To this
category of data we also attached 3% of mobile no 5. Conclusion
telewokers from Italy. Other countries were without
responds in this typology of teleworker. Slovenia The concept of telework might be best
occupied the leading position in mobile workers understood though the model of time-space
(24.7%) and strongly deviated from the average geography [7]. In this way, place, time and ICT
(6.4%). Workers on the move were not noticed in concerns due to telework can be contemporarily
Italy at all, while Belgium and Hungary had a similar activated in the time-space geography ‘aquarium’
low proportion but better than United Kingdom (Fig.5).
(1.5%).
Tele-home workers took the largest average
proportion (19.7%). The results moved from 10%

6
Traditional workers (stationary workers) – in more than one
or at just one location belonging to the employer or other traditional
workplaces
Mobile workers – on the move (while travelling) or at locations to
a third party
Tele-home workers – in their own home
Mobile and remote workers – on the move or at locations
belonging to a third party and in their own home
Stationary and remote workers – in more than one location
or at just one location belonging to the employer or other traditional
workplaces and in their own home
Stationary and mobile workers – in more than one or at just one
location belonging to the employer or other traditional workplaces
and on the move (while travelling) or at locations belonging to a Figure 5. Adapted from Hagerstrand’s time
third party geography ‘aquarium’ [10]
Stationary, remote and mobile workers – in more than one or at
just one location belonging to the employer or other traditional We used the Eurostat pilot survey to measure
workplaces and in their own home and on the move (while
travelling) or at locations belonging to a third party telework in Slovenia and to create a teleworker’s
profile, because these questions assessed his or her
usability, validity and reliability at work. This
research was selected to correlate three factors which
concern telework. Hypotheses reflected the situations
where we got a temporal, spatial and technological
picture of telework. We can conclude that a
teleworker is a man in the second phase of adulthood
who works in a small-siyed company and has an
informal agreement.
We consider the questionnaire as a convincing
argument that draws the employer’s and employee’s
attention to this worrying matter. At the same time
this is great opportunity for a good comparison with
the mentioned countries.
The impact of place, time and ICT constitutes
telework in Slovenia as a perspective employment
which promises labour relations in tertiary sector. In
general, the wok conditions are more suitable, but the
problem is in superficial and incomplete knowledge
of telework. Slovenia, a member state of the European
Union, is far behind other member states in this
domain. Compared to the situation, we are deprived
of telework associations and national reports.
Through the survey we tried to put suggestions for
recommendations on the implementation strategy of
telework in our working environment. We want to put
more attention to this phenomenon in the labour
market also because ICT supports telework on the
whole and simplifies its process temporally and
spatially.
However, our paper is a note of a research
consensus that telework in this country needs to be
assigned an important role in the tertiary sector. The
issues dealt with in this survey demonstrated no large
distinction in the typology of teleworker from
Slovenia in comparison to the teleworker from other
countries included in the Eurostat survey. In some
cases, Slovenia has displayed better results. It is
unreasonable that no progress has been made during
all these transit years.
It is high time for our Ministry of Labour to
recognize the employers’ need for telework and to
stimulate this kind of work, which saves the problem
of unemployed disabled workers. Absence from the
office, which may present a problem for the
employer, can be balanced out with a contract that
includes a merit pay. Concerns about teleworking as a
form of exploitation of place, time and ICT are most
relevant for the virtual work system that is created
here.
Teleworking is one of a number of more flexible
forms of working, which challenge the paradigm of a
'normal' working week in a 'normal' workplace. Trade
union bodies should continue to work in the
International Labour Organization to develop
conventions (such as that passed for home workers
and proposed for contract workers) which adequately
cover these ways of working [3]. The promise of the
future work lies in ICT, where the place and time do
not play the key roles in labour relations.
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