Sustainability 12 09494

sustainability
Article
Framework for Designing Sustainable Structures
through Steel Beam Reuse
Seongjun Kim 1 and Sung-Ah Kim 2, *
1 Department of Convergence Engineering for Future City, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea;
diorkisss@skku.edu
2 Department of Architecture, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
* Correspondence: sakim@skku.edu

Received: 9 October 2020; Accepted: 12 November 2020; Published: 15 November 2020
Abstract: The architecture, engineering, and construction sector requires carbon-intensive materials,
such as steel, in the construction process and generates a large amount of waste in the life cycle.
This causes global warming and waste problems. The demand for the reuse of construction materials
is increasing, although it is not the convention, to reduce the environmental impact. Although the
sustainable effect of the reuse of materials has been proven in several studies, materials are not
always reused in practice, owing to the lack of an information system for reusable materials and
the economic uncertainty. In this study, we propose a framework for designing structures using
reusable steel beams. The design framework consists of a material bank and a design support tool.
The material bank provides information on reusable materials based on the building information
modeling. The design support tool generates efficient material procurement plans and provides
information about the environmental and economic impact of the project. In a case study used to
verify the framework, CO2 emissions were reduced by up to 77% through material reuse, which was
consistent with the results of previous studies. However, owing to the cost of processing reusable
materials, the overall cost was found to increase by up to about 40%. Therefore, an economic analysis
over the entire life cycle when using reusable materials needs to be done.
Keywords: reuse; design for reuse; material bank; life cycle assessment; life cycle cost; building
information modeling
1. Introduction
The demand for greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction has increased due to rapid climate change
caused by global warming. In particular, the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector
is a resource-intensive industry sector accounting for about 40% of the energy consumption and over
32% of the CO2 generation in the U.S. and Europe [1,2]. There is, therefore, a great need for the AEC
sector to reduce its generation of GHGs. In addition, the AEC accounts for 51% of the total steel
resource consumption [3] and up to 30% of the global waste generation [4–6], including Europe and
most developed countries. The material-related energy consumption accounts for 10–20% of the
AEC’s total energy consumption [7], and this proportion increases with the type and life span of the
structure. As such, resource consumption in the AEC sector poses a serious threat to the environment,
and according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the use
of construction materials is expected to increase further in the future [8]. Accordingly, calls for the
reduction of both waste and production of construction materials are increasing worldwide. In Korea,
the AEC sector accounts for about 40% [9] of the energy consumption, which is two times greater than
that of the transportation section [10], and most of the generated waste and GHGs owing to the use
of carbon-intensive materials. In 2020, the annual steel consumption of the AEC sector in Korea was
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494; doi:10.3390/su12229494 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 2 of 20
estimated to be over 20.7 million tons [11]. In response to this situation, the Korean government is
attempting to reduce GHG emissions by 50% [12] and CO2 emissions from AEC by approximately
60% [13] by 2050.
Countries around the world have introduced the concept of a circular economy (CE) to reduce
the environmental impact caused by the production of construction materials and the discharge of
waste, with waste management being a key strategy for a CE [14–16]. The CE concept is used not
only for construction but also for responding to resource depletion and environmental issues and
other sustainability issues across all fields. This concept is particularly important in the AEC sector,
which has a significant influence on the environment, owing to its large resource consumption and
waste generation. The European Union action plan for CE actively encourages the recycling and reuse
of construction materials and provides guidelines [17,18]. Reduce, recycle, and reuse are recommended
as major strategies for waste management [19]. In particular, the reuse of materials extracted from
structures has proven to have a high potential to improve resource efficiency, energy use, and carbon
emissions of the AEC sector [20]. When steel scrap is processed using an electric arc furnace for
recycling, which is considered an eco-friendly strategy, 0.15–1.03 tons of CO2 are generated in the
process of producing 1 ton of steel [21]. In Korea, the electric arc furnace method generates only about
a quarter of the CO2 generated by the basic oxygen steelmaking method, in which iron ore is processed
using a blast furnace [22,23]; the amount of CO2 generated can be further reduced by the reuse of
materials. In addition, the reuse of construction materials reduces material production costs. Reuse
is attracting attention as the most promising alternative for enhancing the sustainability of the AEC
sector by replacing the resource and energy-intensive material production process and reducing waste.
Research has been conducted on design methods for efficiently extracting materials from structures
for reuse, or using materials already extracted to apply reuse in the AEC sector. Research on design for
deconstruction has developed strategies for both deconstructing structures from the design process,
and evaluating tools for ease of disassembly [24,25]. Research related to design for reuse (DfR)
has investigated the environmental effects and design strategies of new structures using reusable
materials [26,27]. Nevertheless, materials are rarely reused in the AEC sector, and there is a lack of
information on reusable materials and their properties. There is no official service that provides a list
or status of reusable materials, and even if reusable materials are sought, it is difficult for designers
to grasp information on their properties [28–30]. Therefore, the case for construction using reusable
materials and the process of design are not well-defined. In addition, project stakeholders, including
the owner, are concerned about the economic uncertainty of using reusable materials [28,29,31].
Designers, in particular, are reluctant to reuse because they are concerned that their designs and
material procurement strategies may be compromised by limitations in the shape and quantity of
available reusable materials [28,29,31,32]. The opportunity to enhance the sustainability of the AEC
sector is therefore lost because reusable materials are not used in practice, despite the environmental
benefits and existence of policy incentives for reuse.
In this study, we propose a framework for designing structures with reusable steel beams to
reduce CO2 emissions. The framework consists of a material bank for managing reusable material
information and a design support tool to increase the efficiency of reusable material use. The framework
supports the design process by providing information on reusable materials, efficient material usage
plans, and information on the environmental and economic impact of the project for designers and
stakeholders. In this way, it facilitates the process for stakeholders to use reusable materials to improve
the sustainability of the AEC sector. Sustainability is a broad term that comprehensively considers
the economic and social performance and environmental resilience to balance the interests of current
and future generations [14,33]. In this study, we focused on the environmental aspect of the various
elements of sustainability.
The subject of the proposed framework is a steel beam structure. This is because the demand
for steel beams in the AEC sector is very high; 60 million tons of sections are used worldwide every
year [34]. In Korea, about 7.9 million tons of steel sections and I beams (or H beams) are produced every
year [35]. Not all the steel components produced in Korea are used in the AEC sectors. Nevertheless,
the proposed framework is expected to allow an amount of steel sufficient to cover a significant portion
of the Korean and global demand for steel beams. Steel beams are easy to reuse [36,37], and although
reuse is not a common practice at present, the steel beam recovery rate in the AEC sector is about
85% [3], making it easy to secure inventory. The environmental benefit that can be obtained through
reuse is significant because steel beams require a lot of energy in the production process. In Korea, 67%
of the total steel is produced through the basic oxygen steelmaking method using a blast furnace [38].
With this method, about 2 tons of CO2 are generated for every 1 ton of iron produced [39]. In this
study, the amount of CO2 , which accounts for over 60% of the GHG emissions [40], was calculated to
measure the environmental impact of construction projects. The framework of this study focuses on
the process of creating design and material procurement plans using reusable materials. Therefore,
this study does not include a method of extracting materials from a structure to be deconstructed, or a
design method to facilitate extraction.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explores previous studies on DfR, material
banks for managing reusable materials, and methods for assessing the environmental and economic
costs of construction projects; Section 3 proposes a design framework for promoting steel beam reuse
based on previous research considerations; Section 4 describes a case study to verify the effectiveness
of the proposed framework; Section 5 analyzes the results of the case study.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Design for Reuse (DfR)

DfR means the design of a new structure using reusable products or components such as steel
beams [29,37]. Previous studies related to DfR have suggested ideas for designing new structures
using reusable construction materials, and design methodologies and strategies to create new design
proposals [26,28,29,31]. In addition, these studies have verified the effect of material reuse by measuring
the environmental impact of structures created through DfR [41–44]. Studies related to design methods
have optimized the design of specific types of the structure considering constraints on the shape or
quantity of reusable materials. In particular, previous studies have shown a specific interest in the reuse
of steel. They have generated new designs using reusable steel extracted from general buildings [41,43],
structures such as electric pylons [42], and manufacturing waste [44].
There are barriers to reuse in the AEC sector despite the research and proposed strategies related
to DfR. First, the systems for managing and providing information on reusable materials have not been
clearly defined [28–30]. Although material information is essential for creating a design and planning
a project, data exist individually or are not managed, so project stakeholders cannot access them in
practice. In addition, the absence of material information leads to concerns about the additional costs
of reuse. Although the review of economic feasibility is one of the most important aspects to determine
before proceeding with the project, reuse is not considered in practice due to uncertainty about the
cost [28,29,31]. Most of the previous studies on DfR have ignored the measurement of economic
cost [41–43].
Therefore, to make the reuse of materials achievable, a system is needed to gather and manage
information on reusable materials [45]. To this end, a database to integrate and manage material
information, such as a material bank, must be created and made accessible to designers and project
participants. In addition, designers need a tool to predict the environmental and economic impact of
using reusable materials. In particular, decisions made at the design stage have a great influence on
the overall cost of the project, so the designer should be able to determine costs easily and modify the
plan iteratively. In addition, the constraints on the shape and quantity of reusable materials available
must be overcome using an efficient material procurement plan to fulfill the design. In the case of the
new production of materials, the required shape, quantity, and procurement plan are fixed, but when
reusable materials are used, the number of possible procurement alternatives increases. A reasonable
material procurement plan is needed through the optimization of cutting stock [43,46] because reuse
may not be possible due to the cost, which varies depending on the procurement plan.
2.2. Material Bank for Managing Reusable Material Information

A material bank refers to a system and database for managing material information for recycling
or reuse of construction materials [47–49]. The material bank provides project stakeholders with access
to material information, thus facilitating the application of reusable materials to construction projects.
Bertin et al. proposed a building information modeling (BIM)-based framework and material bank
to reuse the load-bearing elements of buildings [47], and Honic, Kovacic and Rechberger proposed
a material passport for recycling wood and concrete [50]. Jayasinghe and Waldmann developed a
framework to extract components that make up the entire building and convert them into a database for
recycling and reuse of construction materials [49]. Arora et al. proposed a method of quantifying the
material flow by type of building material in order to predict the material flow in a material bank [51].
As a result of an analysis of urban areas in Singapore, approximately 6.5 million tons of steel can be
reused, and the effect of steel reuse is expected to be significant.
Previous studies have indicated high levels of interest in storing the information about reusable
materials as a key function of a material bank. Therefore, these studies mainly used the BIM data of
the structure to be deconstructed [48–51]. BIM is a standard method for managing project information
in the AEC sector and an effective means of managing information on reusable materials because it can
include attribute information of buildings and components, which can be expanded as necessary.
Previous studies have defined the type of material properties to be stored together with BIM data.
The items of the previously proposed material bank consisted of the shape, quantity, type, structure,
and chemical properties of the materials [47,49,50]. The capital of the material bank database becomes
the material information extracted from the BIM model of the building to be deconstructed [48–51].
Information from the database is provided to designers and project stakeholders through the application
of a BIM authoring tool or a web-based service [47,49].
It was found that the material bank can assist in the reuse of materials, but in most cases the cost
is still not considered. In addition, processes such as material modification and transportation are
not considered in the environmental impact analysis, which focuses on the production of materials.
For this reason, sufficient information on the economic impact, such as additional costs due to reuse,
is not provided to the stakeholders. According to Smeets, Wand and Drewniok, the management of
data of reusable materials can lead to project cost reduction [52]. However, the use of material banks is
still not a common practice, and the lack of economic data prevents the reuse of materials.
Therefore, a review of the economics of reuse for those involved in the project is needed in practice
to operate the material bank. Items needed for measuring the costs of individual processes should
be defined in the material bank. Costs can then be measured over the entire life cycle, including the
modification and transportation of materials, to respond to concerns about additional costs.
2.3. BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Cost

It is important to accurately grasp the impact of the project by evaluating the entire life cycle,
including modification and transportation, as well as the production process of materials [47]. Life cycle
assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) methodologies measure the environmental impact and cost
of a product throughout its life cycle with an analysis of the flow of resources and materials [53–55].
LCA and LCC are the representative methods for the assessment of the environmental and economic
impact of AEC projects.
Evaluation using LCA and LCC requires information on the life cycle of the structure.
Accumulating life cycle information is one of the main roles of BIM [56]. In addition, BIM can
contain information in units of materials that are components of a structure [57]. Material unit
information is also essential information in LCA and LCC processes. Therefore, BIM is an information
management strategy suitable for projects considering LCA and LCC as it provides life cycle information
and material unit information necessary for life cycle evaluation. In addition, because BIM can be used
for material banks [48–50], it can integrate the information needed to perform an environmental and
economic evaluation of construction projects using reusable materials.
The core principle of LCA is to measure the total environmental load of the project by analyzing the
materials and work required at each stage throughout the life cycle of the building, and summing the
environmental loads for each stage [58]. ISO 14040 [59] and ISO 14044 [60] explain the implementation
of the LCA through four phases: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment,
and impact interpretation. The amount of material required is estimated using the BIM model.
The environmental load data generated for each unit of material and work are provided as attribute
information for each object in the BIM model. Recently, it was also provided in a standardized form
through national Life Cycle Inventory Databases (LCI DBs). As representative examples, there are
the U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database [61] and the Korea Life Cycle Inventory Database (Korea LCI
DB) [39]. In the case of economic cost evaluation through the LCC, the cost of each step and the total
cost are calculated by multiplying the unit costs by the total material or work cost [62].
It was found that BIM’s management function of life cycle and attribute information can be
effectively used in the material banks, LCA, and LCC processes. The LCI DB can provide environmental
load data for each element of work and material. Therefore, BIM data needs to be linked to the LCI DB
for the life cycle evaluation of reuse projects. Additionally, system boundaries need to be established
according to the type of structure during the evaluation process throughout the life cycle. For example,
in the case of civil engineering structures, unlike buildings, cooling and heating costs may not be
required during the operation process.
The current status of the reuse is summarized as follows. The reuse of materials can
effectively reduce the environmental impact of the AEC sector. In particular, steel beams, which are
carbon-intensive materials, are very likely to be reused owing to their high demand and high recovery
rates. Nevertheless, the following problems are still faced in the reuse of steel beams. First, data on the
status and attribute information of reusable materials are not managed. Designers cannot consider
reuse at the design stage because data on reusable materials are not provided. In some cases, although
reuse is economical, it is avoided owing to the lack of data and economic uncertainty [52]. Another
problem is that the use of reusable materials increases the design difficulty. There are strong restrictions
on the form and quantity of reusable materials. For these reasons, it is more difficult to create designs
and material procurement plans when considering reuse. Therefore, in order to overcome the barriers
for reuse, a material bank for managing reusable material data and a design support tool for creating
an efficient alternative and assessment for environmental and economic feasibility are needed.
3. Method
This section describes a design framework for structures with reusable steel beams. Figure 1
shows the structure of the proposed framework, which consists of a material bank and a design support
tool. The designer inputs the design proposal and material reuse settings into the design support tool.
The design support tool requests a list of available materials for reuse from the material bank based on
the information entered by the designer. The design support tool creates efficient stock cutting and
material procurement plans that can be fulfilled using reusable materials. Finally, an environmental
and economic cost assessment is performed based on the LCA and LCC. The designer iteratively
revises the design based on the assessment results and determines the final solution.
Sustainability
Sustainability2020,
2020,12,
12,x 9494
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Figure 1.
Figure Design framework
1. Design framework for
for structures
structures using
using reusable
reusable steel
steel beams.
beams.
3.1. Material Bank Database

3.1. Material Bank Database
The material bank performs the role of a database to store and manage information on reusable
The material bank performs the role of a database to store and manage information on reusable
materials. Designers can search for available materials for reuse in the material bank and then proceed
materials. Designers can search for available materials for reuse in the material bank and then proceed
with the design, depending on the materials available. Alternatively, they can establish a material
with the design, depending on the materials available. Alternatively, they can establish a material
procurement plan by referring to the material bank after the design proposal is created. Gathering
procurement plan by referring to the material bank after the design proposal is created. Gathering
material information is the most important activity when managing a material bank. BIM is a standard
material information is the most important activity when managing a material bank. BIM is a standard
for managing information on structures and materials in the AEC sector, so it is the most appropriate
for managing information on structures and materials in the AEC sector, so it is the most appropriate
source of material bank information. In this study, information about reusable materials is extracted
source of material bank information. In this study, information about reusable materials is extracted
from the BIM model of the deconstructed structure and saved in the material bank. In addition,
from the BIM model of the deconstructed structure and saved in the material bank. In addition, to
to provide information on a large number of reusable materials for project stakeholders, the material
provide information on a large number of reusable materials for project stakeholders, the material bank
bank proposed in this study can extract data from other material banks. Accessibility to reusable
proposed in this study can extract data from other material banks. Accessibility to reusable materials is
materials is enhanced by integrating data in the material bank with similar data generated from
enhanced by integrating data in the material bank with similar data generated from previous studies
previous studies related to material banks.
related to material banks.
For designers to decide whether to use reusable materials, the material bank must be able to
For designers to decide whether to use reusable materials, the material bank must be able to
provide information on the appropriate attributes of the material. These attributes should include
provide information on the appropriate attributes of the material. These attributes should include
information about the steel beams required to design the general structure. They should also include
information about the steel beams required to design the general structure. They should also include
information needed for the analysis of environmental and economic costs and information on the
information needed for the analysis of environmental and economic costs and information on the
remaining life of reusable materials. Consideration of attributes used in material banks and general
remaining life of reusable materials. Consideration of attributes used in material banks and general
BIM models is also needed for consistent material bank data collection. Therefore, in this study,
BIM models is also needed for consistent material bank data collection. Therefore, in this study, the
the material bank database items are organized as shown in Table 1. Based on the attributes commonly
material bank database items are organized as shown in Table 1. Based on the attributes commonly
used in previous studies and mill certificates of practice, attributes needed for steel structure design,
used in previous studies and mill certificates of practice, attributes needed for steel structure design,
such as curvature and section profile, were added.
such as curvature and section profile, were added.
The designer selects and uses the attributes of the materials depending on the need. The general
The designer selects and uses the attributes of the materials depending on the need. The general
information category provides basic information about the condition and cost of the material.
information category provides basic information about the condition and cost of the material.
Depending on the supplier of reusable materials, the cost of the steel beam may vary, so the cost of
Depending on the supplier of reusable materials, the cost of the steel beam may vary, so the cost of the
the project may change. Therefore, information on the cost must be provided to the designer from
project may change. Therefore, information on the cost must be provided to the designer from the
the design stage. Geometry is the information that has the most direct influence on the design and
design stage. Geometry is the information that has the most direct influence on the design and material
material procurement plans. In particular, the type, dimensions, and length of the section are the most
procurement plans. In particular, the type, dimensions, and length of the section are the most important
important for the designer. The connection type is also necessary information to construct a structure.
for the designer. The connection type is also necessary information to construct a structure. Physical
Physical properties are related to the capacity of the structure. For example, the yield strength is one of
properties are related to the capacity of the structure. For example, the yield strength is one of the values
the values needed to determine the size of a steel beam suitable for a column. The remaining life is a
needed to determine the size of a steel beam suitable for a column. The remaining life is a factor that
factor that has a great influence on the life of the planned structure and maintenance requirements.
has a great influence on the life of the planned structure and maintenance requirements. However, the
However, the life prediction of materials was excluded from the discussion because detailed methods
for life prediction were not within the scope of this study. In the case of CO2 emission information, it is
provided through linkage with the LCI DB managed by the government.
Table 1. Attributes of steel beams in the proposed material bank.
Categories Attribute Description Reference

Identifier Identification code for each beam [47,49]
Previous usage of steel beam
Usage [47,49]
(ifcColumn/ifcBeam)
General information
Specification code (American Society for
Specification Testing and Materials, Korean Standard, -
etc.)
Purchase availability of steel beam
Reusability [49,63]
(True/False)
Current location of steel beam
Location [49]
(longitude and latitude)
Unit cost Unit cost of steel beam [47,63]
Shape of profile
Type (Asymmetric/I/Circle/C/Ellipse/I/L/Rectangle/ [64]
Trapezium/T/U/Z)
Geometry (shape) Width x Height x Web thickness x
Dimensions [47,49,63]
Flange thickness
Radius Radius of circular profile -
Length Length of steel beam [47,49,63]
Curvature Curvature of steel beam -
Material Type of material [47,49,50,63]
Type of connection before disassembly
Connection type [25]
(Rivet/Bolted/Welded)
Physical properties Unit weight Weight of steel beam per 1 m [47,49,50]
Yield strength Yield strength of steel beam [47,49,63]
Tensile strength Tensile strength of steel beam [47,49,63]
Extension Extension value of steel beam [47,49,63]
Predicted remaining life of the
Remaining life [50,63]
steel beam
Chemical composition data table of
Chemical properties Chemical composition [49]
steel beam
3.2. Design Support Tool

A design support tool for generating plans using material bank data is another key component of
the framework for the reuse of construction materials. The design support tool proposed in this study
creates a material procurement plan according to the design plan, depending on the available reusable
materials. After the material procurement plan is created, the environmental and economic impacts of
the project are evaluated. Evaluation of the design support tool enables designers to iteratively revise
and develop the design.
3.2.1. Solution Generation

After the BIM model of the new design is created, the designer sets the scope to apply the reusable
material. Designers can apply reusable steel beams to the entire steel structure or designate only some
parts. For example, uncertainty about the quality and certification of reusable materials [28] leads
designers or structural engineers to hesitate in the use of reusable materials in areas where loads are
concentrated. After the scope is set, the attribute information about the selected material is extracted.
The search for the reusable material to be used is performed through the process of finding the same
material as the attributes of the previously extracted material. However, materials that do not match
the design in the material bank database are also included in the search results. For example, if the
length of the reused material is longer than the design length, it can be cut, used, and included in the
result. However, reusable materials shorter than the designed materials are excluded from the search.
In addition, the extracted information attributes are used in cutting stock and material procurement
plans for reusable
Sustainability 2020, 12, x materials and in environmental
FOR PEER REVIEW and economic evaluation processes. 8 of 21
Next, the designer can set constraints on reusable materials. These constraints determine the range
of reusable materials required to search for in the material bank. For example, the designer can retrieve
only
onlymaterials
materialswhosewhose remaining
remaining life life is
is longer
longer thanthan the
the target
target life
lifeof
ofaanewnewstructure.
structure.InInaddition,
addition,eveneven
ififthe
thespecifications
specificationsofofthe thedesign
designand andthe thereusable
reusablematerial
materialdo donot
notcompletely
completelymatch, match,an analternative
alternativeto
applying the reusable material with the difference in specification
to applying the reusable material with the difference in specification within a certain range can within a certain range canbebe
considered.
considered. For example, if there is no reusable material with the same sectional specifications asasthe
For example, if there is no reusable material with the same sectional specifications the
design
designmaterial
materialin in the
the material
material bank,
bank, thethe designer
designer may may request
request the the material
materialbank banktotosearch
searchall allsectional
sectional
specifications within a certain size range, even if the sectional size of
specifications within a certain size range, even if the sectional size of the design is changed. the design is changed.
AA material
material procurement
procurement plan plan is is created after the
created after the designer
designer determines
determines the the scope
scopetotowhichwhichthe the
reusable material will be applied and the available material for reuse.
reusable material will be applied and the available material for reuse. However, it is difficult for However, it is difficult for
designers to create efficient procurement plans directly because
designers to create efficient procurement plans directly because there are many types of reusablethere are many types of reusable
materials
materials to to be
be considered,
considered, and many possible
and many possible alternatives.
alternatives. The problem of
The problem of finding
finding an anefficient
efficient
alternative in a situation where resources are limited is dealt with in operational
alternative in a situation where resources are limited is dealt with in operational research. In particular, research. In particular,
aasituation
situationwhere
where youyou want
want to to cut
cut while
while reducing
reducing the the loss
loss of
of an
an object
objectsuch
suchas asaasteel
steelbeam
beamisiscalled
calledthethe
cutting
cuttingstock
stockproblem
problem(CSP) (CSP)[43,46].
[43,46].InIn Figure
Figure 2, 2,
a total of of
a total sixsixmaterials
materials areare
required
requiredfor for
the the
design. The
design.
solution to the CSP is to replace the materials required for construction
The solution to the CSP is to replace the materials required for construction by using reusable materials by using reusable materials
(hatched
(hatchedin inFigure
Figure 2)2) and
and minimizing
minimizing the the amount
amount of ofnewly
newlyproduced
producedmaterials.
materials.The Thecase
caseofofcutting
cuttingsteel
steel
beams
beams to fit the shape of the design is the typical type of CSP. Efficient cutting plans for the CSP can bebe
to fit the shape of the design is the typical type of CSP. Efficient cutting plans for the CSP can
derived
derivedusing
using mathematical
mathematical models models or heuristic searches
or heuristic searches suchsuch as asmeta-heuristics
meta-heuristics[65,66].[65,66].However,
However,
implementing
implementingan analgorithm
algorithmto to solve
solve thethe CSP
CSP waswas notnot within
within thethe scope
scope of ofthis
thisstudy,
study,and andcommercial
commercial
programs to solve the CSP have already been developed. In this study,
programs to solve the CSP have already been developed. In this study, Gurobi [67], a commercial tool, Gurobi [67], a commercial tool,
was used to solve the CSP. Information on the type, quantity, and
was used to solve the CSP. Information on the type, quantity, and length of the material extracted, length of the material extracted,
based
basedon onthetheprevious
previous designer’s
designer’s settings,
settings, is used
is usedto define the CSP
to define problem.
the CSP Finally,
problem. all possible
Finally, cutting
all possible
patterns and plans with the least material waste are created, and based
cutting patterns and plans with the least material waste are created, and based on the cutting plans, on the cutting plans, a material
procurement plan is created,
a material procurement planincluding
is created,aincluding
production plan for new
a production materials.
plan for new materials.
Figure 2. The process of generating the material procurement plan.

Figure 2. The process of generating the material procurement plan.
3.2.2. Evaluation of a Solution through LCA and LCC
3.2.2. Evaluation of a Solution through LCA and LCC
Finally, environmental and economic impacts are calculated according to the design and material
Finally, environmental
procurement plan through and economic
the LCA impacts
and LCC. are calculated
Assessment according
throughout theto the
life design
cycle and material
is necessary to
procurement plan through
measure the impact the LCA
of the project and and LCC.informed
to make Assessment throughout
decisions. To this the
end,life
it iscycle is necessary
necessary to defineto
measure
the systemtheboundary,
impact of the
the project and to make
CO2 emissions informed
generated decisions.
in each To and
life cycle, this the
end,cost.
it is necessary to define
the system boundary, the CO 2 emissions generated in each life cycle, and the cost.
In this study, the LCA is performed based on the following four phases of ISO 14040 and 14044:
In this
(1) Goal andstudy,
scopethe LCA is performed
definition: In this study,based on to
we aim theevaluate
followingthefour phases of ISO
environmental 14040
impact and 14044:
of structures
using
(1) Goalreusable
and scopematerials. TheInenvironmental
definition: this study, we impact is assessed
aim to evaluate thethrough the calculation
environmental impact ofofstructures
the CO2
emission,
using and the
reusable assessment
materials. Theproceeds from theimpact
environmental processisofassessed
mining raw materials
through to the deconstruction
the calculation of the CO2
of the structure.
emission, (2) Inventory
and the assessment analysis:
proceeds fromFigure 3 shows
the process the general
of mining life cycle to
raw materials ofthe
a steel structure
deconstruction
of the structure. (2) Inventory analysis: Figure 3 shows the general life cycle of a steel structure when
using reusable materials. The life cycle can be classified as product and construction, in use, and end of
life [68]. The process of extracting raw materials and producing materials is generally a process that
deconstruction and the benefit beyond life cycle (which includes load and benefit of reuse and recycle)
were not considered, owing to the high data uncertainty. The processes of summing up CO2 (G) and
cost (C) generated at each stage of the life cycle are performed as shown in Equations (1) and (2):
𝐺 = 𝐺 +𝐺 +𝐺 +𝐺 +𝐺 +𝐺 +𝐺 , (1)
𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 . (2)
when 𝐺 usingand 𝐺
reusable are the The
materials. CO2lifeamounts
cycle cangenerated
be classified during raw and
as product material extraction
construction, and
in use,
manufacturing, respectively.
and end of life [68]. The process Theofsteel beam raw
extracting manufacturing
materials and process is thematerials
producing most energy-intensive.
is generally a
Specifically, using a blast furnace generates a large amount of CO . 𝐺
process that generates a large amount of CO2 . In construction sites, CO2 is generated when using
2 is the CO 2 generated using
bending,
machinery cutting, and punching
and energy and in themachines
production in the process ofmaterials
of additional processing reused
during 𝐺
materials. maintenance,
construction, , 𝐺 ,
𝐺and deconstruction.
are the amounts At theofendCOof2 generated
the structure’s during life, construction, maintenance,
materials are transported to and deconstruction,
landfills, recycling
respectively. 𝐺
plants, or material is the amount
banks. Reusableofmaterials
CO2 generated primarily
are processed from
with the combustion
modification beforeof diesel
being fuel
used
during
in newtransportation.
projects. In theThe LCC,
case like the
of steel LCA,cutting,
beams, is performed
bending,by summing
and punching the costs
are incurred in each step
mainly performed.
[62]. 𝐶 and 𝐶 are the purchase costs of reuse and newly produced
The scope of this study is from mining raw materials to the deconstruction of structure. If data steel beams. 𝐶 , 𝐶 on ,
𝐶the flow
, 𝐶 of materials
, 𝐶 are the
after costs for modification
deconstruction, suchofasreusable
landfill, materials,
recycle, and construction,
reuse, can be maintenance,
obtained,
deconstruction and transportation,
life cycle evaluation respectively.
from cradle to grave (3) Impact assessment
can be performed. However, inand this(4) Interpretation:
study, the process In this
after
process, the CO emission generated by the structure in each life cycle and activity
deconstruction and the benefit beyond life cycle (which includes load and benefit of reuse and recycle)
2 is calculated and
analyzed
were not using data from
considered, owingthetodesign
the highalternatives, materialThe
data uncertainty. procurement
processes of plans,
summingand LCI updatabase.
CO2 (G) and Each
project
cost (C)has differentatpoints
generated of focus
each stage in the
of the lifelife cycle.
cycle are For example,
performed asbuildings
shown ingenerate
Equations a lot
(1)of CO(2):
and 2 during
operation, but simple structures do not. In addition, at the end of life stage, landfill, recycling, and reuse
processes are generally G =excluded m f g +analysis
Graw + Gfrom Gmod + due Gconstto+high
Gmaint + Gdeconst +[69].
uncertainties GtransTherefore,
, (1)
the designer
must adjust the system boundary for LCA and LCC analysis to be suited to the characteristics of each
project. C = Creuse + Cm f g + Cmod + Cconst + Cmaint + Cdeconst + Ctrans . (2)
Figure 3. Flow chart of the general life cycle, including items causing CO2 emissions and high costs of
Figure 3. Flow chart
steel structures of theofgeneral
and scope life cycle, including items causing CO2 emissions and high costs of
this study.
steel structures and scope of this study.
Graw and Gm f g are the CO2 amounts generated during raw material extraction and manufacturing,
4. Case StudyThe steel beam manufacturing process is the most energy-intensive. Specifically, using
respectively.
a blast furnace
A case studygenerates
was useda large amount
to verify CO2 . Gmod
theofproposed is the framework
design CO2 generatedand using bending,
to confirm the cutting,
effect of
and punching machines in the process of processing reused materials.
material reuse. The case study consisted of a scenario based on a situation G , G
in Korea.
const , G
maint Indeconst are the
this scenario,
amounts of CO2 generated during construction, maintenance, and deconstruction, respectively. Gtrans
is the amount of CO2 generated primarily from the combustion of diesel fuel during transportation.
The LCC, like the LCA, is performed by summing the costs incurred in each step [62]. Creuse and
Cm f g are the purchase costs of reuse and newly produced steel beams. Cmod , Cconst , Cmaint , Cdeconst ,
Ctrans are costs for modification of reusable materials, construction, maintenance, deconstruction and
transportation, respectively. (3) Impact assessment and (4) Interpretation: In this process, the CO2
emission generated by the structure in each life cycle and activity is calculated and analyzed using
data from the design alternatives, material procurement plans, and LCI database. Each project has
different points of focus in the life cycle. For example, buildings generate a lot of CO2 during operation,
but simple structures do not. In addition, at the end of life stage, landfill, recycling, and reuse processes
are generally excluded from analysis due to high uncertainties [69]. Therefore, the designer must
adjust the system boundary for LCA and LCC analysis to be suited to the characteristics of each project.
4. Case Study
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21
A case study was used to verify the proposed design framework and to confirm the effect of
material reuse. The case study consisted of a scenario based on a situation in Korea. In this scenario,
reusable
reusablematerials
materialswere
wereprocured
procuredfrom
from the
the steel
steel structure
structure ofof aa deconstructed
deconstructed building,
building, andandthethenewly
newly
constructed structure was a noise barrier tunnel (NBT). In Korea, many thousands
constructed structure was a noise barrier tunnel (NBT). In Korea, many thousands of kilometers of kilometers of
sound barriers, including NBTs, have been built and their demand is constantly
of sound barriers, including NBTs, have been built and their demand is constantly increasing [70]. increasing [70]. In
addition, even
In addition, for for
even a short NBT,
a short NBT,thethe
length
lengthis isseveral
severalhundred
hundredmeters,
meters,soso itit requires
requires aa lot
lot of
ofmaterials
materials
and
and has a great impact on the environment. However, as shown in Figure 4, the main structuresof
has a great impact on the environment. However, as shown in Figure 4, the main structures
NBTs are all
of NBTs aremade of steel
all made beams,
of steel and the
beams, andlayout is similar
the layout amongamong
is similar structures, so it is easy
structures, so it to
is use
easyreusable
to use
materials and highly likely that sustainability will be enhanced.
reusable materials and highly likely that sustainability will be enhanced.
As shown in Figure 7, the designer Figure

created
Figure 4. Noise
4. Noise
the NBTbarrier
barrier tunnel.
design
tunnel.and BIM models. The designer entered
the BIM model into the design support tool, and at the same time set the scope to apply the reusable
TheNBT
The NBTininthethecasecasestudy
studywas wasto to be
be installed
installed on on a 200200 mm straight road.
road. Figure 55 shows the
thesystem
material and the constraints on the reuse. The designasupport straight
tool extracted Figure showssuch
information system
as the
boundariesofofthe
boundaries thematerial
materialflowflowandandlifelifecycle
cycle analysisininthe thescenario.
scenario. The analysis was performed
length and cross-sectional dimensions of theanalysis
material (yellow beamsThe in analysis
Figure 7) was performed
selected by the on
onmain
the the main
steel steel
frame frame
of the ofNBT
the only.
NBT only.
The The evaluation
evaluation was was carried
carried out from outthe
from the manufacturing
manufacturing process
designer among the BIM models in the input design. The extracted attribute information was used as
ofprocess
criteria
of the to
the material material
for searching the for to the deconstruction
deconstruction of the NBT.
applicable materials
of the NBT.
fromThisthe case
This
study
material
caseexcluded
study excluded
the ironthe
bank. For example, ore iron
because
ore mining
mining theprocess
length
inprocess
the in the
evaluation evaluation
process, process,
owing owing
to the to the
absence absence
of of
clearclear
data.data.In In addition,
addition, thethe process
process after
after the
the
of the column in the design was 4500 mm, reusable materials shorter than this were not retrieved from
deconstruction
deconstruction of
of thethe NBT, which
NBT, which reached its target life, was not considered, owing to the uncertainty
the material bank. In addition, thereached
designer itswas
targetablelife,
towas not for
search considered,
reusable owingmaterials to theby uncertainty
setting the
ininthe
thematerial
allowable
material flow.
flow. Reusablematerials
range, even ifReusable
materialswere
the specifications or
were included
included in
conditions of the
in the
the analysis
analysis from the
steel beam infrom the process
the material process after the
bankafter
did not the
deconstruction
deconstruction ofof
a a five-story
five-story steel
steel frame
frame building.
building.
exactly match the design.
To measure the CO2 emissions and costs generated during the life cycle of the NBT, the CO2
emission and cost, according to the unit work required, were set, based on the Korea LCI DB [39] and
the data of an NBT company (Table A1 in the Appendix A). The Korea LCI DB was built based on ISO
14044 and provides values measured in Korea. The remaining life of reusable material and NBT target
life were set to 50 and 40 years, respectively, based on consultations with a working-level NBT
construction company. Based on a previous study [71], the life of new steel beams was set to 100 years.
For the construction and deconstruction process, CO2 due to the use of the crane car was measured, and
the maintenance of the NBT included only the process of producing and replacing materials that
exceeded their life. It was assumed that the transportation of materials was completed at a speed of 60
km/h using a 25-ton truck. The modification of the material included cutting and bending processes.
Figure 5. Material flow network and life cycle system boundary.
Figure 6 shows the BIM5.model
Figure Materialof the
flowbuilding
network to and belife
deconstructed and the material bank database
cycle system boundary.
for managing
To measure information on reusable
the CO2 emissions and materials extractedduring
costs generated from the the building.
life cycle of The theBIM NBT, model
the CO was
2
constructed using Rhinoceros [72], a 3D modeling tool, and VisualARQ
emission and cost, according to the unit work required, were set, based on the Korea LCI DB [39] and [73], a plugin for BIM authoring
and
the exchanging
data of an NBT BIM company
data according
(Table to A1thein IFC 2 × 3 standard.
the Appendix A). The Attribute
Korea LCI information
DB was built of thebasedmaterial
on
was
ISOextracted
14044 andusing Rhinoceros,
provides VisualARQ,
values measured and Grasshopper
in Korea. The remaining [72],life
a visual scripting
of reusable environment
material and NBT in
Rhinoceros.
target life were set to 50 and 40 years, respectively, based on consultations with a working-level NBTa
The database was built using Excel. In the Grasshopper environment, a component is
function that performs
construction company.a Based specificonrole. A component
a previous that accesses
study [71], the life ofthenew attribute information
steel beams was setof toeach object
100 years.
inFor
thethe
BIM model was used, and only information corresponding to the
construction and deconstruction process, CO2 due to the use of the crane car was measured, predefined items listed in Table
1and
wastheextracted.
maintenance of the NBT included only the process of producing and replacing materials thatin
Once all attribute information was extracted and combined as a table, it was saved
an Excel file. Each column in the database was an attribute item of the previously defined material
bank. Information on over 500 steel beams was extracted from the BIM model of one building and saved
into the database.
Figure 6. Building information modeling (BIM) model of deconstructed buildings and material bank
database.
material and the constraints on the reuse. The design support tool extracted information such as the
length and cross-sectional dimensions of the material (yellow beams in Figure 7) selected by the
Sustainability
criteria 2020, 12, 9494
for searching for applicable materials from the material bank. For example, because the11length
of 20
the material bank. In addition, the designer was able to search for reusable materials by setting the
exceeded their life. It was assumed that the transportation of materials was completed at a speed of 60
allowable range, even if the specifications or conditions of the steel beam in the material bank did not
km/h using a 25-ton truck. The modification of the material included cutting and bending processes.
Figure 6 shows the BIM model of the building to be deconstructed and the material bank database
for managing information on reusable materials extracted from the building. The BIM model was
constructed using Rhinoceros [72], a 3D modeling tool, and VisualARQ [73], a plugin for BIM authoring
and exchanging BIM data according to the IFC 2 × 3 standard. Attribute information of the material
was extracted using Rhinoceros, VisualARQ, and Grasshopper [72], a visual scripting environment in
Rhinoceros. The database was built using Excel. In the Grasshopper environment, a component is a
function that performs a specific role. A component that accesses the attribute information of each
object in the BIM model was used, and only information corresponding to the predefined items listed
in Table 1 was extracted. Once all attribute information was extracted and combined as a table, it was
saved in an Excel file. Each column in the database was an attribute item of the previously defined
material bank. Information on over 500 steel beams was extracted from the BIM model of one building
Figure 5. Material flow network and life cycle system boundary.
and saved into the database.
Figure 6. Building information modeling (BIM) model of deconstructed buildings and material
bank database.
database.
As shown in Figure 7, the designer created the NBT design and BIM models. The designer entered
material and the constraints on the reuse. The design support tool extracted information such as
the length and cross-sectional dimensions of the material (yellow beams in Figure 7) selected by the
criteria for searching for applicable materials from the material bank. For example, because the length
the material bank. In addition, the designer was able to search for reusable materials by setting the
allowable range, even if the specifications or conditions of the steel beam in the material bank did not
The design support tool received the initial design and constraints and asked the material bank
for information on available materials for reuse. Subsequently, the design support tool defined the CSP
by extracting information on type, length, and quantity from the list of available materials received
from the material bank and the list of materials required for the NBT construction. The solution for the
defined CSP was explored through the commercial program Gurobi [67], and a material procurement
plan was created based on this (Figure 8).
Finally, the environmental and economic impacts of the initial design and the generated material
procurement plan were evaluated through the LCA and LCC (Figure 9). Alternatives (A) and (D)
represent the initial alternative and the case that did not consider reuse at all, respectively. Alternatives
(B) and (C) are amendments to Alternative (A). (B’) and (C’) refer to the revised alternatives of (B) and
(C). Alternative (D), a case without reuse, generated approximately 420 tons of CO2 over 40 years,
at a cost of USD 270,000. Alternative (A) was found to generate approximately 95 tons of CO2 over
the same time, at a cost of USD 378,000. This represented a reduction of approximately 77% of CO2
through reuse; however, the cost increased with the amount of material reused.
database.
Figure 7. Initial design of the noise barrier tunnel (NBT).
The design support tool received the initial design and constraints and asked the material bank for
information on available materials for reuse. Subsequently, the design support tool defined the CSP by
extracting information on type, length, and quantity from the list of available materials received from
the material bank and the list of materials required for the NBT construction. The solution for the
Sustainability
plan 2020, 12,based
was created x FOR PEER REVIEW
on this (Figure 8). 12 of 21
Figure 7. Initial design of the noise barrier tunnel (NBT).
The design support tool received the initial design and constraints and asked the material bank for
information on available materials for reuse. Subsequently, the design support tool defined the CSP by
extracting information on type, length, and quantity from the list of available materials received from
the material bank and the list of materials required for the NBT construction. The solution for the
plan was created based on this (Figure
Figure 7. Initial8).
design of the noise barrier tunnel (NBT).
Figure 8. Initial solution to cutting stock problem and material procurement plan.
(C). Alternative (D), a case without reuse, generated approximately 420 tons of CO2 over 40 years, at a
cost of USD 270,000. Alternative (A) was found to generate approximately 95 tons of CO2 over the same
time, at a cost of USD 378,000. This represented a reduction of approximately 77% of CO2 through reuse;
however, the cost increased
Figure 8. Initial with thetoamount
solution cutting of material
stock reused.
problem and material procurement plan.
Figure 8. Initial solution to cutting stock problem and material procurement plan.
(C). Alternative (D), a case without reuse, generated approximately 420 tons of CO2 over 40 years, at a
cost of USD 270,000. Alternative (A) was found to generate approximately 95 tons of CO2 over the same
time, at a cost of USD 378,000. This represented a reduction of approximately 77% of CO2 through reuse;
however, the cost increased with the amount of material reused.
Figure 9. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) results.
Figure 9. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) results.
Therefore, the designer created modified alternatives to reduce the high cost of the initial alternative.
Initially, it was decided to apply the reused material to all of the NBT columns, adjustable beams, and
rafter beams, but in the cases of B and C, the adjustable beam and rafter beam were excluded from the
scope of reuse. In addition, Alternatives B’ and C’ were created in which the length of the column,
which was 4200 mm, was increased to 4500 mm, which was the length of the reusable material. As the
size of the material increased, the CO2 and cost increased during the production of new materials,
but the cutting process of materials for reuse was omitted, reducing the overall cost.
5. Discussion
The results of the case study show that the proposed design framework can provide designers
with an alternative applying reusable materials. Information on reusable materials was extracted
from the BIM model of the building to be deconstructed and stored in the material bank database.
The design support tool extracted information based on the initial design proposal and constraints,
and then requested a list of materials conforming to it from the material bank database. Finally,
an efficient material procurement plan was created, using the list and information about available
materials delivered from the material bank, and environmental and economic analysis results were
provided to the designer. Through iterative design, the designer was able to create alternatives that
generated less CO2 than alternatives without reuse.
The results of the case study are analyzed as follows:
1. The use of reusable materials can reduce the CO2 emissions of construction projects. This case
study shows that CO2 can be reduced by up to 77%. Although they will depend on the type of
construction project and the assumed situation, the results of this study support the conclusions
of previous studies [37,63] that material reuse is one of the most effective strategies for reducing
CO2 emissions. In particular, most of the CO2 generated during the life cycle of the NBT is
generated during the manufacturing process of the material, and reuse is effective because it
can most directly reduce the CO2 generated from manufacturing (Figure 10). In the case of the
initial Alternative (A), the column, adjustable beam, and rafter beam were replaced with 175, 200,
and 200 reusable materials, respectively (Figure 8). The use of reusable materials caused CO2 to
be generated due to the modification and longer distance for transportation, but the production
of new materials was reduced. Eventually, Alternative (D), with no reuse, generated about 420
tons of CO2 , whereas Alternative (A) generated 95 tons of CO2 , resulting in a CO2 reduction
effect of about 325 tons. In this study, the use of carbon-intensive steel beams reduced carbon
emissions significantly, however, the reduction in the CO2 production may vary depending on
the type of material. For example, when less CO2 is generated during manufacturing or recycling,
the effect of reducing CO2 that can be obtained through reuse may be lower than that obtained
with steel beams.
2. Material reuse can increase the cost of the project. As a result of this case study, the cost of
the alternatives created through the proposed framework was higher in all cases than when
no reusable materials were considered. The project costs of Alternatives (A) and (D) were
about USD 378 and 270 thousand, respectively. The case study shows that the application of
reusable materials increases the cost by up to 40%. In some cases, CO2 and cost reduction
cannot be achieved simultaneously when reusable materials are applied. This is consistent
with the designers’ concerns [28,29,31] regarding the economic uncertainty of reusable materials.
It was proven that reuse is sometimes more expensive than manufacturing new materials [52,74].
Previous studies generated optimal solutions by focusing primarily on the production process
of the material without considering the cost of modification for reusable materials [41,42,47].
However, the results of this study show that it is necessary to review the economic feasibility of
the previous optimal solutions throughout the life cycle. For example, if the scope of the cost
assessment is limited to the material production process, it appears that the cost of the project
can be reduced through reuse. However, there are several items that incur costs when reusing
materials, such as transportation and modification.
3. The process of modifying reusable materials must be included in the cost assessment process.
The cost of purchasing reusable materials is generally lower than that of new materials. However,
the cost of the entire project may increase due to the cost incurred in the modification process
of reusable materials into the desired shape, size, and quality [44,75]. Processing costs can
vary greatly, depending on the type, region, and labor cost of the project. In this study, it was
observed that as the amount of reusable material increased, the cost for modification increased,
and eventually the whole cost of the project increased, compared to the case without reuse
(Figure 11). In addition, since it is not easy to determine the remaining life of reusable materials
in practice, inspection costs for this may be added. As such, the incidental costs incurred by
using reusable materials act as barriers to reuse [29–31]. Therefore, from the planning stage,
the modification and inspection costs of reusable materials must be considered. In addition,
research on automation and simplification of reusable material inspection should be carried out
to reduce the cost of reuse projects.
4. The most promising strategy to reduce CO2 and cost at the same time is to use the reusable
material without changing its shape. However, excessive constraints on the shape of the material
can increase the design difficulty and cost. In fact, designers are hesitant to use reusable materials
due to concerns about the increase in design difficulty [28,29,31,32]. Therefore, it is necessary to
assist the designer through the development of a design tool to generate a design in a required
form while minimizing the processing of reusable materials.
5. Above all, data on deconstructed structures and reusable materials should be obtained for the
operation of the proposed framework. This is because the entire framework will not work without
data on reusable materials in the material bank. In particular, materials used in buildings that are
about to be deconstructed are not likely to be digitized in the form of a BIM model. Therefore,
research should be conducted on a method for automatically constructing existing building
and material data and so creating a comprehensive database containing significant amounts of
material bank assets. The use of visual data [76], such as photographs or laser scanning data [77],
enables the automatic generation of BIM models of existing buildings and will help to increase
the number of BIM models, which are assets of material banks.
The scope of this study did not include the development of methods for predicting the life of
reusable materials. However, the service life of the material must be determined to compare it with the
target life of the structure to apply the reusable material. The life prediction of materials or structures
has been performed mainly through long-term aging tests, laboratory tests, and theoretical/analytical
methods [78]. The long-term aging test is employed to predict the lifespan through tests and observations
of historical data or current buildings. The theoretical/analytical method has the potential to automate
the life expectancy process because it determines the life span through a mathematical model or
simulation. ISO 15686 [79] also provides a method and a simple formula for predicting the lifetime.
Akanbi et al. [80] developed a whole-life performance estimator based on BIM and mathematical
models and determined whether or not the material could be reused. Recently, a study was conducted
to determine the reusability by attaching a sensor directly to the material [81]. The important point
in material bank is that information must be managed on a per material basis. David et al. showed
that it is possible to manage material-level information through radio frequency identification (RFID)
technology and BIM [3].
Sustainability
Sustainability 2020,
2020, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 15
15 of
of 21
21
Figure 10. CO2 emissions of alternatives in the case study.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. CO
CO22 emissions
emissions of
of alternatives
alternatives in
in the
the case
case study.
study.
Costs of alternatives
Figure 11. Costs
Figure alternatives in the
the case study.
study.
Figure 11.
11. Costs of
of alternatives in
in the case
case study.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper proposed a design framework for using reusable steel beams in structures to promote
This paper proposed a design framework for using reusable steel beams in structures to promote
sustainability. The proposed framework consists of a material bank and a design support tool. The
sustainability. The proposed framework consists of a material bank and a design support tool. The
material bank manages the information on reusable materials. The design support tool generates a
material bank manages the information on reusable materials. The design support tool generates a
material procurement plan and evaluates the project’s CO2 emissions and costs through LCA and LCC
material procurement plan and evaluates the project’s CO22 emissions and costs through LCA and LCC
methodologies. All information on the framework is managed based on BIM data.
methodologies. All information on the framework is managed based on BIM data.
In a case study to verify the proposed framework, an alternative was created to reduce the CO2 of
In a case study to verify the proposed framework, an alternative was created to reduce the CO2 of
construction projects by up to 77% through material reuse. However, it turned out to be impossible 2to
construction projects by up to 77% through material reuse. However, it turned out to be impossible to
create alternatives that reduced both CO2 and costs simultaneously. Therefore, the designer explored a
create alternatives that reduced both CO22 and costs simultaneously. Therefore, the designer explored a
compromise between CO2 and cost through an iterative design process using the framework.
compromise between CO22 and cost through an iterative design process using the framework.
This study provides the following contributions:
This study provides the following contributions:
1. This study proposed a generalized design framework for reusing steel beams that have a significant
1. This study proposed a generalized design framework for reusing steel beams that have a
environmental impact, thereby enabling the creation of a steel structure design plan and a material
significant environmental impact, thereby enabling the creation of a steel structure design plan
procurement plan using reusable materials.
and a material procurement plan using reusable materials.
2.
2. The Thecase
casestudy
studyshows
showsthat
thatthe
the reuse
reuse of
of materials
materials is
is an
an effective
effective strategy
strategy to
to reduce
reducethe
theCO22
CO 2
generation of construction projects.
generation of construction projects.
3. The results of the case study also show that practical concerns about the economic uncertainty of
material reuse are valid. The framework of this study can help project stakeholders overcome
this through economic evaluation over the entire life cycle.
There are several possible avenues for future research:
1. For the application of reusable materials, methods to measure the life and quality of materials
with low costs are required. Concerns about the quality of materials and rising costs due to
inspection act as barriers to the reuse of materials [28,52]. Therefore, a method for tracking and
ensuring material quality and inspecting materials with low costs is also required. Structural
health monitoring technology using sensor and vision technology [82] and material monitoring
information management technology using RFID, BIM, and digital twin can be considered for
automated inspection and reduction of inspection costs.
2. The material bank should contain detailed construction process information. For example,
the material bank of this study only contains information about the type of connection of the
steel beams. However, to construct a structure using steel beams, information on the shape
of the connection and the specification of the connecting member is required. In particular,
if reusable materials were connected by bolted joints in the past and there is perforation at the joint,
the information must be provided to the designer in advance. In addition, information on the
connection of materials is needed to determine the reusability of structures and materials. This is
because the reusability is affected by the ease of disassembly of the structure, and the difficulty of
disassembly varies depending on the connection type of the material [74]. The evaluation of the
difficulty of disassembly will help determine whether it is possible to actually extract and use
reusable materials from the structure to be deconstructed.
3. Optimization of the design plan using reusable materials and the material procurement plan
needs to be performed. Because the number of alternatives that can be explored through the
designer’s iterative design process is limited, many alternatives need to be explored through the
computational optimization process and optimal alternatives derived.
4. The precision of LCA and LCC analyses needs to be improved. For example, catering to the
inflation rate in the cost evaluation process improves the accuracy of the analysis. Limitations of
this study arise owing to the experimental assumptions and limitations of the scope of the LCC
analysis. In addition, if data on the flow of materials after the deconstruction of the structure
are obtained, it will be possible to evaluate all stages of the life cycle and accurately analyze the
benefits of reuse and recycle. Therefore, a more precise analysis will need to be performed in
the future.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation,

resources, data curation, visualization, writing—original draft preparation, S.K.; writing—review and editing, S.K.
and S.-A.K.; supervision; project administration; funding acquisition, S.-A.K. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Infrastructure and Transportation Technology Promotion Research
Program funded by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of the Korean government (Grant No.
20CTAP-C151928-02).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
The CO2 emissions of the band saw machine and the bending machine were derived through
multiplication of work time per unit, power consumption of machine, and CO2 emission from electricity
use, and the specifications of the actual machine were referenced. For other values related to cost or
work, we referred to the cost estimation case of the NBT company. For other values, we referred to the
Korea LCI DB [39].
Table A1. Unit CO2 emission and cost.
Work Emission Source Description Value Unit

Crane car Work time per station 0.536 h/station
Crane car 5-ton crane car fuel efficiency 5.1 L/h
Construction,
Diesel fuel CO2 emissions of diesel fuel 2.677 kg/L
deconstruction
- Construction work cost 429 USD/ton
- Deconstruction work cost 383.47 USD/ton
Power consumption of band saw
Band saw machine 7.2 kW
machine
Band saw machine Work time per unit 1/4000 hour/ea
Electricity CO2 emission from electricity use 0.495 kg/kWh
Band saw machine CO2 emission per cutting 0.0007974 kg/ea
Modification
- Cutting modification cost 289.02 USD/ton
Power consumption of bending
Bending machine 8.4 kW
machine
- Work time per unit length 1/1080 h/m
Bending machine CO2 emission from 1 m bending 0.00385 kg/m
- Bending modification cost 784.48 USD/ton
CO2 emission from component
Blast furnace 2340 kg/ton
manufacturing
Manufacture
- Component purchase cost 689.95 USD/ton
- Purchase cost of reusable steel beam 429 USD/ton
Truck 25-ton truck fuel efficiency 23 L/h
Transportation Diesel fuel CO2 emission of diesel fuel 2.677 kg/L
- Transportation cost per hour 84.89 USD/h
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2.1. Design for Reuse (DfR)

2.2. Material Bank for Managing Reusable Material Information

2.3. BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Cost

3.1. Material Bank Database

Table 1. Attributes of steel beams in the proposed material bank.

Categories Attribute Description Reference

3.2. Design Support Tool

3.2.1. Solution Generation

Figure 2. The process of generating the material procurement plan.

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

As shown in Figure 7, the designer Figure

Figure 7. Initial design of the noise barrier tunnel (NBT).

Figure 7. Initial design of the noise barrier tunnel (NBT).

Figure 10. CO2 emissions of alternatives in the case study.

There are several possible avenues for future research:

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation,

Table A1. Unit CO2 emission and cost.

Work Emission Source Description Value Unit

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