Math 351 Homework 9 Solutions The Graders

This assignment is due Tuesday, 7 April, 2020 at 8am on Canvas. Please write
your name, section number, and the names of any collaborators at the top of your
homework. Homework should be written or typed legibly using complete sentences.
Remember to justify all answers fully!

Problem 1. Express the following as a product of disjoint cycles, then compute its
order.

(a) (14)(27)(523)(34)(1472)

(b) (7236)(85)(571)(1537)(486)

(c) (12345)(54321)

(d) (1234)(24)(43215)

Solution 1. (a) (1573)(24). This element is of order 4, the least common multiple
of its cycle lengths.

(b) (123)(456)(78). This element is of order 6.

(c) (1). This element is of order 1.

(d) (153). This element is of order 3.

Problem 2. List all the elements of the alternating group A4 . Hint: there are
4!/2 = 12 of them.

Solution 2. An element of the alternating group is a permutation that can be

expressed as the product of an even number of transpositions. First we have the iden-
tity. Next we have the products of disjoint transpositions: (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23).
Then note that any 3 cycle (xyz) can be written as (xy)(xz), so all 3 cycles are ele-
ments of the alternating group. This gives (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243).
Finally observe that we have found 12 elements, so this must be all of A4 .

Problem 3. Here we will figure out how to find the maximal order of a permutation
in the symmetric group Sn .

(a) Suppose that σ = α1 · · · αr expresses σ ∈ Sn as a product of disjoint cycles,

r
X
where αi is a ki -cycle. Prove that ki ≤ n.
i=1

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 r
X
(b) The maximal order will happen with ki = n, each ki > 1, and the ki are
i=1
pairwise relatively prime. For the case of n = 7, find all such combinations.
Then find the greatest lcm(ki ) out of those combinations.

(c) Repeat part (b) for n = 8.

Solution 3. (a) This is because the cycles α1 , ..., αr are disjoint; since the terms
of each cycle are taken from the set {1, ..., n}, there are at most n of them.
For example, the permutation (123)(45) has disjoint cycles (123) and (45). To
(123) we associate the set {1, 2, 3} and to (45) we associate the set {4, 5}. In
this case the sum of the ki ’s is 3 + 2 = 5; we can be sure it’s less than or equal
to 5, since there are only 5 total elements in the set

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {4, 5},

and there are no overlaps among the sets associated to disjoint cycles.

(b) Here are the combinations, in the notation (k1 , ..., kr ) → LCM (k1 , ..., kr ):

• (7) → 7
• (5, 2) → 10
• (4, 3) → 12
• (3, 2, 2) → 6

(c) • (8) → 8
• (6, 2) → 6
• (5, 3) → 15
• (4, 4) → 4
• (4, 2, 2) → 4
• (3, 3, 2) → 6.
Problem 4. We are going to construct another canonical representation of G.
(a) Our first guess is ψ : G → Aut(G) defined by ψg (a) = a · g. Show that this
map is not a group homomorphism.

(b) Show that ρ : G → Aut(G) defined by ρg (a) = a · g −1 is an injective group

homomorphism. This is the right regular representation.

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Solution 4. (a) Suppose that g1 and g2 are elements of G which do not commute,
i.e. g1 · g2 6= g2 · g1 . Let a ∈ G. Then ψg1 ·g2 (a) = a · (g1 · g2 ), while ψg1 ◦ ψg2 (a) =
(a · g2 ) · g1 . Thus ψg1 ·g2 6= ψg1 ◦ ψg2 , so ψ is not a homomorphism.

(b) We have ρg1 ·g2 (a) = a · (g1 · g2 )−1 = a · g2−1 · g1−1 = ρg1 ◦ ρg2 (a); therefore ρ is a
group homomorphism. It remains to show that ρg = eAut(G) =⇒ g = eG (this
is injectivity). Indeed, suppose that ρg (a) = a · g −1 = a. Then, canceling the
a’s, we get g −1 = eG , which implies g = eG .

Problem 5. Let σ be a k-cycle in Sn .

(a) Prove that σ 2 is still a cycle if and only if k is odd. Hint: σ 2 still only involves
k numbers, so you should prove that σ 2 is a k-cycle if and only if it still has
order k.

(b) If k = 2`, prove that there are two `-cycles α, β such thatσ 2 = αβ.

Solution 5. (a) Explicitly, when k = 2n, (a1 a2 ...a2n )2 = (a1 a3 ...a2n−1 )(a2 a4 ...a2n ),
which is not a cycle unless n = 1 and it is the empty cycle. On the other hand,
(a1 ...a2n+1 )2 = (a1 a3 ...a2n+1 a2 a4 ...a2n ), which is still a k = 2n + 1 cycle.

(b) If k = 2l, (a1 a2 ...ak )2 = (a1 a3 ...ak−3 ak−1 )(a2 a4 ...ak−2 ak ). Each cycle is of length
l since it contains either all of the odd numbers (or even numbers) between 1
and 2l. As an example, (123456)2 = (135)(246)

Problem 6. Here is a useful trick that we used a lot in the past lecture. Recall that
conjugation of a by g means the element gag −1 .

(a) Compute (123)(12)(321), (123)(23)(321), and (123)(13)(321). Hint: these are

all transpositions.

(b) Think about (123) as a bijective function σ : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3}. Verify that
σ ◦ (12) ◦ σ −1 = (σ(1) σ(2)) (and the analogous statements for (13) and (23)).

(c) Prove that for any cycle α = (a1 a2 · · · ak ),

σ ◦ α ◦ σ −1 = (σ(a1 ) σ(a2 ) · · · σ(ak )).

This gives us a handy way to do some computations in the symmetric group.

Solution 6. (a) (123)(12)(321)=(23). (123)(23)(321)=(13). (123)(13)(321)=(12).

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 (b)
σ ◦ (12) ◦ σ −1 (1) = σ ◦ (12)(3) = σ(3) = 1
σ ◦ (12) ◦ σ −1 (2) = σ ◦ (12)(1) = σ(2) = 3
σ ◦ (12) ◦ σ −1 (3) = σ ◦ (12)(2) = σ(1) = 2
Thus σ ◦ (12) ◦ σ −1 leaves 1 fixed and swaps 2 and 3. Thus σ ◦ (12) ◦ σ −1 =
(23) = (σ(1) σ(2))
Caution: there is some ambiguity in the above notation: we’re using the paren-
thetical “(12)” to refer to the transposition, while the parenthetical “(1), (2),”
and “(3)” refer to elements being acted upon.
For the other two statements:

σ ◦ (13) ◦ σ −1 (1) = σ ◦ (13)(3) = σ(1) = 2

σ ◦ (13) ◦ σ −1 (2) = σ ◦ (13)(1) = σ(3) = 1

σ ◦ (13) ◦ σ −1 (3) = σ ◦ (13)(2) = σ(2) = 3
Thus σ ◦ (13) ◦ σ −1 leaves 3 fixed and swaps 1 and 2. Thus σ ◦ (13) ◦ σ −1 =
(21) = (σ(1) σ(3))

σ ◦ (23) ◦ σ −1 (1) = σ ◦ (23)(3) = σ(2) = 3

σ ◦ (23) ◦ σ −1 (2) = σ ◦ (23)(1) = σ(1) = 2
σ ◦ (23) ◦ σ −1 (3) = σ ◦ (23)(2) = σ(3) = 1
Thus σ ◦ (23) ◦ σ −1 leaves 2 fixed and swaps 1 and 3. Thus σ ◦ (23) ◦ σ −1 =
(31) = (σ(2) σ(3))

(c) We first show that for each i ∈ {1, ..., k}, σ ◦ α ◦ σ −1 (σ(ai )) = σ(ai+1 ), where
ak+1 is defined to equal a1 .

σ ◦ α ◦ σ −1 (σ(ai )) = σ ◦ α(ai ) = σ(ai+1 ).

Then, we show that if b ∈ / {σ(a1 ), ..., σ(ak )}, then σ ◦ α ◦ σ −1 (b) = b. Now,
σ (b) is not in the set {a1 , ..., ak }. Therefore α(σ −1 (b)) = σ −1 (b). Thus
−1

σ ◦ α ◦ σ −1 (b) = σ(σ −1 (b)) = b.

Problem 7. Prove that S4 is not generated by (13) and (1234), and further show
that h(13), (1234)i ∼
= D4 .

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Solution 7. A simple proof, albeit not the most rigorous, that S4 is not generated
by {(13), (1234)}, is as follows.

Each of the permutations (13) and (1234) can be enacted on a solid square labeled
as below, with only flips and rotations, respectively. Therefore, no composition of
these permutations could ever require us to perform the permutation (12), which
would break or tear the solid square. The above argument also shows (again, infor-
mally) that (13), (1234) generate a group isomorphic to D4 , since we have both the
generators necessary for D4 : a rotation, and a flip.

Problem 8. What are the possible orders of elements in S5 ? What are the actual
orders of elements that appear?

Solution 8. There are a number of possible ways to answer what the possible or-
ders of elements of S5 are, but here is one natural response: since S5 is a group of
order 120, every element of S5 has order dividing 120. Therefore the possible orders
are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 24, 30, 40, 60, 120. To determine what orders actually

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appear, we first list out the possible cycle types for elements of S5 .

5
4+1
3+2
3+1+1
2+2+1
2+1+1+1
1+1+1+1+1

Then, to find the actual orders of elements in S5 , we need only take the least common
multiples of the numbers appearing in each cycle decomposition.

5→5
4+1→4
3+2→6
3+1+1→3
2+2+1→2
2+1+1+1→2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 → 1.

Thus, the actual orders of elements are {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Problem 9. Prove that the transpositions (12), (13), . . . , (1 n) generate Sn . Hint:
show that any transposition is a product of ones of this form similar to how we did
it in class.
Solution 9. First we show that the transpositions (12), (13), . . . , (1n) generate the
set of all transpositions. To show this, we have that (1k)(1j)(1k) = (jk). Thus any
transposition (jk) can be generated.
Finally, recall from class that the set of transpositions {(ij) : i, j ∈ {1, ..., n}}
generates Sn .
Problem 10. Let f : Sn → Sn+2 be the function defined by f (σ) = σ when σ is
even and f (σ) = σ(n + 1 n + 2) when σ is odd. Prove that this is an injective group
homomorphism whose image is in An+2 .
Solution 10. To show that f is a homomorphism, we need to show f (ab) = f (a)f (b).
If a and b are even, then f (a) = a and f (b) = b. Also ab is an even permutation

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as well so f (ab) = ab. Thus if a and b are both even f (ab) = f (a)f (b) = ab.
Now suppose a and b are both odd. Then ab is even so f (ab) = ab. f (a)f (b) =
a · (n + 1 n + 2) · b · (n + 1 n + 2). Note that a and b commute with (n + 1 n + 2)
since because a, b ∈ Sn , they must consist of disjoint cycles. Thus

f (a)f (b) = a · (n + 1 n + 2) · b · (n + 1 n + 2) = a · b · (n + 1 n + 2) · (n + 1 n + 2) = ab

as the two copies of (n + 1 n + 2) compose to the identity. Finally, suppose one of a

and b is odd, and the other is even. Then ab is odd. Thus f (ab) = ab(n + 1 n + 2).
f (a)f (b) will also have exactly one copy of (n + 1 n + 2), which can be moved to the
right since the cycles commute. Thus this case works as well. Thus f is indeed a
homomorphism.
To check whether f is injective, we just need to check that the preimage of the
identity contains only the identity. Suppose f (a) = e. Then clearly a must be even,
else f (a) would have a copy of (n + 1 n + 2). Since a is even, f (a) = a. Therefore
a = e.
To check whether the image of f is in An+2 , we need to check that f (a) is an
even permutation for any a. If a is even, then f (a) = a, so f (a) is even. If a is odd,
the f (a) is a composed with another another transposition, which results in an even
permutation. Thus in both cases f (a) is even, which is what we wanted to show.

Problem 11. For the following groups G and subgroups H, list all the left cosets.

(a) G = D4 , H = hr2 i

(b) G = C× , H = R× . Warning: this is accidentaly way harder than I meant and

you can skip it.

(c) G = S4 , H = A4

Solution 11. (a) Here let r be a rotation of the square, and s be a flip of the
square. Then the cosets are {r2 , e}, {r, r3 }, {sr2 , s}, {rs, sr}

(b) The cosets are lines through the origin in the complex plane. The coset cor-
responding to a complex number c, is the set of all nonzero complex numbers
lying on the line that goes through c and the origin.

(c) Since this subgroup is index 2, there will be two cosets. One is A4 itself, and
the other is the rest of the elements in S4 that are not in A4 .

Problem 12. Let H = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}.

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 (a) Prove that H is a subgroup of A4 , thus a subgroup of S4 too.

(b) What is the index [S4 : H]?

(c) What is the index [A4 : H]?

Solution 12. (a) To check that H is a subset of A4 , we just need to check that
all the elements of H are even permutations. We have the identity, which is
even, and 3 other elements which are products of two disjoint transpositions.
Since a permutations is even if and only if it can be written as a product of
an even number of transpositions, H only contains even permutations. Now
to show H is a subgroup of A4 , we need to check closure under multiplication
and inverses. Let e = (1), a = (12)(34), b = (13)(24), c = (14)(23). Then
a2 = b2 = c2 = e, ab = c, ac = b, bc = a. We have a−1 = a, b−1 = b, c−1 = c.
Thus our subset is indeed closed under multiplication and inverses, then we
exhausted all possible multiplications. Thus H is a subgroup of A4 , and since
A4 is a subgroup of S4 , H is a subgroup of S4 as well.

(b) S4 has 4! = 24 elements, and H has 4 elements. Thus the index is 24/4 = 6.

(c) A4 has 4!/2 = 12 elements, and H has 4 elements. Thus the index is 12/4 = 3.

Problem 13. Consider the multiplicative groups (Z/nZ)× for n > 2. Prove that
n − 1 is always an element of order 2. Conclude that (Z/nZ)× always has even order
when n > 2.

Solution 13. First note that when n > 2, n − 1 > 1, so [n − 1] 6= [1], and thus n − 1
is not the identity. Thus n − 1 must have order greater than 1. Now consider n − 1
squared mod n. (n − 1)2 = n2 − 2n + 1 = n(n − 2) + 1, which is equivalent to 1 mod
n. Thus n − 1 has order 2. Since the order of an element must divide the order of
the group (Lagrange’s theorem), we conclude that (Z/nZ)× must have even order.
Another possible approach could have been to note that [n − 1] = [−1], and that
[−1]2 = [1].

Problem 14. Prove that a group of order 8 must always contain an element of order
2. Hint: the non-identity elements can only have order 2, 4, or 8. In one case we’re
done. In the other two cases, we can construct an element of order 2.

Solution 14. Let G be a group of order 8, and let g be an arbitrary non identity
element in G. Since the order of this element must divide the order of the group,
the order of g must be 2,4 or 8. If it is 2, we are done. If it is 4, then g 2 is not the

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identity. However (g 2 )2 = g 4 = e, so g 2 is an element of order 2 in G. Similarly, if
g has order 8, then g 4 is not the identity, and (g 4 )2 = g 8 = e, so g 4 is an element of
order 2 in G.