English For Mechatronics Engineering 2021

DANANG UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Danang, 2019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... i
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS ...................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 1: MECHATRONICS ..................................................................................4
1.1 What is Mechatronics? .................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Mechatronics Engineering .............................................................................................. 5
1.3 Examples of Mechatronics System ................................................................................. 6
1.4 Mechatronics System ...................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Roles of Mechatronics in Industrial 4.0 .......................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 2: LOGIC GATES ........................................................................................7
CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ............................................13
3.1 Resistance ..................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Diode ............................................................................................................................. 14
3.3 LED ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Seven-Segment Display (SSD) ..................................................................................... 21
3.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) ................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 4: MICROCONTROLLER .......................................................................27
4.1 Introduction to Microcontroller .................................................................................... 27
4.2 Important Features ........................................................................................................ 28
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4.3 Memory Organization ................................................................................................... 30
4.4 Why PIC? ...................................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 5: SENSOR ..................................................................................................37
5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 37
5.2. Classification................................................................................................................ 39
5.3. Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 41
5.4. Application ................................................................................................................... 42
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 6: MECHANICAL INTRODUCTION .....................................................43
6.1 Mechanisms .................................................................................................................. 43
6.3 Types of Motion ............................................................................................................ 47
6.4 Degree of Freedom ....................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 7: CAMS ......................................................................................................50
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 50
7.2 Eccentric Cam ............................................................................................................... 52
7.3 Drop Cam ...................................................................................................................... 53
7.4 Flat Cam ........................................................................................................................ 54
CHAPTER 8: GEARS ....................................................................................................56
8.1 Introduction to Gear ...................................................................................................... 56
8.2 Spur Gear ...................................................................................................................... 58
8.3 Helical Gear .................................................................................................................. 59
8.4 Double Helical Gear ..................................................................................................... 60
8.5 Bevel Gear .................................................................................................................... 61
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8.6 Worm Gear.................................................................................................................... 62
8.7 Rack and Pinion ............................................................................................................ 64
8.8 Gear Train ..................................................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER 9: BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES ...............................................................67
9.1 Pros and Cons of Belt Driver ........................................................................................ 68
9.2 Flat Belts ....................................................................................................................... 69
9.3 Round Belts ................................................................................................................... 71
9.4 Vee Belt (V-belt)........................................................................................................... 72
9.5 Timing belt .................................................................................................................... 75
9.6 Chain Drive ................................................................................................................... 77
9.7 Chains Versus Belts ...................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 10: BEARINGS ...........................................................................................76
10.1 Deep-Groove ............................................................................................................... 77
10.2 Filling - Slot ................................................................................................................ 78
10.3 Angular Contact .......................................................................................................... 79
10.4 Double-Row ................................................................................................................ 80
10.5 Self-Aligning............................................................................................................... 81
10.6 Straight-Roller Bearing ............................................................................................... 83
10.7 Taper Roller ................................................................................................................ 84
10.8 Needle Roller .............................................................................................................. 86
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................88
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PART 1
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 1: MECHATRONICS
1.1 What is Mechatronics?

The definition of mechatronics has evolved since the original definition by the
Yasakawa Electric Company. In trademark application documents, Yasakawa defined
mechatronics in this way:
“The word, mechatronics, is composed of “mecha” from mechanism and the
“tronics” from electronics.” In other words, technologies and developed products will
be incorporating electronics more and more into mechanisms, intimately and
organically, and making it impossible to tell where one ends and the other begins.
The definition of mechatronics continued to evolve after Yasakawa suggested the
original definition. One of quoted definition of mechatronics was presented by
Harashima, Tomizuka, and Fukada in 1996.
English for Mechatronics Engineering 4

In their words, mechatronics is defined as the synergistic integration of
mechanical engineering, with electronics and intelligent computer control in the
design and manufacturing of industrial products and processes.
That same year, another definition was suggested by Auslander and Kempf:
“Mechatronics is the application of complex decision making to the operation of
physical systems.”
Yet another definition due to Shetty and Kolk appeared in 1997:
“Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of electromechanical
products.”
More recently, we find the suggestion by W. Bolton:
“A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical systems
and is more than just a control system; it is a complete integration of all of them.”
1.2 Mechatronics Engineering

Mechatronic engineers work in all aspects of the development of the smart
machine – from design and testing right through to manufacture. This could be in
industries like robotics, medical and assistive technology, human-machine
interaction, manufacturing, unmanned aerial and ground vehicles and education.
Job for mechatronics engineer:
• Develop new solutions to industrial problems using mechanical and electronic
processes and computer technology.
• Design and build completely new products by integrating various
technologies, for example, developing robotic vehicles for underwater
exploration.
• Build and test factory production lines introducing automation to improve
existing processes.
• Maintain and improve previous industrial and manufacturing processes and
designs, for example, robotic lawn mowers and robot floor cleaners.
• Design, develop, maintain and manage high technology engineering systems
for the automation of industrial tasks.

• Apply electronic and mechanical processes and computers to tasks where the
use of human labor may be dangerous (like underwater exploration, mining or
forestry).
• Study the feasibility, cost implications and performance benefits of new
mechatronic equipment.
• Carry out modelling, simulation and analysis of complex mechanical, electronic
or other engineering systems using computers.
Where do Mechatronic engineers work
• Mechatronic engineers work in companies that require hi-tech input into what
they are developing. They may work in a laboratory, a processing plant or an
engineering office but are also research opportunities in emerging fields like
bioengineering, nanotechnology and robotics.
1.3 Examples of Mechatronics System

• Home appliances (e.g. washing machines): Many of the home appliances that
are in use today are mechatronic systems. They are manufactured in large
numbers and typically require small controllers to be “embedded” within
them.
Figure 1.1 Washing machine system

• Elevators and escalators: They have many sensors to detect the position and
speed of the elevator car, as well as any calls registered by the passengers. It
has many actuators, the most important of which is the main hoist motor.
Safety is also paramount in these systems as they carry human beings.

Figure 1. 2 Elevator system
• Mobile robots and manipulator arms: Robots are widely used today in all
spheres of life. Robots are generally used for applications that are inaccessible
(difficult locations to get to due to height or space), dull (repetitive and tedious
tasks), or dangerous (hazardous environments).
Figure 1.3 Robotics

• Sorting and packaging systems in production lines: Mechatronic systems are
effectively the basis for modern factory automation.
Figure 1.4 Automation system (MES-Manufacturing Execution System,

EAP Equipment Automation Program, CIM-Computer Integrated Manufacturing)
1.4 Mechatronics System
Figure 1.5 Mechatronics definition

• Mechanical engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the principle
of physics and materials science in the manufacturing, design and
maintenance of mechanical systems

• Electrical engineering is a branch of engineering that specializes in the design,
construction and practical uses of electrical systems
• Control engineering or control systems engineering is an engineering
discipline that applies automatic control theory to design systems with desired
behaviors in control environments.
• Computer engineering refers to the study that integrates electronic
engineering with computer sciences to design and develop computer systems
and other technological devices.
1.5 Roles of Mechatronics in Industrial 4.0

Write a short paragraph (4-5 sentences) to express your opinion on the roles
of mechatronics engineering in Industrial 4.0 AKA (the fourth industrial revolution).

CHAPTER 2: LOGIC GATES
Many control systems are concerned with setting events in motion or stopping
them when certain conditions are met. For example, with domestic washing machine,
the heater is only switched on when there is water in the drum, and it is to the
prescribed level. Such control involves digital signals where there are only two
possible signal levels. Digital circuit is the basis of digital computers and
microprocessor-controlled systems. In the digital electronic technique, digital
electronics accept only two numbers, “0” and “1”. This is also known as binary data.
Zero means a 0 V voltage, while “1” means 5 V or 3.3 V on newer integrated circuits.
To process this data to produce something meaningful, it must pass through
some Boolean functions, which takes these binary data as inputs, and output the
processed binary data.
It can be considered “0” and “1” as a light bulb turned off or on or as a switch
turned off or on.
Such an operation is said to be controlled by a LOGIC GATE. Logic gate is the
basic building blocks for digital electronic circuits and is a physical device that
implements a Boolean function. The term combinational logic is used for the
combining of two or more basic logic gates to form a required function.
Figure 2.1 Logic gates
Logic gates are the basic components in digital electronics. They are used to
create digital circuits and even complex integrated circuits. For example, complex

integrated circuits may bring already a complete circuit ready to be used –
microprocessors and microcontrollers are the best example – but inside them they
were projected using several logic gates.
There are standard symbolic notations for the elementary logic gates. The lines
sticking out of the shape represents pins. If a Boolean function, f, takes n inputs and
produces m outputs, the gate must have n input pins, and m output pins.
2.1 AND Gate
Suppose we have a gate giving a high output only when both input A and input B are
high; for all other conditions it gives a low output. This is an AND logic gate. We can
visualize the AND gate as an electric circuit involving two switches in series. Only
when switch A and B are closed, there is a current.
(a) Represented by switches (b) Symbol

Figure 2.2 AND GATE representative and symbol
The relationship between the inputs and the outputs of an AND gate can be
expressed in the form of an equation, called Boolean equation. The Boolean equation
for the AND gate is written as:
A.B=Y
An example is a burglar alarm in which it gives an output, the alarm sounding,
when the alarm is switched on and when a door is opened to active a sensor.
The relationships between inputs to a logic gate and the outputs can be tabulated
in a form known as truth table. This specifies the relationships between the inputs
and outputs. We can write the truth table as:

Table 2.1: AND logic table
A B Output
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
2.2 OR Gate
An OR gate with inputs A and B gives an output of a 1 when A or B is 1. We can
visualize such a gate as an electric circuit involving two switches in parallel. When
switch A or B is closed, then there is a current. OR gates can also have more than
inputs. We can write the Boolean equation for an OR gate as:
A+B=Y
Figure 2.2 AND GATE representative and symbol
Table 2.2: OR logic table

A B Output
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
2.3 NOT Gate
A NOT gate has just one input and one output, giving a 1 output when the input is
0 and a 0 when input is 1. The NOT gate gives an output which is the inversion of the
input and is called an inverter. The 1 representing NOT actually symbolizes logic
identity, i.e. no operation, and the inversion is depicted by the circle on the output.

Thus, if we have a digital input which varies with time, the output variation with time
is the inverse. The Boolean equation describing the NOT gate is:
A=Y
A bar over a symbol is used to indicate that the inverse, or complement, is being
taken; thus the bar over the A indicates that the output Y is the inverse value of A.
Input Output
1
0
Figure 2.3 NOT GATE symbols and truth table

2.4 NAND Gate
A NAND gate can be considered as a combination of an AND gate followed by a
NOT gate. Thus, when input A is 1 and input B is 1, there is an output of 0, all other
inputs giving an output of 1.
The NAND gate is just the AND gate truth table with the outputs inverted. An
alternative way of considering the gate is as an AND gate with a NOT gate applied to
invert both the inputs before they reach the AND gate. The figure below shows the
symbols used for the NAND gate, being the AND symbol followed by the circle to
indicate inversion.
Figure 2.4 NAND GATE symbol
The Boolean equation describing the NAND gate is: A•B=Y

Table 2.3: NAND GATE logic table
A B Output
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

2.5 NOR Gate
A NOR gate can be considered as a combination of an OR gate followed by a

NOT gate. Thus, when input A or input B is 1 there is an output of 0. It is just the OR
gate with the outputs inverted. An alternative way of considering the gate is as an OR
gate with a NOT gate applied to invert both the inputs before they reach the OR gate.
The figure below shows the symbols used for the NOR gate; it is the OR symbol
followed by the circle to indicate inversion.
Table 2.4: NOR GATE truth table

A B Output
0 0
0 1
1 0
Figure 2.5 NOR GATE symbol
1 1
The Boolean equation for NOR gate is:
A+ B =Y
2.6 XOR Gate
A XOR stands for exclusive OR. XOR gate compares two values and if they are
different its output will be “1.” XOR operation is represented by the symbol ⊕. So
Y = A ⊕ B is the Boolean equation for the XOR gate.
Table 2.5: XOR GATE truth table

A B Output
0 0
0 1
Figure 2.6 XOR GATE symbol 1 0
1 1

2.7 XNOR Gate
A XNOR stands for exclusive NOR and is an XOR gate with its output inverted.
So, its output is at “1” when the inputs have the same value and “0” when they are
different. XNOR operation is represented by the symbol (·). The Boolean equation for
XNOR gate is:
A (·) B = Y
Figure 2.7: XNOR GATE symbols
Table 2.6: XNOR GATE truth table

A B Output
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
3.1 Resistance
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the passage
of a steady electric current. An object of uniform cross section will have a resistance
proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, and
proportional to the resistivity of the material.
Discovered by Georg Ohm in the late 1820s, electrical resistance shares some
conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical
resistance is the ohm, symbol Ω. Resistance's reciprocal quantity is electrical
conductance measured in Siemens, symbol S.
The resistance of a resistive object determines the amount of current through the
object for a given potential difference across the object, in accordance with Ohm’s
laws:
V
I=
R
where
R is the resistance of the object, measured in ohms, equivalent to J·s/C2
V is the potential difference across the object, measured in volts
I is the current through the object, measured in amperes
We all know that voltmeter and ammeter are used for measuring the voltage and
the current respectively. For the resistance, the meters that use to measure it is the
ohmmeter. But what if we don't have an ohmmeter to use?
Color coding system for resistors consists of three colors to indicate the
resistance value in ohms of a certain resistor, sometimes the fourth color indicate the
tolerance value of the resistor. By reading the color coded in correct order and
substituting the correct value of each corresponding color coded as shown in the
table below, you can immediately tell all you need to know about the resistor. Each
color band represents a number and the order of the color band will represent a
number value. The first 2 color bands indicate a number. The 3rd color band indicates
the multiplier or in other words the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the
tolerance of the resistor. In most cases, there are 4 color bands. However, certain

precision resistors have 5 bands or have the values written on them, refining the
tolerance value even more.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th band 5th Band

Color
Band Band Band (multiplier) (Tolerance)
Black 0 0 0 100 Ω
Brown 1 1 1 101 Ω
Red 2 2 2 102 Ω
Orange 3 3 3 103 Ω
Yellow 4 4 4 104 Ω
Green 5 5 5 105 Ω
Blue 6 6 6 106 Ω
Violet 7 7 7 107 Ω
Gray 8 8 8 108 Ω
White 9 9 9 109 Ω
Figure 3.1: Color code vs value of resistor
3.2 Diode
A diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with nonlinear resistance
and conductance (i.e., a nonlinear current–voltage characteristic), distinguishing it
from components such as two-terminal linear resistors which obey Ohm's law. A
semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode
(now rarely used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with
two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.

Figure 3.2: Diode
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an
electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called
rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to
extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are forms of
rectifiers.
Figure 3.3: Forward and reverse biased diode
Current–voltage characteristic
Depending on the voltage applied across it, a diode will operate in one of three
regions:
1. Forward bias: When the voltage across the diode is positive the diode is "on"
and current can run through. The voltage should be greater than the forward
voltage (VF) in order for the current to be anything significant.
2. Reverse bias: This is the "off" mode of the diode, where the voltage is less than
VF but greater than -VBR. In this mode current flow is (mostly) blocked, and the

diode is off. A very small amount of current (on the order of mA) - called reverse
saturation current - is able to flow in reverse through the diode.
3. Breakdown: When the voltage applied across the diode is very large and
negative, lots of current will be able to flow in the reverse direction, from
cathode to anode.
Figure 3.4: Current – Voltage characteristics of diode
Forward Voltage
In order to "turn on" and conduct current in the forward direction, a diode
requires a certain amount of positive voltage to be applied across it. The typical
voltage required to turn the diode on is called the forward voltage (VF). It might also
be called either the cut-in voltage or on-voltage.
As we know from the i-v curve, the current through and voltage across a diode are
interdependent. More current means more voltage, less voltage means less current.
Once the voltage gets to about the forward voltage rating, though, large increases in
current should still only mean a very small increase in voltage. If a diode is fully
conducting, it can usually be assumed that the voltage across it is the forward voltage
rating.
A specific diode's VF depends on what semiconductor material it's made out of.
Typically, a silicon diode will have a VF around 0.6-1V. A germanium-based diode

might be lower, around 0.3V. The type of diode also has some importance in defining
the forward voltage drop; light-emitting diodes can have a much larger VF, while
Schottky diodes are designed specifically to have a much lower-than-usual forward
voltage.
Breakdown Voltage
If a large enough negative voltage is applied to the diode, it will give in and allow
current to flow in the reverse direction. This large negative voltage is called
the breakdown voltage. Some diodes are actually designed to operate in the
breakdown region, but for most normal diodes it's not very healthy for them to be
subjected to large negative voltages.
For normal diodes this breakdown voltage is around -50V to -100V, or even more
negative.
Diode Datasheets
All of the above characteristics should be detailed in the datasheet for every
diode. For example, this datasheet for a 1N4148 diode lists the maximum forward
voltage (1V) and the breakdown voltage (100V) (among a lot of other information):
Figure 3.5: Datasheet of diode

The Zener Diode
A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction but will suffer
from premature breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across becomes
too high.
However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes
referred too, are basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but they are
specially designed to have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which
takes advantage of any reverse voltage applied to it.
Figure 3.6: Symbol (left) and photo (right) of Zener diode
The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a
silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is anode positive
with respect to its cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the
rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through
itself when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the
Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the Zener
diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
The current now flowing through the Zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once
achieved, this reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of
reverse voltages. The voltage point at which the voltage across the Zener diode
becomes stable is called the “Zener voltage”, (Vz ) and for Zener diodes this voltage
can range from less than one volt to a few hundred volts.

The basic function of Zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across its
terminals within given limits of line or load change.
Typically, it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power
supplies and other equipment
Figure 3.7: Zener Diode Regulator
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit

configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current
(AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A
bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in
lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a
transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.
Figure 3.8: Diode bridge

The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the
same regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is also known as
the Graetz circuit after its inventor, physicist Leo Graetz.
Figure 3.9: Graetz circuit
3.3 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-
intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.

Figure 3.10: LED
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for
aviation lighting, automotive lighting (in particular brake lamps, turn signals, and
indicators) as well as in traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays,
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote
control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and
other domestic appliances.
3.4 Seven-Segment Display (SSD)

A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of
electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the
more complex dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital
clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical
information.
A seven-segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven elements.

Individually on or off, they can be combined to produce simplified representations of
the Arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted)
arrangement, which aids readability. In most applications, the seven segments are of
nearly uniform shape and size (usually elongated hexagons, though trapezoids and
rectangles can also be used), though in the case of adding machines, the vertical
segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to further
enhance readability.

G F A B
COM
COM
E D C Dp
Figure 3.11: SSD

In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or all of
the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected and brought out
to a common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common anode"
device. Hence a 7-segment plus decimal point package will only require nine pins
(though commercial products typically contain more pins, and/or spaces where pins
would go, in order to match industry standard pin-outs).
Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits. Some of these
integrated displays incorporate their own internal decoder, though most do not –
each individual LED is brought out to a connecting pin as described. Multiple-digit
LED displays as used in pocket calculators and similar devices used multiplexed
displays to reduce the number of IC pins required to control the display. For example,
all the anodes of the A segments of each digit position would be connected together
and to a driver pin, while the cathodes of all segments for each digit would be
connected. To operate any particular segment of any digit, the controlling integrated
circuit would turn on the cathode driver for the selected digit, and the anode drivers
for the desired segments; then after a short blanking interval the next digit would be
selected and new segments lit, in a sequential fashion. Often in pocket calculators the
digit drive lines would be used to scan the keyboard as well, providing further
savings; however, pressing multiple keys at once would produce odd results on the
multiplexed display.

Decimal Digits 0-9
Select Alpha Characters
Figure 3.12: SSD principle
3.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device
constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or
switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation
involves both electrons and holes.
Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a
junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of
operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in
which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift.
By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected
from a high-concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers
that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier
devices.

Figure 3.13: BJT principles
Figure 3.14: BJT pictures

3.5.1 NPN Type
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped
semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering
the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, an NPN
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
Figure 3.15: BJT NPN type

Most of the NPN current is carried by electrons, moving from emitter to collector
as minority carriers in the P-type base region. Most bipolar transistors used today
are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors,
allowing greater currents and faster operation. A mnemonic device for the
remembering the symbol for an NPN transistor is not pointing in, based on the
arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name. That is, the NPN transistor is the
BJT transistor that is "not pointing in".
Figure 3.16: BJT NPN example

3.5.2 PNP Type
The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor
between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified
in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low
relative to the emitter.
Figure 3.17: BJT PNP type

The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and
point in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward
active mode.
A mnemonic device for the remembering the symbol for a PNP transistor is
pointing in (proudly), based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name.
That is, the PNP transistor is the BJT transistor that is "pointing in".
Figure 3.18: BJT PNP example

CHAPTER 4: MICROCONTROLLER
4.1 Introduction to Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the CPU), non-
volatile memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile memory for input and
output (RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit. Also called a "computer on a chip,"
billions of microcontroller units (MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of
products from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can
use 70 or more microcontrollers.
PIC (usually pronounced as "pick") is a family of microcontrollers made by
Microchip Technology, derived from the PIC1650 originally developed by General
Instrument's Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially referred to Peripheral
Interface Controller. The first parts of the family were available in 1976; by 2013 the
company had shipped more than twelve billion individual parts, used in a wide
variety of embedded systems.
Early models of PIC had read-only memory (ROM) or field-programmable EPROM
for program storage, some with provision for erasing memory. All current models
use flash memory for program storage, and newer models allow the PIC to
reprogram itself. Program memory and data memory are separated. Data memory is
8-bit, 16-bit, and, in latest models, 32-bit wide. Program instructions vary in bit-
count by family of PIC, and may be 12, 14, 16, or 24 bits long. The instruction set also
varies by model, with more powerful chips adding instructions for digital signal
processing functions.
The hardware capabilities of PIC devices range from 6-pin SMD, 8-pin DIP chips
up to 144-pin SMD chips, with discrete I/O pins, ADC and DAC modules, and
communications ports such as UART, I2C, CAN, and even USB. Low-power and high-
speed variations exist for many types.
The manufacturer supplies computer software for development known
as MPLAB, assemblers and C/C++ compilers, and programmer/debugger hardware
under the MPLAB and PICKit series. Third party and some open-source tools are also

available. Some parts have in-circuit programming capability; low-cost development
programmers are available as well as high-production programmers.
PIC devices are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists due to
their low cost, wide availability, large user base, extensive collection of application
notes, and availability of low cost or free development tools, serial programming, and
re-programmable Flash-memory capability.
Figure 4.1: PIC microcontroller

The PIC microcontroller PIC16f877A is one of the most renowned
microcontrollers in the industry. This controller is very convenient to use, the coding
or programming of this controller is also easier. One of the main advantages is that it
can be write-erase as many times as possible because it uses FLASH memory
technology. It has a total number of 40 pins and there are 33 pins for input and
output. PIC16F877A is used in many pic microcontroller projects. PIC16F877A also
have many applications in digital electronics circuits.
4.2 Important Features

Peripheral Features:
✓ Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
✓ Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep
via external crystal/clock
✓ Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and
postscaler
✓ Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules

• Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns
• Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns
• PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
✓ Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™ (Master mode) and I2C™
(Master/Slave)
✓ Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver
✓ Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address detection
✓ Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls
(40/44-pin only)
Analog Features:
✓ 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)
✓ Brown-out Reset (BOR)
✓ Analog Comparator module with:
• Two analog comparators
• Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module
• Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal
voltage reference
• Comparator outputs are externally accessible
Special Microcontroller Features:

✓ 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical
✓ 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory typical
✓ Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years
✓ Self-reprogrammable under software control
✓ In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™) via two pins
✓ Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming
✓ Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation
✓ Programmable code protection
✓ Power saving Sleep mode
✓ Selectable oscillator options
✓ In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

CMOS Technology:
✓ Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology
✓ Fully static design
✓ Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)
✓ Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges
✓ Low-power consumption
CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)
It is not different from another microcontroller’s CPU and the PIC microcontroller
CPU consists of the ALU, CU, MU and accumulator, etc. Arithmetic logic unit is mainly
used for arithmetic operations and to take logical decisions. Memory is used for
storing the instructions after processing. To control the internal and external
peripherals, control unit is used which are connected to the CPU and the accumulator
is used for storing the results and further process.
4.3 Memory Organization

The memory module in the PIC microcontroller architecture consists of RAM
(Random Access Memory), ROM (Read Only Memory) and STACK.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is an unstable memory which is used to store the data temporarily in its
registers. The RAM memory is classified into two banks, and each bank consists of so
many registers. The RAM registers are classified into two types: Special Function
Registers (SFR) and General-Purpose Registers (GPR).
General Purpose Registers (GPR)
The general-purpose register can store a data or a memory location address.

Hence called as General-purpose register. It is a multipurpose register and the CPU
can easily access the data in the registers. They can be used either by programmer or
by a user. For example, when multiplying two numbers, the PIC microcontroller uses
some registers for multiplying and stores the numbers in other registers.

Special Function Registers
These registers are used for special purposes
only as the name SFR implies. These registers
will perform according to the functions assigned
to them, and they cannot be used as normal
registers. For example, the STATUS register
cannot be used for storing the data. This register
is used for showing the operation or status of
the program. So, user cannot change the
function of the SFR; the function is given by the
retailer at the time of manufacturing.
Figure 4.2: PIC structure
Read only memory (ROM)
Read only memory is a stable memory which is used to store the data
permanently. In PIC microcontroller architecture, the architecture ROM stores the
instructions or program, according to the program the microcontroller acts. The ROM
is also called as program memory, wherein the user will write the program
for microcontroller and saves it permanently, and finally the program is executed by
the CPU. The microcontrollers’ performance depends on the instruction, which is
executed by the CPU.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

For normal ROM, the program can be written only once and cannot be rewritten.
But, for EEPROM, the program can be written and rewritten multiple times.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is also programmable read only memory (PROM). PROM can be
read, written and erased multiple times. Generally, the PIC microcontroller is
equipped with this type of PROM.
Stack
When an interrupt occurs, first the PIC microcontroller has to execute the
interrupt and the existing process address. Then that is being executed is stored in

the stack. After completing the execution of the interrupt, the microcontroller calls
the process with the help of address, which is stored in the stack and get executes the
process.
I/O Ports
The series of PIC16 consists of five ports such as Port A, Port B, Port C, Port D &
Port E.
Port A is a 16-bit port that can be used as input or output port based on the status
of the TRISA register. Port B is an 8- bit port that can be used as both input and
output port. Port C is an 8-bit and the input of output operation is decided by the
status of the TRISC register. Port D is an 8-bit port acts as a slave port for connection
to the microprocessor BUS. Port E is a 3-bit port which serves the additional function
of the control signals to the analog to digital converter.
Bus
BUS is used to transfer and receive the data from one peripheral to another. It is
classified into two types such as data bus and address.
▪ Data Bus: It is used for only transfer or receive the data.
▪ Address Bus: Address bus is used to transmit the memory address from the
peripherals to the CPU. I/O pins are used to interface the external peripherals;
UART and USART both are serial communication protocols which are used for
interfacing serial devices like GSM, GPS, Bluetooth, IR, etc.
A/D Converters
The main intention of this analog to digital converter is to convert analog voltage
values to digital voltage values. A/D module of PIC microcontroller consists of 5
inputs for 28 pin devices and 8 inputs for 40 pin devices. The operation of the analog
to digital converter is controlled by ADCON0 and ADCON1 special registers. The
upper bits of the converter are stored in register ADRESH and lower bits of the
converter are stored in register ADRESL. For this operation, it requires 5V of an
analog reference voltage.

Figure 4.3: A/D converter
Timers/ Counters
PIC microcontroller has four timer/counters wherein the one 8-bit timer and the
remaining timers have the choice to select 8 or 16-bit mode. Timers are used for
generating accuracy actions, for example, creating specific time delays between two
operations.
Interrupts
PIC microcontroller consists of 20 internal interrupts and three external interrupt

sources which are associated with different peripherals like ADC, USART, Timers,
and so on.
Serial Communication
Serial communication is the method of transferring data one bit at a time

sequentially over a communication channel.
USART: The name USART stands for Universal synchronous and Asynchronous
Receiver and Transmitter which is a serial communication for two protocols. It is
used for transmitting and receiving the data bit by bit over a single wire with respect
to clock pulses. The PIC microcontroller has two pins TXD and RXD. These pins are
used for transmitting and receiving the data serially.
SPI Protocol: The term SPI stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. This protocol is
used to send data between PIC microcontroller and other peripherals such as SD

cards, sensors and shift registers. PIC microcontroller supports three wire SPI
communications between two devices on a common clock source. The data rate of
SPI protocol is more than that of the USART.
I2C Protocol: The term I2C stands for Inter Integrated Circuit, and it is a serial
protocol which is used to connect low speed devices such as EEPROMS,
microcontrollers, A/D converters, etc. PIC microcontroller supports two wires
Interface or I2C communication between two devices which can work as both Master
and Slave device.
Figure 4.4: PC-PIC communication

CCP Module
The name CCP module stands for capture/compare/PWM where it works in three
modes such as capture mode, compare mode and PWM mode.
▪ Capture Mode: Capture mode captures the time of arrival of a signal, or in

other words, when the CCP pin goes high, it captures the value of the
Timer1.
▪ Compare Mode: Compare mode acts as an analog comparator. When the
timer1 value reaches a certain reference value, then it generates an output.
▪ PWM Mode: PWM mode provides pulse width modulated output with a
10-bit resolution and programmable duty cycle.

4.4 Why PIC?
Code efficiency
The PIC 8 bit microcontroller is based on Harvard architecture, which means
there are separate internal buses for memory and data. The throughput rate is
therefore increased due to simultaneous access to both data and program memory. It
is different to the Von Neumann architecture which shares common bus for both
memory and data.
Safety
All the instructions fit into a 12 or 14 bit program memory word. There is no
likelihood of software jumping onto the DATA section of a program and trying to
execute DATA as instructions.
Instruction set
There are basic 33 instructions for writing a software program to load on the
16C5x family. The lesser number of instructions, the easier the programming task is.
Speed
The PIC has an internal divide by 4 connected between the oscillator and the
internal clock bus (note: there is a divide by 2 in a 8085 microprocessor when
connecting a 6Mhz clock in order to operate the microprocessor at a speed of 3Mhz).
The speed of PIC16F877A is 20 MHz but it can even be operated at a speed of 30Mhz.
Some PIC in 18Fx family can be operated at a speed of 40 Mhz.
Static Operation
The PIC is a fully static microcontroller, in other words, if the clocking signal is
stopped, all the register contents are maintained. However, it is not applicable in
practice, the PIC is usually put into a Sleep mode which will stops the lock and sets up
various flags within the PIC and allows the users to know what state it was in before
the Sleep mode. In Sleep mode, the PIC takes only its standby current which can be
less than 1µA. The need for sleep mode can be easily understood by considering the
fire alarm circuit, since the circuit has to be activated only when there is a fire. The

rest of the time the PIC can be made to be in its sleep mode and be waked up when
there is fire; thus, the power required for the operation of PIC can be largely saved.
Drive Capability
The PIC has a high output drive capability and can directly drive LEDs and TRIACs
etc. Any I/O pin can sink 25mA or 100mA for the whole device.
Options
A range of speed, temperature, package, I/O lines, timer functions, and serial
communication, A/D and memory sizes is available from the PIC family to suit many
applications. PIC microcontroller is programmed mainly using embedded C language.
Some of the compilers, which can be used to make the PIC program, are Mikro C, CCS
C compiler and MPLAB. It is easier to program in embedded C rather than
programming in assembly language. The demo version of these compilers can
compile up to 2KB of program memory.

CHAPTER 5: SENSOR
5.1. Introduction
History has shown that advancements in materials science and engineering
have been important drivers in the development of sensor technologies. For instance,
the temperature sensitivity of electrical resistance in a variety of materials was noted
in the early 1800s and was applied by Wilhelm von Siemens in 1860 to develop a
temperature sensor based on a copper resistor. The high resonance stability of
single-crystal quartz, as well as its piezoelectric properties, have made possible an
extraordinarily wide range of high performance, affordable sensors that have played
an important role in everyday life and national defense. More recently, a new era in
sensor technology was ushered in by the development of large-scale silicon
processing, permitting the exploitation of silicon to create new methods for
transducing physical phenomena into electrical output that can be readily processed
by a computer. Ongoing developments in materials technology will permit better
control of material properties and behavior, thereby offering possibilities for new
sensors with advanced features, such as greater fidelity, lower cost, and increased
reliability.
Figure 5. 1 Automotive sensors

Understanding the physical or chemical effects that yield useful transduction is
important in selecting and designing sensors. However, these effects by themselves
are usually not sufficient to establish an unambiguous sensor classification, since
typical sensors may use more than one effect. A simple example is a diaphragm
pressure gauge. The diaphragm uses one form of mechanical energy to create
another (pressure generates displacement and strain); however, the creation of an
electrical signal from the displacement or strain can be accomplished using many
approaches.
The diaphragm could be made of a piezoelectric material, in which the air
would induce an electrical charge; an inductive or capacitive effect could be
employed to measure the charge related to the strain and the deflection and thereby
infer the pressure. Thus understanding all of the possible field effects and features of
transducer materials behavior provides the most complete set of sensor design
options.
The terms "sensor" and "transducer" have often been used as synonyms. The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard MC6.1 defines a transducer
as "a device which provides a usable output in response to a specific measurand"
(Instrument Society of America, 1975).
An output is defined as an "electrical quantity," and a measurand is ''a physical
quantity, property, or condition which is measured." In 1975, the ANSI standard
stated that "transducer" was preferred to "sensor." However, the scientific literature
has not generally adopted the ANSI definitions, and thus currently "sensor" is the
most commonly used term.
There are numerous definitions and the most common is “a Sensor as an input
device which provides an output (signal) with respect to a specific physical quantity
(input)”.
The term “input device” in the definition of a sensor means that it is part of a
bigger system which provides input to a main control system (like a Processor or a
Microcontroller).
Another unique definition of a Sensor is as follows: “It is a device that converts
signals from one energy domain to electrical domain”.

5.2. Classification
There are several classifications of sensors made by different authors and
experts. Some are very simple, and some are very complex. The following
classification of sensors may already be used by an expert in the subject, but this is a
very simple classification of sensors.
In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and
Passive. Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal or a
power signal.
Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal
and directly generates output response.
The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the
sensor. Some of the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive
etc.
The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e. the input and
the output. Some of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric,
Thermoelectric, Electrochemical, Electromagnetic, etc.
The final classification of the sensors is Analog and Digital Sensors. Analog
Sensors produce an analog output i.e. a continuous output signal with respect to the
quantity being measured. Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with
discrete or digital data. The data in digital sensors, which is used for conversion and
transmission, is digital in nature.
5.2.1. Active sensor

Active sensors detect reflected responses from objects which are irradiated
from artificially generated energy sources.
Example: Radar, camera with flash light
5.2.2 Passive sensor

Passive sensors detect reflected signal from natural source
Ex : Camera without flash light (depends on solar energy), and all RS sensors.

Figure 5. 2 Active and passive sensing
5.2.3. Digital sensor

Digital sensors produce a discrete output signal or voltage that is a digital
representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary
output signal in the form of a logic "1" or a logic "0“. This means then that a digital
signal only produces discrete values which may be outputted as “bit” or “byte”.
Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high
accuracies and can be both measured and "sampled" at a very high clock speed.
5.2.4. Analog sensor

Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is
generally proportional to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such as
temperature, speed, pressure, displacement, strain are all analogue quantities as they
tend to be continuous in nature.
Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly
and continuously which are very small in value, so some form of amplification is
required. Then circuits which measure analogue signals usually have a slow response
and/or low accuracy.
5.2.5. Other classification

The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in
various applications. All these sensors are used for measuring one of the physical
properties like temperature, resistance, capacitance, conduction, heat transfer etc.
• Temperature Sensor
• Proximity Sensor

• Accelerometer
• IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
• Pressure Sensor
• Light Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
• Touch Sensor
• Color Sensor
• Humidity Sensor
• Tilt Sensor
• Flow and Level Sensor
Figure 5. 3 Examples of sensors
5.3. Characteristics
In order to describe and characterize the performance of a sensor, a large and
specific vocabulary is required as described in the table below.

TABLE 5.1: Selected Sensor Characteristics
Static Dynamic
Accuracy Dynamic error response
Distortion Hysteresis
Hysteresis Instability and drift
Minimum detectable signal Noise
Nonlinearity Operating range
Selectivity/Specificity Repeatability
Sensitivity Step response
Threshold
5.4. Application
The latest sensor equipment includes heart rate, electrical voltage, gas, light,
sound, temperature, and distance sensors. Data is collected via the sensors and then
transmitted to the computer. Up to date software is used to collect, display and store
the experimental data. The computer software can then display this data in different
formats - such as graphs, tables or meter readings, which make it easy for students to
understand the process and bring science to life.
The significance of sensor technology is constantly growing. Sensors allow us
to monitor our surroundings in ways we could barely imagine a few years ago. New
sensor applications are being identified everyday which broadens the scope of the
technology and expands its impact on everyday life. The sensors have been applied in
industry, education, smart city, for security and safety, etc.
5.5. Smart sensor

A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the physical environment and
uses built-in compute resources to perform predefined functions upon detection of
specific input and then process data before passing it on. Smart sensors enable more
accurate and automated collection of environmental data with less erroneous noise
amongst the accurately recorded information. These devices are used for monitoring
and control mechanisms in a wide variety of environments including smart grids,
battlefield reconnaissance, exploration and a great number of science applications.

PART 2
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 6: MECHANICAL INTRODUCTION
6.1 Mechanisms
Mechanisms are devices which can be
considered to be motion converters in that
they transform motion from one form to
some other required form. They might, for
example, transform linear motion into
rotational motion, or motion in one
direction into a motion in a direction at
right angles, or perhaps a linear
reciprocating motion into rotary motion, as
in the internal combustion engine where the
reciprocating motion of the pistons is
converted into rotation of the crank and
Figure 6.1: 4-stroke engine
hence the drive shaft.

Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack-and-pinion,
chains drives, belt drives, etc. For example, the rack-and-pinion can be used to
convert rotational motion to linear motion. Parallel shaft gears might be used to
reduce a shaft speed. Bevel gears might be used for the transmission of rotary motion
through 900. A toothed belt or chain drive might be used to transform rotary motion
about one axis to motion about another. Cams and linkages can be used to obtain
motions which are prescribed to vary in a particular manner.
Figure 6.2: Mechanical gears
Many of actions which previously were obtained by the use of mechanisms are,
however, often nowadays being obtained, as a result of a mechatronics approach, by
the use of microprocessor systems.
For example, cams on a rotating shaft were previously used for domestic washing
machines in order to give a timed sequence of actions such as opening a valve to let
water into the drum, switching the water off, switching a heater on, etc. Modern

washing machines use a microprocessor-based system with the microprocessor
programmed to switch on outputs in the required sequence.
While electronics might now be used often for many functions that previously
were fulfilled by mechanisms, mechanisms might still be used to provide such
functions as:
1. Force amplification, e.g. that given by levers.
2. Change of speed, e.g. that given by gears.

3. Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another, e.g. a timing
belt.
4. Particular types of motion, e.g. that given by a quick-return mechanism.

6.3 Types of Motion
The motion of any rigid body can be considered to be a combination of
translational and rotational motions. By considering the three dimensions of space, a
translation motion can be considered to be a movement which can be resolved into
components along one or more of the three axes. A rotational motion can be
considered as a rotation which has components rotating about one or more of the
axes.
Figure 6.3: Types of motion

A complex motion may be a combination of translational and rotational motions.
For example, think of the motion which is required for you to pick up a pencil from a
table. This might involve your hand moving at a particular angle towards the table,
rotation of the hand, and then all the movement associated with opening your fingers
and moving them to complex motions.
Figure 6.4: Complex motion

6.4 Degree of Freedom
An important aspect in the design of mechanical elements is the orientation and
arrangement of the elements and parts. A body that is free in space can move in
three, independent, mutually perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways
about those directions. It is said to have six degrees of freedom (DOF). The number of
degrees of freedom is the number of components of motion that are required in
order to generate the motion.
Figure 6.5: Degree of freedom
The problem is design is often to reduce the number of degrees of freedom and
this then requires an appropriate number and orientation of constraints. Without
any constraints a body would have six degrees of freedom. A constraint is needed for
each degree of freedom that is to be prevented from occurring. Provided we have no
redundant constraints then the number of degrees of freedom would be 6 minus the
number of constraints. However, redundant constraints often occur and so for
constraints on a single rigid body we have the basic rule.

6 – number of constraints = number of degrees of freedom – number of redundancies
Thus if a body is required to be fixed, i.e. have zero degrees of freedom, then if no
redundant constraints are introduced the number of constraints required is 6.
Figure 6.6: Robot’s joints motion

A concept that is used in design is that of the principle of least constraint. This
states that in fixing a body or guiding it to a particular type of motion, the minimum
number of constraints should be used, i.e. there should be no redundancies. This is
often referred to as kinematic design.

CHAPTER 7: CAMS
7.1 Introduction
A CAM is a body which rotates or oscillates and in doing so impacts a
reciprocating or oscillatory motion to a second body, called the follower, with which
it is in contact. As the cam rotates so the follower is made to rise, dwell and fall, the
lengths of times spent at each of these positions depending on the shape of the cam.
The rise section of the cam is the part that drives
the follower upwards, its profile determining how
quickly the cam follower will be lifted. The fall
section of the cam is the part that lowers the
follower, its profile determining how quickly the
cam follower will fall. The dwell section of the cam
is the part that allows the followers to remain at
the same level for a significant period of time. The
dwell section of the cam is where it is circular with
a radius that does not change. Figure 7.1: Rotating CAM
Diagrams one to six show a rotating cam pushing a follower up and then
allowing it to slowly fall back down.
Figure 7.2: Rotating CAM in motion

The cam shape required to produce a particular motion of the follower will
depend on the shape of the cam and the type of follower used. The radial distance
from the axis of rotation of the cam to the point of contact of the cam with the
follower gives the displacement of the follower with reference to the axis of rotation
of the cam.

Figure 7.3: Types of CAM
There are different types of follower, but they all slide or roll on the edge of the
cam. Various types are shown below.
Figure 7.4: Types of follower
Figure 7.5: Example of follower

7.2 Eccentric Cam
The eccentric cam is a circular cam with an
offset center of rotation. It produces an oscillation
of the follower which is simple harmonic motion
and is often used with pumps.
The diagrams (1 to 7) which are seen below
show the cam rotating in an anticlockwise
direction. As it rotates it pushes the flat follower
upwards and then allows it to drop downwards.
Figure 7.6: Principle of
The movement is smooth and at a constant speed.
eccentric CAM
Figure 7.7: Eccentric CAM in motion

A mechanical toy based on a series of eccentric cams is seen below. As the handle
is turned, the shaft and the cams fixed to it rotate. Placed above the cams are a
number of segments representing a “snake”. As the cams rotate some of the flat
followers are pushed upwards whilst others drop down. This gives the impression
that the snake is moving.
Figure 7.8: Example of eccentric CAM

7.3 Drop Cam
Eccentric cams generally allow for a slow rise
and fall of the follower. However, a snail drop
cam is used where the drop or fall of the follower
must be sudden.
The example snail/drop cam shown opposite
rotates in an anticlockwise direction. Rotating in
a clockwise direction would probably lead to the
entire mechanism jamming. This highlights one
possible disadvantage of using this type of cam
profile. Also, to ensure the rotation is smooth, the
vertical center line of the snail/drop cam is Figure 7.9: Principle of drop
positioned slightly to the left of the slide. CAMs
The diagrams in Figure 7.10 below show the rotation of the snail/drop cam. When
rotating for one complete revolution the follower stays level for approximately the
first 120 degrees (diagrams 1 to 4). The follower then rises slowly (diagrams 5 to 6)
and then suddenly drops when it reaches and passes the peak (diagram 7).
Figure 7.10: Drop CAM in motion

The mechanical toy seen below has a snail/drop CAM as its main part. The
follower is connected to the characters’ arm by a wire link. As the cam rotates, the
follower rises and the wire link lifts the characters’ arm. This gives the appearance of
the character lifting a fork full of food towards his mouth. As the cam continues to
rotate the follower suddenly falls and also the characters’ arm and fork.

Figure 7.11: Example of drop CAM
7.4 Flat Cam

The diagram below shows a basic example of a flat plate cam / linear cam. As the
flat plate cam profile moves to the left the follower moves up and down, matching the
shape of the profile. The flat plate cam then reverses in the opposite direction and the
follower drops and rises again.
A more sophisticated example of a flat plate / linear cam is shown below. The
follower is unusual because it has a roller / wheel to help the smooth movement of
the flat profile cam and follower. It also has a “return spring” that pushes the follower
against the profile, ensuring that it always runs against it and follows the shape
precisely.
Figure 7.12: Principle of flat CAMs

The machine seen below is a mechanical paper punch. As the lever is pushed
down a gear system (called a rack and pinion) moves the flat plate profile to the left.
In turn this pushes down the followers which punch two holes in a piece of paper /
card.
The edge of the flat plate cam can be shaped to give different vertical movements
of the cam follower. Flat plate / linear cams are used frequently in machines that
carry out the same repetitive movements.
Figure 7.13: Example of flat CAM

CHAPTER 8: GEARS
8.1 Introduction to Gear

Gear chains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer and
transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or torque of a
rotating device is needed.
Figure 8.1: Example of gear system

For example, the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque
requirements of the terrain with engine power available. Worm gear box are used for
speed reduction and increasing the torque for electric motor drives.
Figure 8.2: Example of gear box

When two gears are in mesh, the larger gear wheel is often called the spur or
crown wheel and the smaller one is the pinion. Consider two meshed gear wheels A
and B.
Figure 8.3: Two gears system

If there are 20 teeth on wheel A and 40 teeth on wheel B, then wheel A must
rotate through two revolutions in the same time as wheel B rotates through one.
Thus the angular velocity  A of the wheel A must be twice that  B of wheel B, i.e.
 A number of teeth on B 40
= = =2
B number of teeth on A 20
Since the number of teeth on a wheel is proportional to its diameter, we can write
 A number of teeth on B d B
= =
B number of teeth on A d A
Thus for the data we have been considering, wheel B must have twice the
diameter of wheel A. The term gear ratio is used for the ratio of the angular speeds of
a pair of intermeshed gear wheels. Thus the gear ratio for this example is 2.

8.2 Spur Gear
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a
cylinder or disk with the teeth projecting radically, and although they are not
straight-sided in form, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the
axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are fitted
to parallel shafts.
Figure 8.3: Example of spur gear

Spur gears are used in many devices such as the electric screwdriver, dancing
monster, oscillating sprinkler, windup alarm clock, washing machine and clothes
dryer. But this kind of gear cannot be found in the car
Figure 8.4: Spur gear application

This is because the spur gear can be really loud. Each time a gear tooth engages a
tooth on the other gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. It also
increases the stress on the gear teeth.
To reduce the noise and stress in the gears, most of the gears in your car are
helical.

8.3 Helical Gear
Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges
of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation but are set at an angle. Since the
gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical
gears can be meshed in a parallel or crossed orientation. The former refers to when
the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the
latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration are sometimes known as
"skew gears".
The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth causing them to
run more smoothly and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first
make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of
contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a maximum then recedes until
the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In spur gears teeth
suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width causing stress and noise.
Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where
noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the
application involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise
abatement is important. The speed is considered to be high when the pitch line
velocity exceeds 25 m/s.
Figure 8.5: Example of helical gear

A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear,
which needs to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater
degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives
in the lubricant.

8.4 Double Helical Gear
Double helical gears, or herringbone gear, overcome the problem of axial thrust
presented by "single" helical gears by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V
shape. Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought of as two standard mirror
image helical gears stacked. This cancels out the thrust since each half of the gear
thrusts in the opposite direction. Double helical gears are more difficult to
manufacture due to their more complicated shape.
Figure 8.6: Example of double helical gear

For each possible direction of rotation, there are two possible arrangements of
two oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. In one possible orientation, the
helical gear faces are oriented so that the axial force generated by each is in the axial
direction away from the center of the gear; this arrangement is unstable. In the
second possible orientation, which is stable, the helical gear faces are oriented so
that each axial force is toward the mid-line of the gear.
In both arrangements, when the gears are aligned correctly, the total (or net) axial
force on each gear is zero. If the gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the
unstable arrangement generates a net force for disassembly of the gear train, while
the stable arrangement generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is
reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is reversed, a stable configuration
becomes unstable, and vice versa.

Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without
any need for different bearings.
Figure 8.7: Application of double helical gear
8.5 Bevel Gear

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When
two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their
shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle
between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180
degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are
called miter gears.
Figure 8.8: Example of bevel gear

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be
cut in a variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth are curved along the tooth's
length and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an
angle compared to spur gear teeth. Zerol bevel gears have teeth which are curved
along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and
disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears.
Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or,
for small gears, 1000 rpm.
Figure 8.9: Bevel gear and its key
8.6 Worm Gear

Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or
a helical gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel.
Worm-and-gear sets are a simple
and compact way to achieve a high
torque, large gear ratio. For
example, helical gears are normally
limited to gear ratios of less than
10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary
from 10:1 to 500:1. A disadvantage
is the potential for considerable
sliding action, leading to low
efficiency. Figure 8.10: Example of worm gear
Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is
usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the

axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it screw like qualities. The
distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth
persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a
'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several
turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one
tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the
length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is
called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called
multiple threads or multiple starts. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified.
Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.
Figure 8.11: Worm gear elements

In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear
attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle
is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force
component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-
and-gear sets that do lock are called self-locking, which can be used to advantage, as
for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the
worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine
head found on some types of stringed instruments.
If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of
contact will be achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth
shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears
partially envelop each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them

at a saddle point; this is called a cone-drive. Worm gears can be right or left-handed
following the long-established practice for screw threads.
Figure 8.12: Worm gear applications
8.7 Rack and Pinion

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an
infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by
meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such
a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into
the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). The rack and pinion gear type is employed in
a rack railway.
Figure 8.13: Example of rack and pinion
The rack and pinion arrangement is commonly found in the steering mechanism
of cars or other wheeled, steered vehicles. This arrangement provides a lesser
mechanical advantage than other mechanisms such as recalculating ball, but much
less backlash and greater feedback, or steering "feel". A generating rack is a rack
outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a generating
tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.

Many machines, such as milling machines and grinders, have movable tables. How
these works are that a pinion is attached to a crank handle, and the rack is attached
to the underside of the machine table. When the operator turns the handle, the
pinion moves the rack in a linear motion, thus moving the table in a linear (back and
forth) motion. This is particularly useful in grinders and milling machines, where the
cutting head is stationary, and the work piece that is attached to the table is moved
back and forth.
8.8 Gear Train

The term gear train is used to describe a series of intermeshed gear wheels. The
term simple gear train is used for a system where each shaft carries only one gear
wheel. For the such a gear train, the overall gear ratio is the ratio of angular velocities
at the input and output shafts and is thus A / C , i.e.
A
G=
C
C
B
A
Driven
Driver
Idler
Figure 8.14: Example of gear train

Consider a simple gear train consisting of wheels A, B and C, as in the upper
figure, with A having 9 teeth and C having 90 teeth. Then, as the angular velocity of a
wheel is inversely proportional to the number of teeth on the wheel, the gear ration
is 90/9 = 10. The effect of wheel B is purely to change the direction of rotation of the
output wheel compared with what it would have been with just the two wheels A and
C intermeshed. The intermediate wheel, B, is termed the idler wheel. We can rewrite
this equation for the overall gear ratio G as

 A  A B
G= = 
C B C
A simple gear of spur, helical or bevel gears is usually limited to an overall gear
ratio of about 10. This is because of the need to keep the gear train down to a
manageable size if the number of teeth on the pinion is to be kept above a minimum
number which is usually about 10 to 20. Higher gear ratio can, however, be obtained
with compound gear trains. This is because the gear ratio is the product of the
individual gear ratios of parallel gear sets.
The term compound gear train is used to describe a gear train when two wheels
are mounted on a common shaft. When two gear wheels are mounted on the same
shaft they have the same angular velocity. Thus, for both of the compound gear train
in the below figure, B = C . The overall gear ratio G is thus
 A  A B C  A C
G= =   = 
D B C D B D
Figure 8.15: Example of 4 gears train system
Consider a compound gear train with A, the first driver, having 40 teeth, B 20
teeth, C 30 teeth and D, the final driven wheel, 10 teeth. Since the angular velocity of
a wheel is inversely proportional to the number of teeth on the wheel, the overall
gear ratio is:
20 10 1
G=  =
40 30 6
Thus, if the input to wheel A is an angular velocity of 40 rpm, then the output
angular velocity of wheel is 40:(1/6) = 160 rpm.

CHAPTER 9: BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently,
or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys. In a two-pulley system,
the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be crossed,
so that the direction of the shafts is opposite. As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is
one application where the belt is adapted to continuously carry a load between two
points.
Figure 9.1: Example of belt drive system

9.1 Pros and Cons of Belt Driver
Belt drive, moreover, is simple, inexpensive, and does not require axially aligned
shafts. It helps protect the machinery from overload and jam, and damps and isolates
noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no
lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency (90-98%, usually
95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are inexpensive if the shafts are far apart.
Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained
by step or tapered pulleys.
The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley
diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem has been largely solved by
the use of toothed belts. Temperatures range from −31 °F (−35 °C) to 185 °F (85 °C).
Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate
for wear and stretch.
Figure 9.2: Belt drive with idler pulley

As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt drives have the
advantage that the length of the belt can easily be adjusted to suit a wide range of
shaft-to-shaft distances and the system is automatically protected against overload
because slipping occurs if the loading exceeds the maximum tension that can be
sustained by the friction forces. If the distances between shafts are large, a belt drive
is more suitable than gears, but over small distances gears are to be preferred.
Different-size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect. However, the gear ratio is
limited to about 3 because of the need to maintain an adequate arc of contact
between the belt and the pulleys.

9.2 Flat Belts
Flat belts were used early in line shafting to transmit power in factories. They
were also used in countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such as
bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, silo blowers, conveyors for filling corn cribs or
haylofts, balers, water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and
electrical generators.
Figure 9.3: Example of flat belt

The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its
day. It delivered high power for high speeds (500 hp for 10,000 ft/min), in cases of
wide belts and large pulleys. These drives are bulky, requiring high tension leading to
high loads, so V-belts have mainly replaced the flat-belts except when high speed is
needed over power.
The Industrial Revolution soon demanded more from the system, and flat belt
pulleys needed to be carefully aligned to prevent the belt from slipping off. Because
flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with
a slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather than flat) to keep the belts centered.
Flat belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied and
many proprietary dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to
increase friction, and so power transmission.

Figure 9.4: Example of flat belt for motor transmission
Grip was better if the belt was assembled with the hair (i.e. outer) side of the
leather against the pulley although belts were also often given a half-twist before
joining the ends, so that wear was evenly distributed on both sides of the belt (DB).
Belts were joined by lacing the ends together with leather thonging, or later by
steel comb fasteners. A good modern use for a flat belt is with smaller pulleys and
large central distances. They can connect inside and outside pulleys, and can come in
both endless and jointed construction.
Figure 9.5: Principle of flat belt

9.3 Round Belts
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60
degree V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the
belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used.
The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing friction.
Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque situations only and may
be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a
metallic connector (in the case of hollow plastic), glueing or welding (in the case of
polyurethane).
Figure 9.6: Example of round belt

Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or
glued, to a great effect.
Figure 9.7: Application of round belt

9.4 Vee Belt (V-belt)
Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment
problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best
combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service
life.
Figure 9.8: Example of V-belt

The V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company.
They are generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is trapezoidal. The
"V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the
result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the
load increases — the greater the load, the greater the wedging action — improving
torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width
and tension than flat belts.
Figure 9.9: Application of V-belt

V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction
ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but
less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1000–
7000 ft/min.
Figure 9.10: V-belt characteristic

V-belts need larger pulleys for their larger thickness than flat belts. They can be
supplied at various fixed lengths or as a segmented section, where the segments are
linked (spliced) to form a belt of the required length. For high-power requirements,
two or more Vee belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-V,
running on matching multi-groove sheaves.
Figure 9.11: Production information of V-belt

The strength of these belts is obtained by reinforcements with fibers like steel,
polyester or aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar). This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive
(or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). When an endless belt does not fit the need,
jointed and link V-belts may be employed. However they are weaker and only usable
at speeds up to 4000 ft/min. A link v-belt is a number of rubberized fabric links held
together by metal fasteners. They are length adjustable by disassembling and
removing links when needed
Figure 9.12: Characteristic of V- belt

9.5 Timing belt
Timing belts, (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a
positive transfer belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit
into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run
at constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing
purposes (hence their name).
Figure 9.13: Example of timing belt
They are often used in lieu of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a
lubrication bath are not necessary. Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing
systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts need the least
tension of all belts and are among the most efficient. They can bear up to 200 hp
(150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min.
Figure 9.14: Application of timing belt

Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset
tooth design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively.
The chevron pattern design is self-aligning. The chevron pattern design does not
make the noise that some timing belts make at idiosyncratic speeds, and is more
efficient at transferring power (up to 98%).
Figure 9.15: Motorbike ‘s timing belt

Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially
fabricated toothed pulleys, less protection from overloading and jamming, and the
lack of clutch action.
Figure 9.16: Application of round belt in automobile

9.6 Chain Drive
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to
another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly
bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides
vehicles.
Figure 9.17: Characteristic of chain belt

Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or
transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing
with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain
putting mechanical force into the system.
Slip can be prevented by the use of chains which lock into teeth on the rotating
cylinders to give the equivalent of a pair of intermeshing gear wheels. A chain drive
has the same relationship for gear ratio as a simple gear train. Chains enable a
number of shafts to be driven by a single wheel and so give a multiple drive. They are
not as quite as timing belts but can be used for larger torques.
Figure 9.18: Application of chain belt

9.7 Chains Versus Belts
Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, or
other substances. Although well-made chains may prove stronger than belts, their
greater mass increases drive train inertia.
Drive belts can often slip (unless they have teeth) which means that the output
side may not rotate at a precise speed, and some work gets lost to the friction of the
belt against its rollers. Teeth on toothed drive belts generally wear faster than links
on chains, but wear on rubber or plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to
observe.
Figure 9.19: Comparison of chain and belt

Conventional roller chain drives suffer the potential for vibration, as the effective
radius of action in a chain and sprocket combination constantly changes during
revolution. If the chain moves at constant speed, then the shafts must accelerate and
decelerate constantly. If a drive sprocket rotates at constant RPM, then the chain
(and probably the driven sprocket) must accelerate and decelerate constantly. This is
usually not an issue with many drive systems, however most motorcycles are fitted
with a rubber bushed rear wheel hub to virtually eliminate this vibration issue.
Toothed belt drives are designed to avoid this issue by operating at a constant pitch
radius.
Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to
larger or smaller gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with
derailleurs make use of this. Also, the more positive meshing of a chain can makes it

easier to build gears that can increase or shrink in diameter, again altering the gear
ratio.
Figure 9.20: Chain vs belt vs shaft

Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to
them; chains are often used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in
industrial toasters, while belts are good at moving things horizontally in the form of
conveyor belts. It is not unusual for the systems to be used in combination; for
example, the rollers that drive conveyor belts are themselves often driven by drive
chains.
Drive shafts are another common method used to move mechanical power
around that is sometimes evaluated in comparison to chain drive; in particular shaft
drive versus chain drive is a key design decision for most motorcycles. Drive shafts
tend to be even tougher and more reliable than chain drive, but weigh even more
(robbing more power), and impart rotational torque. Virtually all high-performance
motorcycles use chain drive, with shaft driven arrangements generally used for many
non-sporting machines. Toothed belt drives are used for many lower power
motorcycles.

CHAPTER 10: BEARINGS
Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another, either
by rotating of sliding, the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes
energy and results in wear. The function of a bearing is to guide with minimum
friction and maximum accuracy the movement of one relative to another.
Of importance is the need to give suitable support to rotating shafts, i.e. support
radial loads. The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to
withstand forces along the axis of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily
rotation.
There are two common type of bearing, which are ball bearing and roller bearing.
With this type of bearing, the main load is transferred from the rotating shaft to its
support by rolling contact rather than sliding contact. A rolling element bearing
consists of four main elements: an inner race, an outer race, the rolling element of
either balls or rollers, and a cage to keep the rolling element apart. The inner and
outer races contain hardened tracks in which the rolling elements roll.
Figure 10.1: Construction of bearing

There are a number of forms of ball bearings and roller bearings:

10.1 Deep-Groove
This is good at withstanding radial loads but is only moderately good for axial
loads. It is a versatile bearing which can be used with a wide range of load and speed.
Deep Groove Ball Bearings are cost-effective and maintenance free. They are
basically used when axial loads from two directions have to be transmitted & there is
not enough space to allow installation of matched spindle bearings and when speed
is less important when compared to required guidance of the rotating parts.
Physical Characteristics
• Comprises of deep uninterrupted raceways
• Ring grooves are circular arcs made slightly larger than the radius of the ball
• The balls make point contact with the raceways
• The inner ring shoulders are of equal height
Advantages of Deep Groove Ball Bearings
• Sustain radial, axial, or composite loads.
• Provide both high-running accuracy & high-speed operation
• Can replace high speed angular contact ball bearings
• Simple design
• Maintenance free
• Longer service life
Figure 10.2: Deep-grove bearing

10.2 Filling - Slot
Filling slot bearings have a higher radial load carrying capacity than bearings
without filling slots, but their axial load carrying capacity is small. They are also
unable to operate at such high speeds as bearings without filling slots. Depending on
the main application for which they are used, deep groove ball bearings with filling
slots have a cage or no cage.
The raceways in both of the rings are in arc groove form, which can carry radial
and axial load in double directions. They can be applied in situations where high-
rotating speed and low noise and low vibration are required.
When the outer diameter is less than (inclusive) 400mm, they use pressed cage
with steel sheet. When the outer diameter is bigger than 400mm, they use brass
cages.
Can be found in automobiles, machine tools, motors, instruments; construct
machines, railway vehicles, agricultural machines and various other special
machines.
Figure 10.3: Filling-slot bearing

10.3 Angular Contact
This is good for both radial and axial loads and is better for axial loads than the
deep-groove equivalent. The angular contact ball bearing is termed thrust ball
bearing. Because doing so can fill many precious metal balls, the load capacity of that
diameter is definitely greater than that of the common impact. At the same time it
may possibly support a really great axial fill or absolute axial load. Relatively, it’s
doing work rotate velocity is similar to that relating to deep rhythm ball showing but
its muscle is more demanding than the deep groove a single. When people mount the
angular contact ball bearing, it should be set up effectively because this bearing is
very sensitive to the error in the axial line. In the common predicament, this
displaying is not used to help alone offer the radial load. Whether it is used to
tolerate the radial download, it must add to the axial load.
Design Attributes
• Specific geometry of angular contact bearing raceways and shoulders creates
ball contact angles that support higher axial loads.
• Expanded options include special lubricants, cage materials, preloads and
coatings for additional corrosion resistance.
Applications
Angular contact ball bearings are engineered for use in high-speed, high
precision applications for: Agriculture, Chemical, General industry, Utilities
Figure 10.4: Angular contact ball bearing

10.4 Double-Row
Double row deep groove ball bearings feature higher load ratings than single row
bearings, but are very sensitive to misalignments. These bearings have deep
uninterrupted raceways and high conformity between the balls and raceways.
Besides this, Double Row Deep Groove Ball Bearing is able to carry axial loads acting
in both directions in addition to radial loads.
Features:
- Deep groove ball bearings mainly take radial load as well as take moderate axial
load
- With less coefficient of friction, high limiting speed, large size range and various
structure
- They are suitable of precision instruments, low noise motors, automobiles,
motorcycle, and other common machinery.
- A widely used type of bearings in machinery industry.
Applications:
Double-row deep-groove ball bearings are engineered for use in electric
motors, automotive applications, home appliances, industrial equipment.
Figure 10.5: Double-row bearing

10.5 Self-Aligning
Single-row bearings can withstand a small amount of shaft misalignment but
where there can be serve misalignment a self-aligning bearing is used. They are
suitable for applications where misalignment can arise from errors in mounting or
shaft deflection. The steel balls, cage, and inner ring can rotate freely at a certain
angle, as it is stated that the bearings have self-aligning features. Accordingly,
misalignment of the bearing shaft due to the machining and installation of the shaft
and housing will be automatically adjusted.
• The self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls.
• A common concave sphere raceway in the outer ring.
• The center of whose curvature meets that of the bearing itself, so that the
inner ring, balls and cage continue to rotate
• The self-aligning ball bearing with a tapered bore can easily be fit to the shaft
with an adapter assembly.
Advantages of Self Aligning Ball Bearings

• Have the lowest friction of all rolling bearings.
• Run cooler even at high speeds.
• Easy mounting and dismounting.
• The permissible operating speed is not dependent on the common criteria like
heat generation or cage stability and strength.
Application of Self Aligning Ball Bearings

• Self-aligning ball bearings are used for commercial ground shafting
applications.
• Since axial load capacity is limited, self-aligning ball bearings are not suitable
for applications with heavy axial loads.

Figure 10.6: Self-aligning bearing
All bearing products are popular among different industries. They have various
characteristics and functions. Compared to ball bearings, roller bearings have higher
radial load capacity. Roller bearings can be future divided into many types. When
compared to the same-sized sleeve bearings, they are capable of higher rotational
speeds.

10.6 Straight-Roller Bearing
The straight-roller bearing has a larger carrying capacity of axial load compare
with the deep-groove ball bearings. The structure of the bearing shows that it runs
very well under high rotational speed. It is a separable bearing. It is especially
convenient for the assembly and disassembly. It has advantages in a condition that
the interference is required and assorted with inner ring, outer ring and housing.
Also, it will carry a greater load than ball bearings of the same size because of their
greater contact area. However, they are not tolerant of misalignment.
Straight roller bearings mostly consist of three main sections: The inner bearing
race fits snugly on the turning shaft, or can actually be the shaft itself if the shaft
metal is hard enough. The outer race is a uniform and hardened collar that fits inside
the bearing holder bore. Finally, there should be a sufficient number of uniform
straight rollers to completely fill the space between the two races without binding
together. These bearings will last almost forever if sealed, kept very clean, and
lubricated with high film strength-bearing grease.
This type of bearing product has various applications. They are suitable for
electric motors, automobiles, transmission shafts, gear shafts and so on. On vehicles,
they are ideal axle bearings for dump trucks, cement mixers, bulldozers, load haulers,
and lifts. Besides, they can also be applied in very large industrial machines such as
presses, forges, conveyors, gear boxes and rolling mills, etc.
Figure 10.7:Straight-rollor bearing

10.7 Taper Roller
Tapered roller bearings are separable bearings, bearing inner and outer rings
with tapered raceways are, for the circular conical roller. Roller in line contact with
the raceway, can withstand heavy radial and axial joint load, but also bear the pure
axial load. Contact angle decreases, the higher the axial load capacity.
The taper roller bearings can carry combinations of large radial and thrust loads
or thrust load only. Because of the difference between the inner and outer raceway
contact angles, there is a force component, which drives the tapered rollers against
the guide flange. The relatively large sliding friction generated at this flange makes
this bearing typically unsuitable for high-speed applications without special
consideration to coolant / lubricant. Typical applications include construction
machinery, gear construction, vehicle manufacture and rolling mills.
Physical Characteristics of Taper Roller Bearings
• Taper roller bearings have tapered inner and outer ring raceways between
which tapered rollers are arranged.
• The projection lines of all the tapered surfaces meet at a common point on the
bearing axis. Their design makes taper roller bearings particularly suitable for the
accommodation of combined (radial and axial) loads.
• The axial load carrying capacity of the bearings is largely determined by the
contact angle. The larger the angle, the higher the axial load carrying capacity.
• Taper roller bearings have the logarithmic contact profile that provides for
optimum stress distribution over the roller/raceway contacts
• The special design of the sliding surfaces of the guide flange and large roller
ends considerably promotes lubricant film formation in the roller end/flange
contacts.
Advantages of Taper Roller Bearings
• Dimensional Stability
• Long Life Even In Contaminated Lubricant
• Durable Steel Cage
• Dimensionally Interchangeable With Other Bearing Manufacturers
Applications of Taper Roller Bearings

• In many applications taper roller bearings are used in back-back pairs so that
axial forces can be supported equally in either direction.
• Pairs of taper roller bearings are used in car and vehicle wheel bearings where
they must cope simultaneously with large vertical (radial) and horizontal (axial)
forces.
• Agriculture, Construction and Mining Equipment
• Various Axle Systems
• Conveyance Vehicles
• Gear Box, Engine Motors, Reducers
Taper Roller Bearings Design
Tapered roller bearings consist of four basic components including the cone
(inner ring), the cup (outer ring), tapered rollers, and a cage (roller retainer).
Tapered roller bearings are designed such that their conical rollers and raceways are
arranged so that all elements of the roller and raceway cones meet at a common apex
on the bearing axis. The rollers are guided by the contact between the large end of
the roller and the rib on the inner ring (cone). This construction provides a high
capacity for radial loads, axial loads, and combined loads. The larger the contact
angle, the greater the loading capacity becomes. When a pure radial load is placed on
the bearing, an induced load in the axial direction is also generated. So, these
bearings are generally used in pairs opposing each other. Proper running clearance
or preload can be obtained by adjusting the distance of the two bearings against one
another. Since the inner (cone) and outer (cup) rings are separable, each ring can be
mounted individually, allowing both rings to use tight fitting practices, if desired.
Figure 10.8: Tap-roller bearing

10.8 Needle Roller
Needle roller bearings use needle rollers as rolling elements. The needle rollers
are a maximum of 5 mm in diameter and are 3 to 10 times as long as they are in
diameter. Because the bearings use needle rollers as rolling elements, the cross-
section is thin, but they have a high load capacity for their size. Because of the large
number of rolling elements, the bearings have high rigidity and are ideally suited to
wobbling or pivoting motion.
Figure 10.9: Needle roller bearing
• Its cylindrical rollers, which are thin and long in relation to their diameter.
They are referred to as needle rollers.
• Needle Rollers are used for needle roller bearings and are rigid and highly
accurate.
• In spite of their low cross section the bearings have a high load carrying
capacity.
• Available with or without an inner ring.
• The needle rollers are a maximum of 5 mm in diameter and are 3 to 10 times
as long as they are in diameter.
Application of Needle Roller Bearings

Needle roller bearings contain precision needle rolling elements, which have
multiple uses in a variety of industries including automotive, truck, farm and
construction equipment, two-cycle engines, outboard engines and consumer
durables.

Needle rollers are mainly used as bearing rolling elements to transmit torque
and reduce friction. They can also serve as precision shafts or as precision locating
pins. Other uses for needle roller bearings include crank pins, precision shafts and as
locating pins.
Advantages of Needle Roller Bearings
• Due to the smaller cross-section, greater rigidity, higher load-carrying
capacity and lower inertia of the needle roller bearings help size and weight
reductions in the machinery.
• Though they are less wide, their load carrying capacity is high and is most
suitable for applications where the load is high, and the radial space is less.
• Needle roller bearings, which are designed to withstand oscillation can
operate under severe conditions and interchange with sliding bearings.
Typical Applications
• Transmissions, transfer cases, engines and valve trains
• Steering and braking systems
• Axle support
• Outboard engines
• Power tools
• Copiers, fax machines, paper-moving equipment
Expanded Options
• Assemblies with bearings
• Engineered polymer cages
• Bearings with one or two seals
• Closed end bearings
• Oil holes
• Drawn sleeves
Types of Needle Roller Bearings
Different types of Needle roller bearings involved in general engineering are:
• Drawn cup needle roller bearings
• Drawn cup needle roller bearings with closed ends
• With and without inner rings

REFERENCES
[1]. R.S. Khurmi. Mechanical Engineering: Conventional and Objective Type, 1984.
[2]. Eric H. Glendinning, Norman Glendinning. Oxford English for Electrical and
Mechanical Engineering, Oxford University Press, 1995.
[3]. Mark Ibbotson. Cambridge English for Engineering, Cambridge University Press,
2008.
[4]. Nguyen Thi My Dung. English for Mechanical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh University
of Industry (for internal use only), 2009.
[5]. Mark Ibbotson. Professional English in Use Engineering with Answers: Technical
English for Professionals, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
[6]. Marian Dunn, David Howey. English for Mechanical Engineering in Higher
Education Studies, Garnet, 2010.
[7]. P.K. Mishra. Objective Mechanical Engineering, 2010.
[8]. David Howey, Marian Dunn, Amanda Ilic. English for Mechanical Engineering: B2.
Course book, Garnet, 2011.

English For Mechatronics Engineering 2021

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English For Mechatronics Engineering 2021

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DANANG UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... i

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS ...................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 1: MECHATRONICS ..................................................................................4

1.1 What is Mechatronics? .................................................................................................... 4

1.2 Mechatronics Engineering .............................................................................................. 5

1.3 Examples of Mechatronics System ................................................................................. 6

1.4 Mechatronics System ...................................................................................................... 8

1.5 Roles of Mechatronics in Industrial 4.0 .......................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 2: LOGIC GATES ........................................................................................7

CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ............................................13

3.1 Resistance ..................................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Diode ............................................................................................................................. 14

3.3 LED ............................................................................................................................... 20

3.4 Seven-Segment Display (SSD) ..................................................................................... 21

3.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) ................................................................................ 23

CHAPTER 4: MICROCONTROLLER .......................................................................27

4.1 Introduction to Microcontroller .................................................................................... 27

4.2 Important Features ........................................................................................................ 28

English for Mechatronics Engineering i

4.4 Why PIC? ...................................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER 5: SENSOR ..................................................................................................37

5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 37

5.3. Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 41

5.4. Application ................................................................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 6: MECHANICAL INTRODUCTION .....................................................43

6.1 Mechanisms .................................................................................................................. 43

6.3 Types of Motion ............................................................................................................ 47

6.4 Degree of Freedom ....................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER 7: CAMS ......................................................................................................50

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 50

7.2 Eccentric Cam ............................................................................................................... 52

7.3 Drop Cam ...................................................................................................................... 53

7.4 Flat Cam ........................................................................................................................ 54

CHAPTER 8: GEARS ....................................................................................................56

8.1 Introduction to Gear ...................................................................................................... 56

8.2 Spur Gear ...................................................................................................................... 58

8.3 Helical Gear .................................................................................................................. 59

8.4 Double Helical Gear ..................................................................................................... 60

8.5 Bevel Gear .................................................................................................................... 61

English for Mechatronics Engineering ii

8.7 Rack and Pinion ............................................................................................................ 64

8.8 Gear Train ..................................................................................................................... 65

CHAPTER 9: BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES ...............................................................67

9.1 Pros and Cons of Belt Driver ........................................................................................ 68

9.2 Flat Belts ....................................................................................................................... 69

9.3 Round Belts ................................................................................................................... 71

9.4 Vee Belt (V-belt)........................................................................................................... 72

9.5 Timing belt .................................................................................................................... 75

9.6 Chain Drive ................................................................................................................... 77

9.7 Chains Versus Belts ...................................................................................................... 78

CHAPTER 10: BEARINGS ...........................................................................................76

10.1 Deep-Groove ............................................................................................................... 77

10.2 Filling - Slot ................................................................................................................ 78

10.3 Angular Contact .......................................................................................................... 79

10.4 Double-Row ................................................................................................................ 80

10.6 Straight-Roller Bearing ............................................................................................... 83

10.7 Taper Roller ................................................................................................................ 84

10.8 Needle Roller .............................................................................................................. 86

English for Mechatronics Engineering iii

1.1 What is Mechatronics?

English for Mechatronics Engineering 4