28:1 TYPES OF RADIATION The reactions studied in preceding chapters involved alterations in the electronic structure of atoms. In chemical reactions, the atom’s nucleus remains unchanged. In contrast, nuclear reactions change nuclei of atoms. ‘The number of protons and/or neutrons in the nuclei may increase or de~ ‘crease. One element may be converted into another element. Nuclear re- actions are accompanied by a change in energy. The amount of energy involved is many times greater than the energy associated with chemical reactions. Radioactive elements such 25 uranium, radium, and polonium have unstable nuclei. Particles are emied from unstable nuclei as they undergo a process called radioactive decay. The decay process continues until a stable element is formed. Stable nuclei do not give off particles of radiation. Radioactive elements m2y occur naturally in the earth, as in the case of uranium, radium, and polorsum. Notmally stable elements can be made radioactive in the laboratory by bombarding them with high speed neutrons ‘or charged particles. Naturally occurring cadioactive material produces three types of ra- diation. Alpha and beta radiation are made up of particles. Gamma rays are quanta of energy ‘Alpha particles (c) 2 positively charged helium nuclei, each con- sisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Each particle can be represented by the symbol $He, in which the 2 represents the number of protons and the 4 represents the mass number. Beta particles (3) are electrons represented by the symbol fe. The atomic number of each particle is ~1 and the mass number is zero. Elec trons do not exist in the nucleus as such but are produced when 2 neutron decays to form a proton. jn H+ fe ‘When beta rays are emitted, the mass number of the nucleus remains the same, but the neutron/proton ratio is reduced. ‘Gamma rays (y) possess neither mass nor charge but are quanta of energy similar to highly energetic X rays. Gamma rays are emitted when changes in the nucleus produce an excess of energy. Gamma radiation does not change the mass number or atomic number of the nucleus. The 207208 Nuclear Chemistry mission of excess energy brings the nucleus to a less excited, more stable state. Gamma rays travel at the speed of light. Ciher types of radioactive particles can be emitted when nuclei are bombarded with charged particles or high-speed neutrons and made ae ficially radioactive. Examples of these particles include the following: iH isa proton or hydrogen atom with A = 1 and 2= 1 iH is a deuteron or hydrogen isotope with A = 2 and Z = 1 én isa neutron with A = 1 and Z= 0 (no electric charge) sie isa positron with A = 0 and Z Su is a neutrino with A = 0 and Z=0 28:2 BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS In balancing nuclear equations, two rules must be followed. 1. The sum of the mass numbers on the left side and the right side of the equation must be equal. 2, The sum of the electric charges on the let side and the right side of the equation must be equal Radioactive particles given off during nuclear reactions are included in these ‘equations in order to balance them, Complete the following nuclear equation, “EPo= 7+ tHe Solving Process: (@) Find the mass number of the unknown product. We know that the mass number is conserved in 2 nuclear reaction. ‘mass no. of 4 + mass no. ‘mass no. of = 208 ~ mass no, of 4 204 (©) Find the charge ofthe unknown product. We know that electric charge is conserved in a nuclear equation charge of 2 + charge of ? = 84 charge of ? = 84 ~ charge of 2 = 82 (©) Determine the identity ofthe unknown product and complete the nu: clear equation. Turn to the periodic table and find which nuclide hog an 62+ charge. This nuclide is lead, Pb, Thus, the completed nuclear equation is Po "Pb + the Bo rpg Pore besa sion} 28:3 | Ina when the cess, call tinues un duced. T! decay is + of a seco28:3 Halfife 209 1. Using the periodic table, write nuclear symbols for the isotopes. a. lead-208 e. helium-5 , lead-210 f. potassium-40 ©. uranium-235 8. lithium-8 . carbon-14 fh uranium-236 2. Complete and balance the following equations. jLi+ JH fHe +? @. IN + He 7+ ,2e WH+THo7thn £2 NC GN +2 & Cot TH+ 7+ .%e I. {Be + He IC +2 3. In a portion of the uranium decay series, lead-214 decays to bismuth- 214 by beta emission. The bismuth-214 decays to polonium-214 by beta emission. The polonium-214 decays to lead-210 by alpha emis- sion. Write balanced nuclear equations to represent these three steps. 2 HALF-LIFE In a nuclear reaction, one element is changed into another element when there is a change in the number of protons in the nucleus. This pro- cess, called transmutation, can be natural or artificial. Transmutation con- tinues until a stable element. whose nucleus is not radioactive, is pro- duced. The time required for half of a sample of a radioactive isotope to decay is termed its half-life. Hali-lives of some isotopes are only a fraction of a second. For others, the halflife may be millions or billions of years. Halt-Life and Decay Mode of Selected Nuclides Half-Life 12.26 years 0.797 seconds 5730 years 28.1 seconds 2:1 seconds| 3 X 10° years 2.4 minutes 32 minutes 10.6 hours 198.40 days 4.3 minutes 74 x 10° years 4.51 x 10° years 2.85 years, 3.79 x 10* years240 _ Nuclear Chemistry ‘The half-life of one isotope of zinc, 33Zn, is 2.4 minutes. Suppose we begin with 10.0 g of this isotope. At the end of 2.4 minutes, 5.0 g 33Zn would remain. The rest of the 10.0 g sample would have decayed to gal- lium. At the end of another 2.4 minutes, 2.5 g 3o2n would remain. After the third 2.4 minutes, the original 10.0 g sample would contain 1.25 g of the zinc isotope. The other 8.75 g 53Zn would have decayed to gallium. Cobalt-60 is used in cancer radiation therapy. If you start with 4.516 % 0" atoms of Co, how much time will pass before the amount is reduced to 1.764 x 10° atoms? The half-life is 5.26 years. Solving Process: {a) Divide the original amount by the present amount to obtain a ratio of atoms. 4,516 X 10° atoms _ 256 original atoms 7.764 x 10" atoms — 1 remaining atom (b) Determine the number of halt-lives, where n is the number of half- lives. 256 log 256 og 256 log 2 = Bhalt-lives (©) Calculate the amount of time that will pass. eloped ime = 2204 | BAMHI 9.4 years ‘Strontium-90 is present in nuclear fallout. Because it is in the same family as calcium, it can be found in milk and later, bones. If you start with 1.94 X 10" atoms of 25r, how many atoms will remain after 140.5 years? The halflife of $$5r is 28.1 years. Solving Process: number of remaining atoms = number of original atoms x 1/2” (a) Divide 140.5 years by 28.1 years to find the number of half-lives. 140.5 y Bary rates ~ 500 bal ives5. Suppose we stes, 5.0 g BZn decayed to gal- ¢ remain, After ontain 1.25 g of ved to gall —— ‘with 4.516 x ount is reduced btain a ts of umber of half- a same family rt with 1.94 5 years? The x 1/2" pies Nuclear Chemistry 211 (©) To determine the ratio of remaining atome 10 original atoms, use 1/2" where n is the number of half-lives, tat B73 Only one atom remains for every 32 original atoms. (©) Multiply the original number of atoms by 1/32. (1.94 x 10" atoms) (1/32) = 6.06 x 10° atoms Thus after 140.5 ‘years, 6.06 x 10" atoms femaining atoms _ 1 original atoms 3% * Of radioactive S85r remain, nis 2.4 minutes. How long will it take for a sample ay t0 1/16 its original mass? 5. A radioactive tracer, sodium-24, is used to study circulatory problems, If you start with 5.85 x 10” atoms, how ‘many atoms will remain after 12.0 days? The halfle of #Na is 4.0 daye & Some patients with thyroid disorders receive radioactive iodine-131, Fhe halflife of "31 is 8.07 days. you etry with 7.73 x 10"? atoms, how much time will pass before the amon is reduced to 7.55 x 19° atoms? 2 Complete the foliowing nuclear equations. a@ BAl+ TH? ~ tHe b+ In Sk — tHe d. n+ 2s T= BY> ln 3: Batteries used in heart pacemakers contain Plutonium-238. i your wana ample contains 2.57 x 10° atoms of Pu heer much time Will ass before the amount is reduced to's 0 » 10° atoms. The half. lite is 27.1 years. 4 Gatbon-14 has a haltlife of 5730 years and is Used for radioactive dating. Assume we started with 2.18 x 10° atoms of “2C in a wood Sample obtained from a wooden beam from an secns tomb, There bean, X 10” atoms remaining. How old can ws seer the wooden beam to be?