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Integrating Molecular Biology into the Veterinary Curriculum

Article  in  Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · February 2007

DOI: 10.3138/jvme.34.5.658 · Source: PubMed

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 Research and Education Reports

Integrating Molecular Biology into the

Veterinary Curriculum
Marion T. Ryan g Torres Sweeney

ABSTRACT
The modern discipline of molecular biology is gaining increasing relevance in the field of veterinary medicine. This trend
must be reflected in the curriculum if veterinarians are to capitalize on opportunities arising from this field and direct its
development toward their own goals as a profession. This review outlines current applications of molecular-based
technologies that are relevant to the veterinary profession. In addition, the current techniques and technologies employed
within the field of molecular biology are discussed. Difficulties associated with teaching a subject such as molecular biology
within a veterinary curriculum can be alleviated by effectively integrating molecular topics throughout the curriculum, pitching
the subject at an appropriate depth, and employing varied teaching methods throughout.

Key words: molecular biology; education; veterinary; genomics; CAL

INTRODUCTION of morphology—it must at the same time inquire

Molecular biology is the modern branch of biology that
explains biological factors, processes, and systems at a
molecular level. It also encompasses biochemical and
physical techniques used to investigate phenomena of
molecular origin. The field of molecular biology integrates
a number of areas of biology, particularly genetics,
genomics, biochemistry, and cell biology (Figure 1), con-
cerning itself with understanding the interactions between
the various systems of a cell.
The broad aim of scientists in this field include characteriz-
ing genomes, understanding influences on gene expression
and regulation, gaining insights into the molecular structure
and function of biologically important molecules, and
identifying how such factors and molecules interact. In
1961, Astbury described molecular biology as follows:
not so much a technique as an approach, an
approach from the viewpoint of the so-called
basic sciences with the leading idea of searching
below the large-scale manifestations of classical
biology for the corresponding molecular plan.
It is concerned particularly with the forms of
biological molecules and . . . is predominantly
three-dimensional and structural—which does
not mean, however, that it is merely a refinement
Genomics Cell biology
Molecular biology
Genetics Biochemistry
Figure 1: A schematic overview of the discipline of
molecular biology.
into genesis and function.1
In parallel with the ever-widening body of knowledge
and concepts within the field of molecular biology there is
also an extensive, constantly expanding and evolving
‘‘toolbox’’ of techniques.
Numerous technologies associated with the exploration of
molecular biological phenomena have enabled researchers
to explore veterinary-related research to new depths. In
addition, molecular-biology techniques are increasingly
being employed in veterinary diagnostics. The successful
and meaningful integration of molecular biology into the
veterinary curriculum is a difficult but necessary challenge
for veterinary educators.
APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY IN
VETERINARY MEDICINE
The veterinary curriculum is constantly evolving and
adapting to the changing needs of society. Leighton2
makes the point that if veterinary medicine is to serve
society, there must be enough veterinarians to supply the
demand for clinicians as well as ‘‘different’’ veterinarians
who can work in an area other than clinical practice. Only
then can veterinarians provide a unique perspective in areas
such as bio-security, food safety, zoonotic diseases, ecology
of health and disease, and management of the environ-
ment.2, 3 If veterinarians are to adopt new roles, they must
acquire the required new skills and knowledge. The way
molecular biology is being applied in veterinary practice
and in wider areas of veterinary endeavor needs to be
reflected in the curriculum. As Zemljit has written,
The veterinarians of the future must be armed
with new knowledge, which will be different
from that needed today.4
Molecular biology is relevant to a wide range of core
subjects within the veterinary curriculum and is applied in

658 JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC

Table 1: Important applications of molecular biology in veterinary medicine
Application
Detection of breed-specific
single-gene disorders and traits
Pathogen detection
Parentage testing
Epidemiology
Using animal models to under-
stand disease mechanisms
and therapeutics in human
medicine
Animal cloning
Xenotransplantation
JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC
Summary and Progress to Date
Numerous diseases and traits in domestic species have a single-gene etiology.6, 7 Once a single-
gene disorder has been characterized, techniques such as PCR, RFLP, sequencing, and
microsatellite analyses can then be employed to determine whether an animal carries the
affected allele. Several of these single-gene traits/disorders have been identified in pedigree
animals, including dogs,8 cats,9 horses,10 cattle,11 pigs,12 and sheep.13 Owners can then take
this information into account when breeding. Various commercial companiesa–c offer services
that can detect the presence of a variety of single-gene disorders, including canine
leukocyte adhesion deficiency (CLAD), polycystic kidney disease, and severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID).
The routine use of molecular-based methods for human pathogen detection has been
established for a number of pathogens in the clinical setting.14 A process of optimization,
validation, and interpretation of results against clinical criteria is required when introducing a
molecular test into the microbiology laboratory.15 The development of new molecular-based
assays in the veterinary clinical setting has lagged behind human medicine, as companies have
traditionally focused on developing assays and products tailored to human pathogen diagnostics.
Increasingly, commercial companies are beginning to offer DNA-based pathogen detection as a
service.d, e In addition to this some commercial companies, are beginning to invest in molecular-
based products directed toward the veterinary diagnostic market. Artusf supplies optimized PCR
kits that can be used for detection and quantification of pathogen load; these are available
for Campylobacter, L. monocytogenes, M. paratuberculosis, and Salmonella. Qiageng is now
promoting a range of products targeted at molecular diagnostics and research in veterinary
medicine.
Several companies offer parentage testing as a service.d, h DNA testing is available for a number
of species, including horses,16 dogs,17 and cats.18 These DNA tests not only provide information
relating to parentage but also serve as a unique genetic profile that can be used for
identification purposes.
Typing of pathogens is carried out using a range of molecular-based techniques, including
plasmid analysis, pulse field gel electrophoresis, and multilocus allelic sequence-based typing.19
Epidemiologically related isolates share the same DNA profile, whereas unrelated isolates display
patterns that are different from one another. These techniques allow investigators to trace the
transmission of pathogens that have a negative effect on both production and animal welfare.
Molecular-based typing also has a role in food safety, giving a better understanding of the
mechanisms by which food-borne pathogens are transmitted. Monitoring antimicrobial-resistant
strains such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus 20 and other zoonotic diseases is
important from a public-health perspective.
A wide range of animal models is used to explore the etiology of human diseases.21–23 Animal
models are a useful means of exploring disease states, as the ethical restrictions are less stringent
at a number of levels. Live-animal experiments, transgenic animals, breeding programs, and easy
acquisition of tissue samples allow the completion of more comprehensive experiments than
could ever be contemplated in human medical research.
Of the 160 laboratories worldwide that carry out cloning experiments, 75% are working on
livestock, including cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep.24 Cloning technology’s current low success
rate, which is due to both technological and species-specific biological factors, 25 has hampered
its economic feasibility.26 It has potential uses in the many areas, including basic research,
generation of disease models, bioreactors, agricultural applications, and xenotransplantation.
Xenotransplantation has attracted considerable interest in recent years and is continually moving
closer to clinical application. This area of research is driven by the increasing demand for
replacement organs and the short supply of suitable donors. The prime candidate animal in this
field is the pig, which is most suitable in terms of breeding, rearing, cost, ethics, and anatomical
compatibility to humans as well as because of its physiological and biochemical characteristics.
The challenges in this area include graft rejection, acute inflammatory reactions, coagulation,
physiological incompatibilities, and the danger of zoonosis transmission. Genetic engineering of
donor animals has been seen as a way to overcome the challenges of acute rejection and
coagulation.27
(Continued )
659
Table 1: Continued
Application Summary and Progress to Date

Tailored pharmacology
Quality-trait loci
Comparative genomics
Pharmacogenetics explores variations in individuals’ responses to drug therapy based on their
genotype (data from multiple genes). In veterinary medicine, a certain level of knowledge exists
in this field, mainly relating to polymorphisms in single genes concerned with drug metabolism.28
Another example is the well-characterized adverse reaction to halothane anesthesia that occurs
in pigs carrying a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the ryanodine receptor.12 The
understanding of pharmacogenetics in human medicine is considerably more advanced, as
commercial interest is much greater. Current areas of interest in human medicine include cancer
therapy,29 treatment of mood disorders,30 responses to cholesterol-lowering drugs,31 and
variations in drug response between different ethnic groups.32
Quality-trait loci (QTL) are locations on the genome of genes or other genetic elements that
contribute to the expression of a quantitative trait.33 Quantitative traits show different degrees of
variation, depending on the trait, environmental factors, and the population in question.
Quantitative traits include production traits such as meat quality,34 wool quality,35 and milk
production;36 performance traits such as athletic performance;37 and non-production traits such
as body conformation.38 QTL relating to disease susceptibility, such as mastitis in cattle39 and
nematode resistance in sheep,40 are also of importance. All these traits are multifactorial, and
many can have low heritability, which has hindered any genetic gains resulting from conventional
selection and breeding.41 Efforts are underway to integrate QTL and phenotype data with
sequence and gene maps in a database form.42, i
The comparison of genomes from different species, or comparative genomics, is now becoming
possible as the genomes of more and more species are uncovered. Comparative genomics will
give a greater insight into evolution, gene function, conserved regions, and non-coding DNA43
and is being employed as part of the functional annotation process.44

disciplines such as pathology, microbiology, endocrinology, Basic subjects

parasitology, immunology, animal husbandry, pharmacol-
ogy, embryology, and epidemiology (see Table 1 6–44). The
discipline of molecular biology has enriched our under-
standing of many of these subject areas by allowing
investigation of the underlying molecular processes within
them. In embryology, for example, molecular biology has
enabled developments that were formerly only described
anatomically to be explained in terms of molecular
processes and regulating factors.5 Molecular-biology tech-
nologies have direct application to veterinary diagnostics,
veterinary epidemiology, and veterinary-related research.
CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING
IN BASIC MOLECULAR BIOLOGY THEORY
Molecular biology is a challenging subject in itself;
the subject matter is complex, and the scope wide. In the
veterinary context, the material delivered needs to be
suitably detailed but not so extensive as to encourage
surface learning strategies.45, 46 When studying molecular
biology, the student must commit a large amount of material
to memory, including definitions, terminology, names of
biologically active compounds, and biochemical processes
and pathways. Memorization can be used to master
unfamiliar terminology, as a first step toward understand-
ing.47 The student must possess a basic knowledge of
genetics, cell biology, and biochemistry, as well as a new
lexicon for discussing these subjects, before progressing to
the techniques and, finally, the applications of molecular
biology in veterinary medicine (Figure 2).
Many areas of molecular biology can be considered
‘‘troublesome’’ to students (Table 2). Perkins48 defines
Cell biology
Biochemistry
Gene structure and function
Principles of inheritance and genetic disease
Techniques and Technologies
(See Table 1)
Applications of molecular biology in
veterinary medicine
Diagnostic testing for genetically based disease states and disease
susceptibility
Epidemiology of pathogens
Facilitating selective breeding programs for resistance to disease,
enhanced production traits
Genetic changes in neoplastic diseases
Veterinary research
Parentage testing
Pathogen identification and quantification
Pharmacogenomics
Figure 2: An overview of molecular biology as a
discipline within the veterinary curriculum.
troublesome knowledge as that which is conceptually
difficult, counterintuitive, inert, or alien.
Troublesome knowledge is believed to originate from the
student’s inability to grasp more fundamental and unifying
concepts, termed ‘‘threshold concepts’’: conceptual gate-
ways that are transformative, irreversible, and integrative
and lead to a previously inaccessible way of thinking about
the subject.49 Interestingly, these threshold concepts, once
mastered, tend to give the learner a more privileged view of

660 JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC

Table 2: Selected troublesome areas in molecular biology, the nature of the difficulty, and related areas of
knowledge and understanding
Troublesome Area
Higher organisms are com-
posed of specialized, hetero-
geneous populations of cells
that communicate with each
other.
Different cell types within an
organism have differential pat-
terns of gene expression,
despite possessing the same
genome.
Protein metabolism, synthesis,
and secretion
Hardy/Weinberg equilibrium
Genetic linkage
Mendelian principles of
inheritance
Multigenic inheritance
Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)
DNA sequencing
Mitosis
Meiosis
Nature of Difficulty
Students may ‘‘know’’ this, but a true
appreciation of the concept requires an
understanding of the areas listed in
column 3.
Students may ‘‘know’’ this, but a true
appreciation of this concept requires an
understanding of some of the areas listed
in column 3.

An appreciation of this concept requires
an understanding of the areas listed in
column 3.

The area contains a number of pathways
that have to be memorized.

Students confuse digested protein with
proteins that are synthesized by a cell.
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Dynamic
Dynamic

Complex chain of events

Often represented in an unrealistic way

Students confuse chromosome number
with the consequences of DNA replica-
tion at metaphase.

Complex chain of events

Confused with mitosis

A link may not be established between
the process and the consequences (see
column 3).
Related Knowledge and Understanding

Cell signaling

Signal transduction

Receptors

Competence

Cell differentiation

Differential gene expression

Transcription

Translation

Gene regulation

Differentiation

Real-time PCR

2D gel electrophoresis

Microarrays

Cell signaling

Amino acids

Codons

Ribosomal, transfer, and messenger RNA

Protein metabolism

Protein storage and secretion

Properties of proteins

Post-translational modification

Alleles

Phenotype/genotype

Genetic fitness

Epistatis

Inbreeding depression

Genetic drift

Evolution

Genetic markers

Co-inheritance of undesirable traits with
selected traits in animals

Dominant/recessive alleles

Penetrance

Phenotype/genotype relationship

Inheritance patterns of single-gene
diseases and traits

Additive effects of genes

Heritability

Quality-trait loci (QTL)

Selection and breeding strategies

Chemical characteristics of DNA

DNA replication and synthesis

Specificity of gene amplification

Applications of PCR

Chemical characteristics of DNA

DNA replication and synthesis

Applications of electrophoresis

Chemical characteristics of DNA

DNA replication and synthesis

Cell division for growth and replenishment

Regulation of the cell cycle

Neoplasia

Random segregation of genes

Aneuploidy

Gametogenesis

Genetic variation
the discipline. Threshold concepts have been identified in a
number of disciplines (e.g., the ideas of entropy in physics
and of pain in medicine).50 Taylor51 highlights the difficulty
of characterizing true threshold concepts within the
biological sciences; rather, the real threshold concept relates
to the complex and idiosyncratic nature of biological
sciences. Biological knowledge is troublesome because of
the high degree of interrelatedness of biological systems,
the large number of processes, the constant need to
reevaluate learned material in the light of new material,
and the numerous layers of abstraction at which material
can be viewed.
Learning in biology usually requires the devel-
opment of a gradually increasing awareness
and constant re-evaluation of the topics being
studied. Truisms taught at early stages are
re-examined as further layers of complexity
within the topic require a new set of truths to
be constructed.51
These points relate strongly to the field of molecular biology,
which, infinitely complex, underpins so many biological
disciplines and can be viewed at numerous levels of
abstraction.
Some aspects of molecular biology require students to apply
alternative metaphors or cognitive paradigms when trying
to understand the same topic from a different viewpoint.
A key example of this phenomenon relates to the under-
standing of genes. At the highest level of abstraction, genes
are best viewed as particles or units (e.g., Mendelian
inheritance and Hardy/Weinberg equilibrium).52, 53 This
conception of genes must change, however, when learning
about transcription and translation: genes must be viewed
as having unique properties of their own, composed of
promoter regions, introns/exons, and codons. The student
must also be capable of viewing genes as a molecular
compound (DNA) if they are to understand its molecular
structure and chemical properties and before they can grasp
the concepts of technologies such as PCR, DNA sequencing,
and gel electrophoresis.
In addition, the real-world relevance of molecular biology
and its discussion in the public domain may result in some
students’ having misconceptions about the discipline that
may not concur fully with the understanding educators
wish to instill.54 Entwistle and Smith47 suggest that the
target understanding of genetics courses should build on or
challenge ‘‘intuitive genetics’’ (i.e., that which is understood
from everyday experience and the media) so that scientific
meaning extends students’ existing understanding and
relates it to their everyday lives. Efforts are currently
underway to validate a series of questionnaires, collectively
called the Biology Concept Inventory (BCI), aimed at
accurately assessing students’ comprehension of concepts
in introductory genetics, cell biology, and molecular
biology.54
CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING
OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY TECHNIQUES AND
TECHNOLOGIES
Over the last 15 years substantial technological develop-
ments have taken place, enabling the detailed exploration
662
of molecular and cellular processes within the cell. These
new technologies have become increasingly accessible, cost
effective, and accurate. Developments and innovations
within the computer and engineering industries have
increased in response to the increased demand for the
instrumentation that supports molecular-biology methodol-
ogies; numerous tools and technologies are now available
that investigate cellular processes at a molecular level (see
Table 355–66). Many of the technologies employed are
complex and are operated by experienced personnel
who become specialists in that particular technology.
Other techniques are technically less complex and can be
completed by personnel with less experience. The challenge
for educators will be to decide how these essential
technologies should be presented to veterinary students in
a way that allows them to envisage molecular tools and
technologies as something real as well as allowing them to
appreciate both the potential of the technology and relevant
applications of such technologies in veterinary medicine.
Many of the recently developed molecular technologies
are conceptually and technically complex (see Table 3).
Approaches to teaching molecular biology to veterinary
students must ensure that the subject is integrated with
other veterinary subjects and that focus on the details of
complex techniques and technologies is kept to a minimum.
With reference to medical education, Jamieson supports this
point by stating that
non clinical teaching staff must accept that
medical students do not necessarily need to
know the depth and detail required by science
students. The emphasis should be on learning of
underlying principles, paradigms and clinically
relevant examples.67
In contrast, life-sciences degree students may require a more
in-depth and hands-on approach to molecular biology
technologies, as these are a key aspect of their vocational
training.
If veterinary students become too immersed in the complex-
ity of techniques, they may miss their relevance. Many
textbooks illustrate landmark experiments; students often
do not distinguish between the conclusion and the methods
used to reach the conclusion, instead learning the material
in a disconnected manner.68
Technologies such as microarrays and sequencing are
technically complex and expensive, have long preparation
times, and are currently not established as routine veter-
inary diagnostic tools. They are, however, important
components within the discipline of molecular biology
and are widely used in different areas of research. It is
important that veterinary students know of the existence of
these technologies, understand the underlying principles
behind them, and know how and when they can be applied.
Learning about molecular-biological techniques in the
veterinary context poses another subtle problem that may
not be appreciated by lecturers familiar with the techniques.
The small volumes, nano-scale concentrations, and manip-
ulation of what are essentially large molecules can make the
subject seem inconceivable to many students. While this
may not necessarily affect students’ theoretical understand-
ing, it can affect their appreciation of the technology
as something tangible and relevant.
JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC
JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC
Table 3: Selected techniques employed in molecular biology
Technique Purpose
Polymerase chain Amplification of specific gene targets
reaction (PCR)55
Restriction fragment Cutting DNA at specific sequence
length polymorphism locations using restriction enzymes
analysis
Agarose gel Separation of DNA or RNA on the
electrophoresis basis of size
Real-time PCR56 Relative and absolute quantification of
specific gene targets originating from
RNA or DNA
Microsatelite analysis Determination of size of DNA
(GeneScanj) fragment (accurate to 1 base pair
difference) by high-resolution
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
Pulse field gel Separation of large DNA fragments
electrophoresis57
Bioinformatics58 Broadly encompasses the use of
computational methods in the analysis
of biological data. The tools used to analyze
different types of data range from relatively
simple algorithms to more complex
multivariate analysis techniques. Expression
data are analyzed using multivariate
statistical methods and have extended to
mathematical modeling, neural networks,
and genetic algorithms.59
663
Clinical and Research Applications
Used clinically and in research. This techni-
que can be used to detect a specific DNA
template or to provide starting materials for
further DNA analysis.
Used routinely in research; also used
clinically. Can be used for rapid detectiong
of SNPs without DNA sequencing.
This is one of the few ways that DNA and
RNA can be visualized and, so it is used in
all areas of molecular biology.
Applied in research as means of
exploring functional genomics and clinically
in the determination of viral load, pathogen
detection, and therapy monitoring
Parentage testing Epidemiology Allele
determination
Bacterial typing
Analysis of sequence data, genome Variable (depends
data, macromolecular structure, and
gene-expression data. data and analysis)
Complexity Form of Data Generated
Low Image of an ethidium bromide–stained gel,
visualized under UV light
Low Image of an ethidium bromide–stained gel,
visualized under UV light
Low Image of an ethidium bromide–stained gel,
visualized under UV light
Low–Moderate Image of amplification plot Numerical
data in the form of CT values
Moderate Image of fluorescently tagged PCR product
and co-migrating size marker Numerical
data relating to size
Moderate Image of an ethidium bromide–stained gel,
visualized under UV lightNumerical data
Sequence and numerical data
on complexity of
(Continued )
664

Table 3: Continued
Technique Purpose Clinical and Research Applications Complexity Form of Data Generated

Automated DNA Determination of DNA sequence Used for research purposes; it can also be High Image of chromatogram
sequencing60 employed in diagnostics (i.e., to detect specific Sequence data
mutations)
Microarrays61 Detection of differentially expressed Generally only used in research at present, but High Image of Array
genes clinical applications are being explored Numerical data
Two-dimensional Separation of proteins based Generally only used in research at present, but High Image of gel
polyacrylamide gel on both iso-electric point and clinical applications are being explored
electrophoresis62 molecular weight
Matrix-assisted Provides accurate analysis of SNP genotyping Microsatellite typing Protein High Spectral data
laser desorption/ the molecular weight and structure characterization
ionisation of bio-molecules
time-of-flight
(MALDI TOF)63
Flow cytometry64 Separation and characterization of cells Has both clinical and research applications High Numerical data
65
Pyrosequencing Typing of SNPs and scoring haplotypes Has both clinical and research applications High Sequence data
RNA Selective disruption of distinct mRNA Defines gene function in vivo by knocking out High Phenotypic analysis of cell or
interference66 transcripts or reducing gene expression at the organism function
post-transcriptional level; has applications
in reverse genetics and therapeutics
JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC
GENETIC DATABASES AND BIO-INFORMATICS
Sequence information is now integrated with related
information, including gene and protein structure, con-
served domains, and publications relevant to that
sequence.69 Bio-informatics databases such as PubMedk
are now the main source of molecular-biological informa-
tion for graduate students.70
The automation of sequencing means that sequence data are
being generated at an exponential rate. As of April 2006,
there were over 130 billion bases in GenBank and RefSeq.k
Databases such as those curated by the National Centre for
Biotechnology (NCBI) and the European Molecular Biology
Laboratory (EMBL) provide platforms for placing sequen-
cing and genome data in the public domain (see Table 4).
Over the last decade the major sequencing projects (see
Table 4) have focused primarily on the sequencing of human
genomes and those of model organisms such as mouse,
E. coli, Drosophila melanogaster, and zebra fish. Subsequent
genome projects have followed in the footsteps of the
Human Genome Project, employing the most successful
strategies and operating on a fraction of the budget.71 Large-
scale sequencing projects are now extending their interest to
a number of domestic species, including cattle,72 horses,73
pigs,74 cats,75 dogs,76 and sheep.77 The recent addition of
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Animals (OMIA)k to the
NCBI’s repertoire of databases reflects the increasing
interest in domestic species. The availability of whole
genome sequences for many different species is, and will
continue to be, an important resource contributing to
comparative mapping initiatives, informing human medi-
cine, and improving animal health and production.71
APPROACHES TO TEACHING
It is reasonable to assume that veterinary educators will
differ in their approach to basic science education depend-
ing on whether they themselves work predominantly in a
clinical or in a basic science environment. With regard to
medical education, basic scientists may emphasize concep-
tual coherence over clinical application and favor teaching
the basic sciences in more depth;78 it is felt that basic
scientists do not feel fully confident in deciding the level of
knowledge medical—or, indeed, veterinary—students need
at graduation and may not tailor their teaching to
emphasize clinical relevance, as they may not appreciate it
fully themselves.78 Clinicians who are involved exclusively
in clinical practice may understandably feel unconnected
with the basic sciences; hence, despite its relevance to their
area, they will be less likely to discuss a subject such as
molecular biology in great depth. The fact that molecular
biology is a rapidly evolving and growing discipline will
increasingly exacerbate this problem.

Table 4: Selected sequence and mapping databases, genome centers, and bioinformatics institutes
Online Resource Web Address Comments

National Centre for
Biotechnology Information
(NCBI)
European Molecular Biology
Laboratory (EMBL)
DNA Databank of Japan (DDBJ)
The Wellcome Trust Sanger
Institute (WTSI)
The Institute for Genomic
Research (TIGR)
(J. Craig Venter Institute)
European Bioinformatics
Institute (EBI)
Ensembl
Expert Protein Analysis
System (ExPASy)
<www.ncbi.nih.gov>
<www.embl.org>
<www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp>
<www.sanger.ac.uk>
<www.tigr.org>
<www.ebi.ac.uk>
<www.ensembl.org>
<www.expasy.ch>
Established in 1988 as a national resource for molecular biology
information, NCBI creates public databases, conducts research in
computational biology, and develops software tools for analyzing
genome data.
EMBL’s mission is to conduct basic research in molecular biology; to
provide essential services to scientists in its member states; to
provide high-level training to its staff, students, and visitors; to
develop new instrumentation for biological research; and ensure
technology transfer. These core functions are combined with
significant outreach activities in the areas of science and society
and training for science teachers.
DDBJ has been functioning as the international nucleotide sequence
database in collaboration with EBI/EMBL and NCBI/GenBank.
The Sanger Institute is a genome research institute primarily funded
by the Wellcome Trust. Their purpose is to further the knowledge of
genomes, particularly through large-scale sequencing and analysis.
The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) is a non-profit center
dedicated to deciphering and analyzing genomes.
The EBI is a center for research and services in bioinformatics. The
institute manages databases of biological data, including nucleic
acid, protein sequences, and macromolecular structures.
Ensembl is a joint project between EMBL, the EBI, and the WTSI to
develop a software system that produces and maintains automatic
annotation on selected eukaryotic genomes.
The ExPASy proteomics server from the Swiss Institute of
Bioinformatics (SIB) is dedicated to molecular biology with an
emphasis on data relevant to proteins.

JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC 665

The involvement that many veterinary clinicians have in
research containing a biomedical or molecular component
may help to bridge the gap between clinical and basic
sciences. This will not only increase awareness and knowl-
edge of molecular biology among clinicians but also
promote communication between teaching staff in clinical
and basic sciences. Collaboration through research should
give both parties a more holistic view of molecular biology
as applied to veterinary medicine, which should have a
positive impact on both teaching content and practice.
In the broader context, teaching style is influenced by the
lecturer’s perception of the students’ needs and prior
knowledge, organizational support structures, timetabling
constraints, and class sizes. Other influences include the
lecturer’s own openness to varied teaching methods as well
as his or her personal teaching and work responsibilities.79
Academics possessing a more holistic view of their subject
adopt more student-focused approaches to teaching,80
including teaching methods such as tutorials, practicals,
problem-based learning, and group discussions. Generally
Computer-aided learning (CAL) includes a wide range of
tools, from online resources available in browser format to
structured tutorials, simulations, animations, and multi-
media presentations.91 CAL can offer students an alternative
insight into areas that may otherwise be difficult to
conceptualize.92 CAL can be particularly useful when
applied to molecular biology education. Animations are
available to illustrate dynamic topics such as PCR93 and
automated sequencing (see Table 5), in addition to concep-
tually difficult areas such as Mendelian inheritance85 and
population genetics.94 With reference to learning styles,
learners with a strong preference for visual information as
opposed to verbal information89, 90 may find CAL tools
helpful (see Figure 4).
16
14
12

Number of students
these teaching methods are considered superior to more- 10
teaching focused approaches, such as lectures, but require
greater effort and resources.81 8

Problem-based learning (PBL)82, 83 is a student-focused 6

approach that aims to encourage students to construct
4
knowledge and uncover concepts while developing analy-
tical and critical thinking skills through a process of inquiry 2
and reflection. It can be used as a means of integrating 0
molecular biology with clinical scenarios at all stages of the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
curriculum; this approach has the potential to give students
Score (Global)
a more applied view of molecular biology. PBL can also
motivate students to explore the many online resources and
Figure 3: The distribution of scores from first-year
genetic databases outlined above.
veterinary students (N ¼ 75) for the global learning
Electives and intercalated degrees in a molecular or biome- style on the global/sequential dimension, as deter-
dical subject afford veterinary students the opportunity mined by Felder’s Learning Styles questionnaire.l
to explore a career in research or diagnostics. This is Students scoring above 5 show a preference for a
important if students wish to deepen their existing under- global learning style.
standing of molecular biology. Many molecular-biology
experiments take a number of days or weeks to complete.
Electives allow students to appreciate the inconsistencies, 14
quality-control issues, and troubleshooting that take place
continually in research and veterinary practice, as well as 12
gaining a deeper insight into molecular and research
concepts. 10
Number of students

8
ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF MOLECULAR
6
BIOLOGY INFORMATION
In view of the conceptual challenges the discipline of 4
molecular biology presents to students, a significant amount
of literature advocates the use of alternative representations 2
in teaching this subject.84–86 Molecular biology is a broad
0
and interconnected subject, and many processes within it
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
are dynamic. Students need to appreciate the interconnect-
edness of molecular biology as well as knowing all its parts. Score (Visual)
This process takes time and will be more difficult for those
studying at undergraduate level, who have not yet formed a
Figure 4: The distribution of scores from first-year
global picture in their minds. Providing students with visual veterinary students (N ¼ 75) for the Visual learning
overviews and concept maps87, 88 can help them visualize style on the visual/verbal dimension, as determined
the interrelatedness of molecular biological topics; this is by Felder’s Learning Styles questionnaire.l Students
particularly useful for students that have a strongly scoring above 5 show a preference for a visual
Wholist89 or Global90 learning style (see Figure 3). learning style.

666 JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC

Table 5: A selection of freeware that can be used as educational tools to support education in molecular biology
Source Type of Application Web Address

The Roche Genetics An interactive CD-ROM developed to promote <http://www.roche.com/home/science/

Education Program
Howard Hughes Medical
Institute (HHMI)
Dolan DNA Learning
Centre
Davidson College
Life Sciences Learning
Centre
North Harris College
basic awareness of genetics in the general public
and to offer an interactive tool for learning basic
principles of genetics
Fully interactive biomedical laboratory simula-
tions, animations, lectures, and video clips relat-
ing to different aspects of biomedical science,
medicine, genetics, and evolution
Animations for automated sequencing, PCR, DNA
restriction, DNA transformation, DNA arrays
Animation for microarrays
Interactive animations for PCR, electrophoresis,
genetic disorders, transcription/translation
Tutorials and multimedia animations in cell
biology, genetics, molecular biology, and popula-
tion genetics
sci_gengen/sci_gengen_cdrom.htm>
<http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/>
<http://www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/
animations.html>
<http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/
genomics/chip/chip.html>
<http://lifesciences.envmed.rochester.edu/
animation.html>
<http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/
bio1.html#regulation>

The World Wide Web is a useful educational recourse for
molecular biology and genetics topics.95 Numerous free-
ware applications available online can be used to illustrate
molecular biological techniques, including PCR, sequen-
cing, and sub-cellular processes such as transcription and
translation (see Table 5). The breadth of information that the
Web gives students is extensive; this resource should be
used with caution, as it may encourage unproductive
browsing and students may encounter material that is
beyond the scope of what is being taught at the time.96
PRACTICALS
Practicals are widely employed in science education to
illustrate theoretical information.97 Practicals in molecular
biology can be difficult to conduct in any setting, as many of
the techniques involved are too complex, time consuming,
and expensive. Simpler techniques such as DNA extrac-
tions, PCR, and RFLP can be incorporated into a practical
setting, but, like many molecular biological experiments,
they may not be very visual and will have long preparation
and incubation times.98 Many veterinary students may find
the technical aspects of molecular biology uninteresting and
irrelevant to their vocational training. Allowing students to
interpret simplified outputs (see Table 3) from various
technologies based on experiments relevant to veterinary
practice is an inexpensive and relatively easy way of
familiarizing them with the techniques and allowing them
to appreciate their relevance. To date, little research has been
carried out to confirm the educational merit of practicals;
however, research undertaken on a cohort of veterinary
medical students has illustrated that deep learning correlated
with high ratings for practical classes as a teaching
method.46 Further to this, two practicals—(1) DNA extrac-
tion and visualization and (2) scrapie genotyping—were
evaluated98 in the context of students’ approaches to
study.99 The scrapie-genotyping practical was rated higher
and had a stronger association with deep learning than the
DNA-extraction practical. The format of the scrapie prac-
tical places less emphasis on technique and more on the
application of molecular biology to clinical practice, and
thus could prove much more useful for conducting a
molecular biology–based practical class in the veterinary
curriculum.
VERTICAL INTEGRATION OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY IN
THE VETERINARY CURRICULUM
Accreditation bodiesm–o have ensured that cell biology and
molecular biology are included in the veterinary curriculum
as a core subject at accredited institutions. The content and
delivery of courses is at the discretion of the institution
itself, and molecular biology is mainly taught as a discrete
module or unit in the pre-clinical curriculum. Considering
the relevance of molecular biology to so many areas of the
veterinary curriculum, relatively little guidance is given on
how to effectively incorporate this non-clinical subject into
the veterinary curriculum.
McCrorie100 comments that vertical integration in medical
curricula is largely unidirectional. Clinical topics are
integrated in the early years, when the basic sciences are
principally taught, but efforts to reintroduce the basic
sciences later in the curriculum are less actively driven as
the course content acquires a more clinical slant.
Coordinated vertical integration of molecular-biology
topics is essential if veterinary students are to maximize
their understanding of molecular biology and realize its
applicability to clinical veterinary medicine. Nickerson101
describes ‘‘understanding’’ as an active process that
connects factual information, relates newly acquired infor-
mation, and weaves this knowledge into a cohesive whole.
This process takes time. Reintroducing molecular biology at
relevant points during the curriculum will not only
reinforce the information already learned but also give
veterinary students time to reflect on previously studied
material while reevaluating it in the context of greater

JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC 667

clinical understanding. It is anticipated that this approach
will deepen understanding, improve retention, and directly
highlight the relevance of molecular biology to
veterinarians.
Gamulin, writing about medical education, supports this
argument:
The molecular medicine topics should be
included into various subjects of undergraduate
curricula and vertically integrated rather than
treated as a separate subject in preclinical or
clinical courses.102
Koens et al. make an important point in favor of teaching
basic sciences in the clinical context:
Clinical context increases commitment to learn
biomedical knowledge because it increases the
willingness to invest more effort in the learning
task.103
Achieving vertical integration of a non-clinical subject such
as molecular biology demands a coordinated effort from
teaching staff in relevant disciplines in all years. To
determine how and at what level molecular biology learning
materials should be incorporated at each stage of the
curriculum requires coordination and communication
between educators in the pre-clinical and clinical years.
This goal can be achieved only through a conscious
commitment.
HOW MIGHT THE VETERINARIAN OF 2025 BE
APPLYING MOLECULAR BIOLOGY?
The veterinarians of 2025 could have a new range of
molecular-based diagnostic tools at their disposal and, as a
profession, may have new roles beyond the ones they
currently play. However, concerns exist about the small
numbers of veterinarians attracted to biomedical
research,104, 105 as well as about the lack of non-clinical
veterinary role models teaching in current veterinary
program.3 The profession’s ability to capitalize fully on
these new technologies will depend as much on how the
profession broadens its own horizons as on the existence of
the technologies in the wider arena.
If veterinary diagnostics follows current trends in medical
diagnostics, techniques such as PCR and real-time PCR will
increasingly be employed as routine methods of pathogen
detection,106, 107 SNP analysis,108 cancer diagnostics,109 and
quantification of viral load.110 This technology will improve
the speed of both diagnosis and treatment. Microarray
technologies will not only help to characterize disease states
but also provide information on the optimal course of
treatment.111 The applications of molecular-based imaging
techniques will also evolve in the clinical arena, giving the
veterinarian a greater depth of clinical information beyond
that currently available.112
One area that should significantly affect veterinarians will
be the availability of data relating to the genome, proteome,
and transcriptome of most species. By 2025, these data
should be better annotated, and clearer phenotypic relation-
ships established. Veterinarians may increasingly need to
advise clients on genetic screening tests, which, in the
future, could possibly involve the screening of multiple
668
genes on a chip-based format.113 The ongoing identification
of QTLs and SNPs relating to animal health will become
significant drivers for selective breeding in the future.38
Veterinarians will play a vital role in using this new
information to advise breeders on animal welfare and
health in production animals. It is reasonable to postulate
that by 2025 the bio-informatics revolution may even have
endowed veterinarians with tools that predict the final
phenotypic outcome based on large quantities of genotype
information, predicting the conformation and biological
characteristics of a ‘‘virtual animal.’’ Breeding for health and
welfare will be the ultimate step in preventive medicine.
Veterinarians have important roles to play in comparative
medicine and biomedical research.105 Veterinarians and
those researching animal diseases will also play a vital
role in informing human medicine, especially on issues
relating to animal models, comparative genomics, and
pharmacogenetics.
Veterinarians’ current role in food safety and the traceability
of zoonotic disease will be better facilitated by tools that
permit the rapid identification and characterization of
pathogens ‘‘in the field.’’ Rapid surveillance will be vital if
antibiotic use is to be reduced.114
Transgenic technologies, which have the potential to confer
new characteristics on existing species and even result in the
creation of new species or breeds, may increase as a result of
consumer demand. Veterinarians will play a role in advising
on the health and welfare of these animals as well as
treating them. Cloning technologies, if improved, could
enable the conservation of rare,115 commercially valuable,24
or even extinct or endangered species,115 a scenario that will
also generate unique clinical challenges for veterinarians.
New areas of understanding (e.g., small interfering RNA,66
copy-number variation,116 and epigenetic variation117) are
continually being uncovered in the field of molecular
biology. This new understanding may also significantly
affect diagnostics, treatment, and breeding strategies in
some as yet unforeseen way.
SUMMARY
Molecular biology is increasingly affecting veterinary
medicine, a trend that needs to be reflected on the veterinary
curriculum. Effective incorporation of a non-clinical subject
such as molecular biology onto the veterinary curriculum
needs to be addressed in a way that maximizes under-
standing of the discipline without overloading students
with unnecessary detail. The central concepts within
molecular biology and its applications to veterinary med-
icine should be emphasized. Effective vertical integration
will facilitate the teaching of molecular biology topics in the
light of students’ understanding at the time, building on
and reinforcing their existing knowledge and illustrating its
applications in context. Effective communication among
those contributing to molecular-biology education at differ-
ent stages of the curriculum is essential if a global learning
outcome is to be defined and implemented.
Educators also need to be sympathetic to the learning
challenges that molecular biology presents to veterinary
students. In light of these particular challenges, a wide
range of teaching methods and alternative representations
JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC
should be employed to promote understanding of molecular
biology. These learning challenges relate not only to the
subject itself but to wider issues such as the necessary depth
and breadth of material required by veterinary students.
Haga95 clarifies this point further, stating that the goal of
enhancing basic genetics education is to provide a founda-
tion of knowledge that will allow learners to understand
genetics concepts, applications, and ethical issues and
become informed users of genetics technologies and their
applications.
We believe that the core competencies that veterinary
students should obtain in molecular biology include the
following:
. an understanding of the background facts and
concepts of molecular biology
. knowledge of terminology and language specific to
the subject
. knowledge of the technology and techniques used to
study and investigate molecular processes
. an understanding of the potential applications of
molecular biology to veterinary medicine
. an understanding of the wider implications of
employing molecular-based technologies in veterin-
ary medicine and to society
The means by which these learning goals are achieved
within any individual veterinary institution is still a matter
of choice. Clear learning objectives and varied teaching
strategies combined with good communication between
educators and coordinated vertical integration should
encourage the production of a comprehensive, clinically
relevant, and constructively aligned molecular biology
course that spans the entire veterinary curriculum.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Professors Boyd Jones and
P.J. Quinn for their extremely helpful editorial comments
during the writing of this paper.
NOTES
a Animal DNA Services, Fairfield, OH 45014
<http://www.vetdnacenter.com/>.
b Optigen, Ithaca, NY 14850 <www.optigen.com>.
c VetGen, Ann Arbor, MI 48108
<http://www.vetgen.com/>.
d VITA-TECH, Markham, ON L3R 5V2
<http://www.vita-tech.com/canineparentage.cfm>.
e HealthGene, Toronto, ON M6M 3Z4
<www.healthgene.com/vet>.
f QIAGEN Pathogen real-time PCR detection kits,
QIAGEN <http://www1.qiagen.com/products/
assays/pathogendetection/?r¼777>.
g QIAGEN <http://www1.qiagen.com/>.
h Parentage Testing service, Veterinary Genetics
Laboratory, UC Davis, CA 95616
JVME 34(5) ß 2007 AAVMC
<http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/service/parentage/
process.html>.
i Bovine QTL Viewer, Texas A&M University
<http://bovineqtl.tamu.edu>.
j Applied BioSystems, Foster City, CA 94404
<http://www.appliedbiosystems.com>.
k National Centre for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI), Bethesda, MD 20894
<http://www.ncbi.nih.gov>.
l Felder R, Index of Learning Styles (ILS)
<http://www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/
felder/public/ILSpage.html>. Accessed 10/15/07.
m American Veterinary Medical Association,
Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360 <http://www.avma.org>.
n European Association of Establishments for Veterinary
Education <http://www.eaeve.org>.
o Australasian Veterinary Boards Council
<http://www.avbc.asn.au/>.
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Marion T Ryan, MSc, D.Med.Sci., is a Senior Technical Officer
in the Molecular Biology Facility, College of Life Sciences,
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine,
University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Republic of
Ireland. E-mail: marion.ryan@ucd.ie. She has published in a
number of areas including distance education, computer-aided
learning, learning approaches, veterinary embryology, and
molecular genetics.
Torres Sweeney, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in Cell and
Molecular Biology in the College of Life Sciences, School of
Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine and
Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research,
University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Republic of
Ireland. E-mail: torres.sweeney@ucd.ie. Her major research
interests are: genetic polymorphisms in commercially impor-
tant traits in bovine and sheep, gene expression profiling of
meat-quality traits, and immunogenomics of disease resis-
tance in livestock animals.
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