02/07/2015

Wind Engineering and

Building Aerodynamics

Adam Goliger

1st module of 4, focused on:

• overview
• types of wind events
• full-scale wind observation
• basis of aerodynamics

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All structures and elements,

subjected to wind flow,
generate loads which can
sometimes be detrimental or
destructive

Relatively new discipline of

science technology
- originated due to spectacular failures,
and
- limitations identified in the design of
large / tall civil engineering structures
and buildings
Enabled humanity to develop sky scrapers
and long suspended deck bridges

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Tacoma Narrow bridge

Ferrybridge
cooling towers

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Role of Wind Engineering

Weather / Atmospheric
Science

Wind Engineering:
response of structures
to wind action;
boundary-layer science

Civil / Structural
Engineering – design of
Build Environment
Design standards

Activities:
Full-scale measurements of wind action and
response of structures
Analysis of full-scale climatic data
Investigation of damage / disaster
Statistics of wind and damage
Flow regime in complex terrain (topography /
built-up)
Inputs to design manuals / codes
Wind-tunnel modelling

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statistics

climatic
science
civil aerodynamics
structural
engineering

mechanical
engineering
electronics
architecture

Wind damage to built

environment

Finger of God,
Namibia,
sandstone
formation, in
this form for
several
thousand years
- collapse 4
Dec 1988

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Complete devastation
(Albertynsville, Nov 1952)

PRIMARY ATMOSPHERIC
CIRCULATION
Determined by earth rotation
and temperature difference between
Equator and poles.
• three bands on each side
of the Equator
• air masses cold or warm /
difference in the weight
• as the globe rotates properties
change due to conditions
over the surface they travel

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Types of windstorms
• Frontal cyclones
• Tropical cyclones
• Thunderstorms
• Tornadoes
• Downbursts
• Downslope / berg winds

Large frontal event

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UK
Extent of
frontal events
comparable
with the size of
large countries
- footprint of a
European
winter front Germany

France

isophlets
in m/s

Frontal cyclones

• centrifugal force
away from centre
of isobars
• closer to earth
surface frictional
forces play larger
role
• act in direction
opposite to the flow
• the wind vector
gradually turns
towards the low
pressure centre

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Boundary layer profile – relevant to frontal

cyclones - design basis for all wind loading
manuals / standards

Tropical cyclones
(satellite image)

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Tropical cyclones
Occur in many parts of the world:
• East Asia – typhoons
• North America hurricanes
• Indian Ocean – cyclones
clockwise vs anticlockwise

Tropical Cyclone belt

NB. - not critical for SA (protection due to Madagascar), but relevant /
Important to Mozambique
- standard design process and parameters not sufficient - additional
considerations necessary !

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Generated over oceans with surface

greater than 27deg temperature
• between latitudes 5 and 30 deg
• typical diameter 500km
• in southern hemisphere occur throughout the year
• travel with wind speed of 15 to 50 km/hr
• last typically few days
• typical highest sustained surface winds 45-50m/s (Nov 2013
Philippines nearly 90 m/s)
• usually dissipate over land
• can transform to frontal cyclones
• can produce large number of thunderstorms and tornadoes
(one in the US produced – 115 tornadoes)
• fatigue can become an important design consideration

Wind speed with distance

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Thunderstorms
(radar image)

Thunderstorm anvil

Outflow /
leader gust
typically most
critical, short
duration up to
few minutes

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DEVELOPMENT AND
CHARACTERISTICS

• Develop as a result of thermal instabilities in the

atmosphere - significant upward movement of air
caused by thermodynamic convection in which rising
hot air saturates and forms cumulus cloud
• Thunderstorm cells can develop three types of
arrangements: isolated cells, squall lines or large
supercells
• All have relatively small spatial extent in comparison
with fronts (difficult to track and measure)
• Can move in any direction – omni-directional winds
• Wind speeds comparable to frontal events –
occasionally augmented if embedded in frontal
events

Three typical weak to moderate thunderstorm

formations/footprints N

40 dBZ
30 dBZ
0 5 10 km
(determined from reflectivity 20 dBZ storm motion

images): (a)

strong thunderstorm
weak / moderate - 20 m/s
½ hour duration, 10 km travel 50 dBZ
distance 40 dBZ

N 30 dBZ

strong – 25 m/s 0 5 10 km
20 dBZ

storm motion
duration 1 hour, travel distance 25- (b)
30 km
intense thunderstorm

intense - 25 m/s
duration 2 hrs, travel distance 50-60
km
50 dBZ

40 dBZ
30 dBZ

20 dBZ

0 5 10 km
storm motion

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In unstable atmospheric conditions, associated with

intense thunderstorms tornadoes, downbursts,
and microbursts

Internationally accepted as extreme events

- not covered in the design standards

• small impact area (typically few km

square)
• small probability of occurrence for specific
location / structure (eg. return periods in
terms of thousands of years)
• applicable to nuclear facilities or line-like
structures
• not possible to predict

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Oranje River

Kliphuis
47
Naaugekneldt

Footprints: tornado 95
Stofbakkies
58

Welkom 1990; Glen Allen

44 Prieska
100
De Hoek

Uitdraai
150

downburst Prieska 60

dorpsgronde
73

1960 Prieskapoort
70
Grashoek
38
P. Poort nr 2
45

0 2 4 km
extent of storm

note: rainfall for the duration of the storm in mm

power lines

mine shafts

Flamingopark

± 17 km

Distribution
20
of tornadic events 1905-1997
Zimbabwe

Mozambique
Botswana
Northern Province

25 GP
Mpumalanga
North West Province

Swaziland

KZN
Northern Cape Free State

Lesotho
30

Key

Eastern Cape tornadoes

GP = Gauteng Province
Western Cape KZN = KwaZulu-Natal

35 0 25 100 200 km

20 25 30 35

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Mean annual rate of occurrence (per year / per

km sq.)

Probability of wind speed

occurrence point structure

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Line-like structures (per

100km)

Downslope / berg winds

• Typically
generated by
warm mass
cold fronts
front
• Layers of cold
air descending clouds
cold mass
from mountain
peaks
streamlines
• At foothills
speeds
comparable to
those in cold hill

fronts rain

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Determination / quantification
of wind action

Implications of wind action on build

environment – function of severity and
other characteristics e.g. duration,
correlation etc.

Full-scale measurements
(WS recording system - anemometers)

Pressure Dines RM Young

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WS AWS installation

WS daily records on wind speed

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5 min data

Recording done every 2-3 sec

(frequency response) but
overwritten and the highest peak
and mean in each 5 min period +
mean direction kept

Two approaches to determine loadings:

important relationship between mean and peak
gust factor

− ∩
L = f ( P, C p )
or
∩ −
L = f ( P, C p )

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For design purposes – high

magnitude / extreme winds with low
probability of occurrence – 50 year
service of built environment >> 50
year return period

Extreme value analysis – elaborate subject: eg.

filtering, various mathematical processes;
typically observation period of time too short !

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Isophlets of 3sec gust wind speed - based on 14 weather stations,

typically at airports (stats developed in 1980’s) - currently used

Comparison with Holland & UK

1500 60

1000 40

500 20

0 0
The The
Netherlands UK South Africa Netherlands UK South Africa

(a) (b)

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Several problems, filtering of data, importantly incorrect

positioning : proximity of structures

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… or even bigger structures

Future map implemented in SANS 10160-3

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Selected aerodynamic principles

Bernoulli equation
(pressure sum of static and dynamic)

• Applicable to laminar flow

under assumptions of steady
movement of particles (no
acceleration, small viscosity, no
vorticity)
• Rarely valid in built
environment but useful / critical
equation: P=f(v2)

Bernoulli’s equation
Along any streamline the sum of
static and dynamic pressure
remains constant
po + 1 / 2 ρv 2
= H
H (total pressure head)
Also in a streamline equation of
continuity holds in which
v ⋅ A remains constant

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From Bernoulli’s and continuity equations:

converging streamlines increase in wind speed and
decrease in static pressure. Opposite for diverging
streamlines.
This is fundamental principle of generation of pressures /
loads

Vortex shedding
due to friction and viscosity flow can
de-cellerate, separate and reverse vortex generation

For curved / cylindrical

sections point of
separation determined by
surface roughness,
turbulence of the flow; in
particularly Reynolds
number
Re = f (v,V , D )

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For rectangular elements largely independent of

Reynolds number– at fixed points sharp corner

can lead to alternating pressures, i.e. cross wind force

- if at frequency close to the natural - cross wind
excitations can develop

Streamlined and bluff bodies

(structural engineering bluff)

Stagnation
point pressure
coefficient 1,0
– equivalent to
the dynamic
pressure
measured by
pitot-tube
facing the flow

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nature of
streamlining

Pressure distribution around an

infinitely long prism:
a) short afterbody b) long afterbody

Variation of drag
with afterbody
length

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Flow over an isolated building – 3d

situation

Variation of drag with aspect ratio and

afterbody length for rectangular buildings

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Standing delta vortex over the roof

edge

Future presentations:

- wind damage disaster

- wind loading
- wind-tunnel modelling

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Thank you (the role of the engineers)

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