Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

A reversible connection for robotic assembly of timber structures

Søren Gustenhoff Hansen a, b, *, Anja Kunic c, Roberto Naboni c
a
COWI, Denmark
b
Section for Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark
c
CREATE - Section for Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The advent of Robotic Timber Assembly is offering exciting possibilities and challenges for structural de­
Timber connection velopments. This research proposes a new concept of timber connections used in automated robotic assembly and
Timber structure disassembly. The connection presents some interesting features: it facilitates self-alignment during the con­
Robotic assembly
struction process, it provides enhanced shear capacity compared to conventional connections, and it has ductile
Digital image correlation
Analytical shear model
behaviour. The paper presents an experimental programme to investigate the shear capacity and the influence of
Experiments essential design parameters. Detailed displacement measurement through Digital Image Correlation allows the
deduction of the connection’s exact load response. An analytical model is derived based on the observed failure
mechanisms and compared with experimental results for validation. The results show the good accuracy of the
developed calculation models.

1. Introduction
In the global attempt to minimise carbon emissions while providing
new constructions, advanced timber engineering is becoming an
increasingly important subject of study, both in research and practice. In
the last few years, the fabrication of advanced timber structures has
rapidly evolved, taking advantage of state-of-the-art Computer Numer­
ical Control (CNC) procedures, and more recently, of the advent of ro­
botic fabrication. Research groups at ETH Zurich [1–6], the University of
Stuttgart [7–9], Aachen University [10], and the University of Southern
Denmark (SDU) [11,12] have recently been looking into the possibilities
offered by the automated assembly of timber elements performed by
robots in the search for enhanced design possibilities, novel structural
concepts, safer construction, and streamlined construction operations.
In principle, the employment of robots can expand the possibilities for
advanced, complex and efficient timber structures tremendously [13].
However, the automated assembly of discrete timber elements is still
challenging, particularly in providing structurally reliable connections.
Existing research has demonstrated robot assembly using glue-based
[3,14,15] or nailed connections [7,16,17]. However, these solutions
are not demountable and strongly limit the reusability of the timber
elements and, thereby, the overall potential for material circularity. The
CREATE group at the University of Southern Denmark introduced suc­
cessfully a robotic process for the automated assembly and disassembly
of timber elements based on connections with exactly these features, so-
called reversible connections [11]. These connections can be assembled,
disassembled, and reassembled several times without impacting the
characteristics and performance of the used timber elements. The pro­
cess relies on a few fundamental assumptions: (i) the procedure is based
on layered assembly, which can be handled entirely by one robotic arm,
without the need for auxiliary robots or external human help; (ii)
because of this, the connections shall facilitate self-alignment of the
elements during assembling; (iii) the employed timber elements are
assembled, disassembled, and re-assembled by a robot, without the need
for any material contamination, thus increasing the possibility for cir­
cular re-use of the material; (iv) the connections need to withstand a
shear force and moment, to ensure the possibility for various structural
applications. The robot system, developed by the second and third au­
thors, employs a multi-phase assembly procedure implemented for the
first time in a construction task, combining robot pick and place with
automated screwing of bolted connections (Fig. 1). A full explanation of
the process and application can be found in [12].
At first glance, a traditional bolted connection seems to facilitate
reusability and can withstand shear and moment. From a mechanical
point of view, a standard bolted connection transfers shear forces
initially by dowel action and subsequently by rope action. The dowel
action induces bending in the bolt and high local compressive stress in
the timber, whilst the rope action induces second-order tension in the

* Corresponding author at: Vestre Stationsvej 7, 5000 Odense C, Denmark. Tel.: +45 2912 5749.
E-mail addresses: sohn@cowi.com (S.G. Hansen), kunic@iti.sdu.dk (A. Kunic), ron@iti.sdu.dk (R. Naboni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112795
Received 2 December 2020; Received in revised form 4 May 2021; Accepted 30 June 2021
Available online 24 July 2021
0141-0296/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

bolt [18,19]. This mode of transferring shear has several disadvantages:

(i) it has lower capacity than the connected elements, as the axial stress
in the timber will be concentrated around the bolt [20,21] ; (ii) the bolts
should be thick as they are mainly subjected to bending, whilst they are
stronger in pure tension; (iii) large displacements in the connection are
required before to mobilise the bending capacity of the bolt and the
compressive strength of the timber during the dowel action, and sub­
sequently to mobilise the tensile capacity of the bolt by the rope action
where the capacity of the connection is achieved, see Fig. 2A. Logically,
large displacements are especially problematic for structures with many
connections, such as discrete structures.
This paper presents a new type of connection that is conceived for
automated robotic assembly and disassembly and has the mechanical
properties that are needed to ensure a good robustness of structures with
many connections, such as discrete timber structures (high strength,
high stiffness and good ductility).
The paper introduces the concept of the connection and describes the
fabrication process and assembly requirements. Hereafter, the me­
chanical qualities of the connection are demonstrated using an experi­
mental programme. Subsequently, a mechanical model for the shear
capacity of the connection is derived based on the most critical failure
mechanisms. The paper rounds off with a concluding section where the
future development for the connection is discussed.

2. New robot-friendly timber connection Fig. 2. Conceptual schematisation of three types of connections and their load/
displacement response diagram. A - traditional bolted connection; B - finger
2.1. Concept and main features joint connection; C - the new connection proposed in this study.

The main structural idea behind the new connection is that shear
should be transferred by the interlocking of CNC-milled shear keys
(Fig. 2C) instead of relying on dowel and rope action provided by steel
bolts. With sufficient fabrication precision, the interlocking can be
activated without significant displacements, in contrast to traditional
bolted connections (Fig. 2A). Modern CNC machinery ensures high-
precision three-dimensional milling with small tolerances (0.025 mm)
and only a few geometric limitations inside sharp corners, which can be
challenging to achieve by using conventional three-axis machines with
round cutting tools. Rectangular shear keys known from classic finger
joints (Fig. 2B) can be challenging to fabricate due to the sharp corners
and to be effective, they will require a tight assembly that can be hardly
achieved with robots. Moreover, their load response will be charac­
terised by a high brittleness, as it is almost entirely governed by the
shear strength of the timber itself.
Considering mutual aspects of digital fabrication, robotic assembly
and mechanical behaviour, the new connection employs semi-spherical
shear keys, positioned in a squared pattern that supports both parallel
and perpendicular intersections, combined with regular steel bolts
(Fig. 2C). This shape of the shear keys has the following advantages: (i)
the shear keys can be easily milled with high precision with elements
and tools of different scales; (ii) the geometry and layout provide an

Fig. 1. (left) Robotic assembly of timber blocks and (right) robotic screwing of steel bolts (Kunic et al., 2021).

2
S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

alignment feature that guarantees precise robotic assembling without

the need for complex procedures (Fig. 3); (iii) subjected to shear, it al­
lows the timber elements to slide over the shear keys, which in turn, will
cause axial tension in the bolt (Fig. 4). As the bolt is installed in an
oversized drilled hole, a large vertical displacement of the connection is
required before the bolt is subjected to noticeable bending. As the ver­
tical displacement is small before the failure of the shear keys, the
bending in the bolt is neglected. Thus, the bolt will have an almost ideal
utilisation being loaded axially. This paper investigates the structural
potential of this connection in reaching higher strength and stiffness
with reduced use of steel elements.

2.2. Fabrication process

The shear keys are fabricated using an industrial CNC router,

equipped with a round end-mill tool of a 3 mm radius (Fig. 5). For each
element, two principal CNC milling processes are defined and executed -
firstly shaping the female side of the connection, and secondly, the male
side of the connection. In both cases, the overall milling path is opti­
mised in terms of time and tool usage, resulting in a single spiral
movement for the female side and a single parallel movement for the
male side, executed using only one end-mill tool. In this way, the need Fig. 4. Conceptual kinematic behaviour of the connection, where the relative
for tool exchange can be eliminated, and the production time is kept to a displacement of the connection is illustrated with the displacement vector →
u.
The axial displacement of the bolt is displayed with the displacement vec­
minimum. In this specific experiment, the planning, optimisation and
tor →
u bolt .
generation of the milling toolpath were directly developed within the
design environment of Grasshopper for Rhinoceros [22].
The round tool combined with the parallel milling path ensures a
smooth transition between the horizontal element surface and the semi-
spherical shear keys (Fig. 5). This feature increases the element’s ability
to slide on the shear keys, which is expected to increase the connection’s
ductility as the connection’s capacity will, to a greater extent, be gov­
erned by the yield capacity of the bolt and the compressive strength of
the timber.

3. Materials properties

3.1. Timber

The timber used for this experiment is Eastern White Pine Wood
(Pinus strobus) in class C24 according to the EN 338 [23], a typical

Fig. 5. Description of the CNC milling toolpath and morphological features.

structural timber. To determine the actual mechanical properties of the

employed timber, material tests on separate specimens were conducted.
The following strength properties were determined experimentally:

– Compressive strength parallel to the fibre direction (fc,0);

– Tensile strength perpendicular to the fibre direction (ft,90);
– Shear strength (fv)

The employed setups for material testing are schematically shown in

Fig. 6. The compressive- and tensile tests are performed according to EN
408 [24], whilst the shear setup is a modification of the shear block test
Fig. 3. Robot-friendly features that enable the self-alignment of the timber described in the ASTM-D143-94 [25]. All three tests were performed as
elements during the assembly process. deformation controlled with a constant displacement rate of 1.2 mm/min.

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S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

Table 1
Tested strength parameters, moisture content and 12%-strength parameters.
Strength tested Measured Moisture Converted Mean
strength content strength value

Unit [MPa] [%] [MPa] [MPa]

Compressive 34.4 15.1 40.8 41.6
Strength fc,0 38.5 14.8 44.8
31.1 16.0 38.9
41.1 14.8 47.6
35.1 15.0 41.2
30.3 15.4 36.5
Tensile Strength 2.8 17.7 3.1 2.8
ft,90 2.8 13.3 2.9
2.5 13.3 2.5
Shear Strength fv 5.0 16.2 5.7 5.5
5.1 14.5 5.5
5.1 16.2 5.8
4.4 16.7 5.1
4.6 17.8 5.6

Table 2
Tested mechanical properties of the M4 steel bolts.
Test specimen fy [MPa] fu [MPa] E [MPa]

1 890.9 1,099.9 1,50,600

Fig. 6. Experimental setup for material testing in compression, tension
2 884.9 1,079.0 1,43,300
and shear. 3 918.3 1,109.4 1,32,300
Mean 898.0 1,096.1 1,42,100

As a variation in the moisture content affects the timber’s strength

and stiffness significantly, the moisture content was determined for all
specimens by the so-called dry-weight method. The test specimens were
weighed before both the material and connection testing, subsequently
dried for 24 h at a temperature of 103 ± 3 ◦ C, and then weighed again
[26]. The mechanical properties of the timber are converted by the
following formula [27].
fw
fcon =
1 − B⋅(wtest − wcon )
tensile tests where the load was applied deformation-controlled with a
constant rate of 1.0 mm/min.
The yield stress, ultimate strength and Young’s Modulus are deter­
mined based on an effective stress area of 8.78 mm2. The yield stress is
determined as the 0.2%-stress, and Young’s modulus is defined by the
secant line between 0 and 500 MPa. The test results for the yield stress
(fy), ultimate strength (fu) and Young’s modulus (E) are shown in
Table 2.

where: 4. Mechanical experiments

fcon is the converted property. 4.1. Experimental programme

fw is the tested property with the moisture content wtest.
B is a factor that accounts for the decrease of the specific property
(0.05 for fc,0, 0.02 for ft,90 and 0.03 for fv).
wtest is the moisture content in the test specimens that were used for
material or connection testing.
wcon is the moisture content which the converted property
represents.
As the above conversion is only valid for moisture contents between
8 and 20%, the strength and stiffness for specimens with moisture
content above 20% were converted as specimens with a moisture con­
tent of 20%.
The tested strength parameters, the moisture content in each test
specimen and the associated converted 12%-strength are shown in
Table 1.
The moisture content of the specimens used for connection testing is
shown in the table in the Appendix.
When comparing the proposed shear model with the experimentally
obtained shear capacities in Section 6.4, the strength parameters are
converted to the measured moisture content of the individual specimen
used for connection testing.
3.2. Steel bolts
The used bolts were A2-70 threaded bars according to DIN 976 [28]
in size M4. The bolts’ actual mechanical properties were determined by
To investigate the effect of the semi-spherical shear keys on the shear
performance of the connection, the shear capacity was tested in an
experimental programme where the number of shear keys (Nkeys) and
their shape- and size-defining design parameters (hkeys and dkeys) are
varied (Fig. 7).
The experimental programme (Fig. 8) consists of three-test series,
each of which focuses on the influence of a single design parameter. Test
series 1 (TS1) focuses on the impact of the number of shear keys (Nkeys);
test series 2 (TS2) focuses on the influence of the diameter of the shear
keys (dkeys), and test series 3 (TS3) focuses on how the height of the
shear keys (hkeys) affects the shear performance. The experimental
programme is designed so that one test design (Nkeys = 4, dkeys = 15.6
mm, hkeys = 5 mm) is common for all the three-tests series. This design
was tested three times, whilst the rest were tested twice. Two reference
specimens without shear keys were also tested to quantify the
improvement of the shear performance.
4.2. Experimental setup
The shear performance of the connection was tested in the experi­
mental setup shown in Fig. 9. Two shear sections connect three timber
elements (connections) reinforced by two through-going bolts. To
ensure that the nuts are not punching through the sides of the outer
timber elements during the experiment, 1.5 mm thick steel plates were
placed between the timber and the nuts. All the dimensions of the setup

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S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

Fig. 7. Geometrical description of the shear keys connection.

Fig. 9. Experimental setup and dimensions.

Fig. 8. Schematic description of the experimental programme. Three test series

where the number of shear keys (Nkeys), the diameter of the shear keys (dkeys),
and the height of the shear keys (hkeys) are varied.

and the connections are given in the table in the Appendix. A load P is
applied to the central element such that the acting shear force in each
section is P/2. The tests are conducted in a machine with steel loading
platens of which one was fixed, and the other was hinged to allow for
uneven deformations. The load was applied deformation-controlled
with a constant rate of 0.75 mm/min.

4.3. Digital image correlation

The connection’s displacements are obtained using Digital Image

Correlation (DIC), an optical measuring technique where the de­
formations are monitored with cameras. Based on the greyscale varia­
tions recorded in a sequence of pictures, DIC can generate a deformation
field of the filmed surface [29]. In this study, we utilise a 3D measuring
system consisting of two 12 megapixels cameras (Fig. 10), and the
photos are analysed with the software Correlate from GOM.
The connection’s displacements are obtained based on analysis
points (P1, P2, P3), as shown in Fig. 9. The displacement in the two shear
sections is determined as the relative displacements of the analysis Fig. 10. The Digital Image Correlation (DIC) setup during the shear testing of
points. the connection.

5
S.G. Hansen et al.
5. Results and analysis of the experiments
The load–displacement response curves for the three-test series are
shown in Figs. 11–13. The measured shear capacities are presented in
the table in the Appendix. The curves are represented with different
thicknesses and line types which illustrate the variation of the design
parameter of interest in the given test series (TS) - the number of shear
keys (TS1), the diameter of the shear keys (TS2) and the height of the
shear keys (TS3). Since each specimen design is tested at least two times,
the curves are marked with an identification letter (i.e. A, B, C). Finally,
each curve has been assigned one or more numbers (i.e. 1–3) which refer
to the failure mechanism(s) (FM) that were observed in the test. The
curves for the two reference specimens without the shear keys are shown
in all three graphs, represented by light grey curves. Due to technical
issues, the DIC measurements had errors for a few specimens (see Ap­
pendix). The shear capacity for these specimens is found from the
response curve derived from the displacement measured by the testing
machine. These curves are not significantly different from the rest. They
Fig. 11. Load-displacement response curves for TS1 where the number of shear
keys is varied.
Fig. 12. Load-displacement response curves for TS2 where the diameter of
shear keys is varied.
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Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795
Fig. 13. Load-displacement response curves for TS3 where the height of shear
keys is varied.
are therefore not shown in the figures below.
In general, it is seen that the curves for the specimens with shear keys
have a local peak or change in the inclination. This is identified as the
shear keys’ failure, and thereby their capacity, marked with red crosses.
Despite that some of the curves decrease slightly after shear keys’ ca­
pacity is reached, the connections have good ductility. The curves are
not shown in their entire length. However, most of the tests were
stopped after 15 to 25 mm without losing significant capacity. Finally, it
is remarked that one of the tests with six shear keys was stopped after
approximately 4 mm deformation due to technical problems, not lack of
deformation capacity in the connection.
By comparing the response curves for the specimens with shear keys
and the reference specimens without shear keys, it is seen that the shear
keys significantly improve the stiffness and strength. Furthermore, it is
seen that the displacement that is required to reach the capacity is
reduced considerably due to the shear keys. Some of the response curves
for specimens with shear keys show a very low stiffness until 0.5–1.0
mm displacement, whereafter they show similar stiffness to the com­
parable specimens. This may be due to an unperfect fit between the male
and female side of the connection caused by tolerances in the
manufacturing.
After the tests, the connections were examined to determine the
failure mechanisms. Three types of failure mechanisms were found, see
Fig. 14. Failure Mechanism FM1 and FM2 are attributable to a shear
failure where the shear keys are cut off. In FM 1, the shear keys are cut
off at the root of the shear keys. In FM2, the connection opened before
the shear keys were cut off, and therefore, the cut off is not at the root of
the shear keys. FM3 is a compressive failure at the female side of the
connection. Here, the shear keys remained intact and were pushed
through the timber at the female side of the connection, causing an
elongated indentation.
In some of the specimens, it was clear which failure mechanism had
been governing the measured capacity. However, in other specimens,
more than one failure mechanism was observed. As the connections
were not opened right after the shear key failure was observed on the
response curve, it is impossible to determine which failure mechanism
was governing the measured capacity. However, it is seen that the cut-
off mechanisms (FM1 and FM2) were observed in almost all specimens.
6. Shear model
This section presents a derivation of a mechanical shear model based
S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

Fig. 14. FM1 -The shear keys were cut off at the root of the shear key; FM2 - The shear keys were cut off at a distance to the root of the shear key; FM3 - A
compressive failure at the female side of the connection.

The observed horizontal opening of the connection (dx) is caused by

Fig. 15. Schematisation of FM1 and FM2.
on the most frequently observed failure mechanisms (FM1 and FM2).
Section 6.1 and 6.2 present the derivation of the shear models for FM1
and FM2, respectively, whilst the derived model is compared with the
experimental results in Section 6.3.
As described in Section 5, the shear keys were cut off in both failure
mechanisms. The main difference is where they are cut off. In FM1, the
shear keys are cut off at the root. In FM2, the connection opens before,
and the shear keys are cut off at a certain distance to the root of the shear
keys (Fig. 15).
the sliding of the female side of the connection over the shear keys. The
connection’s opening is modelled by considering the two connected
elements as rigid bodies subjected to an axial load, P/2, which is
transferred as shear in the connection, Vslide. It is remarked that this
approach is only applicable for estimating the horizontal displacement
in the connection as the vertical displacement (dy) may be governed by
the indentation and local deformation in the timber elements.
For an infinitesimal opening of the connection, the two considered
elements are only in contact in one point per shear key. In these contact
points, the shear force in the connection (Vslide) is transferred from the
female element to the shear keys (see Fig. 16). The shear force is
decomposed into radial and tangential force components (Frad and Ftan).
If the tangential force component exceeds the friction capacity (Ffric)
between the two elements in the contact points, the elements are sliding
and the connection is opening.
An opening/sliding criterium can be expressed by the geometry of
the shear keys (Fig. 7) by considering the horizontal and vertical force

6.1. Derivation of the model for failure mechanism 1

This submodel is based on FM1, where the shear keys were cut off at the
root. As the shear area is well-defined by the geometry of the shear keys, the
shear capacity for one shear section can be determined as simple as:
Vshear,1 = Ashear,key nfv (1)

Ashear,key is the cross-sectional area at the root of one shear key, n is the
number of shear keys in the considered shear section, and fv is the
timber’s shear strength.

6.2. Derivation of the model for failure mechanism 2

In this submodel, the shear failure occurs at a certain distance from

the root of the shear keys, which is why the shear area of the shear keys
is reduced, see Fig. 16. As the shear area and thereby the shear capacity
of the connection depends on the opening of the connection (dx), an
expression for the opening is needed to establish a model for the shear Fig. 16. Schematisation of the considered sliding mechanism and the associ­
capacity. ated internal force components acting on the shear keys.

7
S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

equilibrium in the sliding state. To do this, an expression for the incli­

nation of the tangent of the shear key in the contact point (dx) is
essential. Due to the semi-spherical geometry of the shear keys, the
inclination of the tangent can be expressed as a function of the opening
of the connection as follows:
( dx − hkeys )
θ(dx ) = arcsin 1 + (2)
rsph

The vertical force equilibrium is a balance between the decomposed

components acting in the shear keys and the applied shear force (Vslide):
∑
Fy = 0 = Vslide − Frad cosθ(dx ) − Ffric sinθ(dx ) (3)

As the bolt compensates for the imbalance between the horizontal

projection of Frad and Ffric, the horizontal force equilibrium can be
expressed as:
∑
Fx = 0 = Fbolt − Frad sinθ(dx ) + Ffric cosθ(dx ) (4)

The friction capacity, Ffric, is determined by Coulomb’s friction law
[30] where the friction capacity is determined by the product of a force
acting perpendicular to a friction face and a material-specific friction
coefficient (μ). The friction capacity can thereby be expressed by the
radial force component that is acting perpendicular to the friction face:
Fig. 17. The sliding criterium, the bolt force, the radial force component, Frad
and the friction capacity Ffric as a function of the opening of the connection.
Frad (0)sinθ(0) = Ftan (0)cosθ(0) (9)

Ffric = Frad ⋅μ (5) Based on this equilibrium, the tangential force component can be
expressed as follows:
The friction coefficient is determined by the expression from EN
1995-1-1 [20] for friction parallel to the fibres: Ftan (0) = Frad (0)tanθ(0) (10)
⎧
⎨ 0.23 if wtest ≤ 12% By substituting Eq. (10) and Coulomb’s friction law (Eq. (5)) in the
μ = 0.03wtest − 0.13 if 12% ≤ wtest ≤ 16% (6) inequality of interest (Ftan < Ffric), the following inequation can be
⎩ found:
0.35 if wtest ≥ 16%
Frad (0)tanθ(0) ≤ μFrad (0) (11)
where wtest is the moisture content, expressed in percentage.
The response of the steel bolt is modelled as linear elastic-ideal Thereby, a limit for the initial inclination of the tangent of the shear
plastic: key can be found as:
⎧
⎪
⎪ dx dx fy θ(0)lim = arctanμ (12)
⎪
⎨ EAs if <
lbolt lbolt E
Fbolt = (7) To ensure the sliding on the shear key in the connection and thereby
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ fy As if
dx
≥
fy ensure that the bolt ís activated, the initial inclination should be larger
lbolt E than arctanμ. For moisture content of 12%, the initial inclination of the
shear keys (θ(0)) shall be larger than approximately 13◦ , which can be
where lbolt is the effective bolt length, E and fy are Young’s modulus and ensured by having hkeys/rsph < 0.77.
yield stress of the steel and As is the stress area of the bolt. The shear capacity of failure mechanism 2 can be expressed as a
By substituting Eq. (5) in Eq. (2) and (3), and subsequently solving function of the opening of the connection (dx) as follows:
Eq. (2) and (3) for Vslide, the following expressing for the sliding crite­
rium can be derived: Vshear,2 (dx ) = Ashear,key (dx )nfv (13)

cosθ(dx ) + μsinθ(dx ) The shear area (Ashear,key) can be expressed simply through the ver­
Vslide = Fbolt (dx ) (8)
sinθ(dx ) − μcosθ(dx ) tical displacement of the connection that follows from the sliding
mechanism (dy, see Fig. 16).
Fig. 17 shows an example of the sliding criterium (Vslide, the red
curve), the load that is needed to open the connection further. The figure π( )2
Ashear,key (dx ) = dkeys − 2dy (14)
shows furthermore how the bolt force (Fbolt) and the friction capacity 4
relate to dx. It can be seen that Vslide is zero for dx = 0 mm, which is due The vertical sliding displacement can be found as:
to the fact that the bolt is unstretched and Fbolt is therefore zero. Sub­
dy (dx ) = rsph (cosθ(0) − cosθ(dx ) ) (15)
sequently, Vslide is increasing for increasing dx until dx is approximately
0.4 mm, whereafter Vslide is decreasing for further increase of dx. The Fig. 18 shows an example of how the shear capacity relates to the
abrupt break on the curve is caused by the fact that the bolt has reached horizontal opening of the connection. It can be seen that Vshear,2 ≈4.2 kN
the yield stress and a further increase of dx will not lead to an increase of when the connection is fully closed. As dx is increasing, Vshear,2 is
Fbolt. decreasing.
A particular case worth mentioning is the case where the inclination The shear capacity for failure mechanism 2 (one section) can be
of the tangent, θ(dx), is so small that the tangential force component does found by the intersection between Vslide and Vshear,2, the red dot in
not exceed the friction capacity for any applied shear force (Ftan < Ffric). Fig. 19.
In this case, the connection will not open. Sliding is possible if the initial
inclination of the tangent θ(0) is larger than a certain limit, θ(0)lim. This 6.3. Effective bolt length
limit can be determined by considering the horizontal force equilibrium
in the initial stage where dx is zero and the bolt force, therefore, is zero A shortcoming of the employed experimental setup is that the two
(See Fig. 16). shear sections in the specimen did not open synchronically. This has a

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S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

Fig. 18. The shear capacity for failure mechanism 2 as a function of the
opening of the connection.

Fig. 20. The ratio between the tested shear capacity and shear capacity ac­
cording to the model for test series 1.

Fig. 19. The shear capacity and the sliding criterion as a function of the con­
nection’s opening (dx). The connection’s shear capacity is found as the inter­
section between Vshear,2(dx) and Vslide(dx).

significant influence on the relation between the opening of the

connection (dx) and the bolt force (Fbolt). To get the right theoretical bolt
forces (Eq. (7)) in both shear sections, effective bolt lengths are used
instead of the bolt’s geometrical length. The effective bolt lengths are
determined as a percentage of the geometrical bolt length. The rate is
determined by the ratio between the two sections’ openings at the time
of failure. This means that if the opening is 0.2 mm and 0.3 mm for the
left and the right section, respectively, the effective bolt length will be
40% and 60% of the geometrical bolt length for the left and the right
section. The employed effective bolt lengths are shown in the table in the
Appendix.
Fig. 21. The ratio between the tested shear capacity and shear capacity ac­
cording to the model for test series 2.
6.4. Comparison with experiments

Figs. 20–22 show the ratio between the tested shear capacity (Vtest)
and the capacity predicted by the presented shear model (Vmodel) for the
three test series. In each figure, the ratio is shown as a function of the
investigated design parameter in the given test series.
From Fig. 20, it is seen that the tested shear capacity for the test
specimen with two shear keys is significantly larger than predicted by
the model (ratio 2.53), whilst there is a good correlation between the
model and the tests for the specimens with four and six shear keys. It
remarked that the test specimen’s response curve with two shear keys
(Fig. 11) had no clear indication of the shear keys’ failure compared to
the remaining curves in test series 1. The failure mechanism may explain
this. It is the only specimen that failed in FM3, where the shear keys are
not cut off. The transition to a second-order mechanism (e.g. rope effect)
will therefore be more smooth. Thus, the high shear capacity may be
caused by the influence of a second-order effect and the difficulties in
determining the point of failure at the response curve, and thereby, the
capacity of the shear keys.
Fig. 21 shows that the agreement between the model and the test
results increases with the diameter of the shear keys (dkeys). Fig. 22. The ratio between the tested shear capacity and shear capacity ac­
Fig. 22 shows a good correspondence between the model and the test cording to the model for test series 3.
results in the tested interval for the height of the shear keys (hkeys).

9
S.G. Hansen et al.
Fig. 23. Overall comparison between the test results and the model.
Fig. 23 shows an overall comparison between the experimentally
obtained shear capacity and the capacity predicted by the shear model.
The numbers in the figure show the observed failure mechanism(s).
Firstly, it can be seen that the difference between the test and the model
is less than 20% for the majority of the test specimens. Secondly, the
model overestimates only the shear capacity for two. The mean value for
Vtest/Vmodel is 1.25, with a standard deviation of 39%. Taking the
model’s simplicity and the experimental programme into account, the
agreement between the model and the test results is good.
7. Conclusions and future outlook
This paper presents a new type of connection that can be easily
fabricated with conventional CNC machinery and facilitates that timber
elements can be robotically assembled and disassembled. The new
connection transfers shear by the interlocking of CNC-milled shear keys.
Based on an extensive experimental programme, we demonstrated how
the introduction of semi-spherical shear keys improves the shear ca­
pacity and stiffness of the connections considerably. The observed
ductile behaviour makes this type of connection ideal for discrete
structures that rely on the integrity of many connections.
The ductility ensures that the capacity of the structure is governed by
the sum of the capacity of the connections, in contrast to brittle con­
nections where the capacity of the structure is governed by the weakest
connection [31].
10
Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795
Furthermore, the paper presents a shear model based on the most
frequently observed failure mechanisms (FM1 and FM2). Despite its
simplicity, the model predicts the experimentally obtained shear ca­
pacity with a fair precision (20% underestimation). For the model to be
ready for general design application, more research is still needed. To
overcome the discussed shortcomings of the experimental setup, more
experiments should be conducted in a new setup. Furthermore, as the
model only reflects the most frequently observed failure mechanisms in
these relatively simple experiments, the model should be developed
further such that it also reflects other relevant failure mechanisms.
These failure mechanisms could be the compressive failure on the fe­
male side of the connection (FM3) or failure mechanisms in a perpen­
dicular connection where the shear keys apply compression
perpendicular to the fibre direction on the female side. In order to
include more failure mechanisms in the model, more experiments are
needed.
A new experimental programme with a new experimental setup with
a one-section connection is currently planned. This setup makes it
possible to avoid uneven distribution of shear forces between two sec­
tions, it minimises the impact of fabrication tolerances, and finally, it
excludes any asymmetric opening and moment in the connection. The
programme will include larger specimens with larger shear keys that
represent real-life structures better.
Before using the connection in real-life structures, it should be
investigated how environmental changes can affect the connection.
More specifically, it should be investigated whether the shear keys are
prone to develop cracks due to moisture change in the timber, leading to
loss of the shear capacity.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Søren Gustenhoff Hansen: Conceptualization, Investigation,
Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review
& editing. Anja Kunic: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization,
Writing - original draft. Roberto Naboni: Conceptualization, Investi­
gation, Methodology, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research has been developed as an interdisciplinary collabora­
tion between the CREATE Group at the University of Southern Denmark
(SDU), Section for Civil and Architectural Engineering and COWI A/S.
The authors also wish to thank Mads Jørgensen, Ying Ze Chen, Martin
Kristensen and Malte Sørensen for their contribution to research de­
velopments and for performing mechanical testing.
S.G. Hansen et al. Engineering Structures 245 (2021) 112795

Appendix A

Test Identification WL DL WR DR WC DC n dkeys hkeys wtest lbolt,L lbolt,R Vtest Vmodel Failure
series letter [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [%] [mm] [mm] [kN] [kN] mode

1,2,3 A 45.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 0 15.6 5.0 11.70 – – – – –
1,2,3 B 45.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 44.9 45.0 0 15.6 5.0 11.79 – – – – –
1 B 45.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 2 15.6 5.0 18.36 124.9 0.0 4.3 1.7 3
1,2,3 A 40.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 39.0 45.0 4 15.6 5.0 14.59 62.0 62.0 4.3 3.9 1
1,2,3 B 40.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 39.5 45.0 4 15.6 5.0 14.56 0.0 124.3 4.8 3.9 1,2,3
1,2,3 C 40.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 38.7 45.0 4 15.6 5.0 13.73 61.9 61.9 5.2 4.0 1
1 A 45.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 39.3 45.0 6 15.6 5.0 14.32 0.0 124.2 5.7 5.9 2
1 B 40.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 39.8 45.0 6 15.6 5.0 13.06 89.1 35.7 8.5 6.11 1,2,3
2* A 40.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 39.7 45.0 4 11.0 5.0 14.93 62.4 62.4 3.0 1.9 1
2 A 45.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 4 19.0 5.0 17.79 0.0 124.8 5.6 5.1 1,3
2 B 45.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 39.5 45.0 4 19.0 5.0 15.25 0.0 124.3 6.82 5.6 1,3
3 A 45.0 45.0 39.0 45.0 37.0 45.0 4 15.6 6.0 14.87 78.1 42.9 3.9 3.9 1,3
3* B 45.0 45.0 39.0 45.0 38.7 45.0 4 15.6 6.0 38.14 61.4 61.4 3.6 3.2 1
3 A 45.0 45.0 41.0 45.0 40.1 45.0 4 15.6 4.0 14.19 0.0 125.8 5.4 3.9 1
3 B 41.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 40.5 45.0 4 15.6 4.0 15.35 0.0 126.4 3.9 3.8 1,3
3 A 42.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 41.3 45.0 4 15.6 3.0 12.63 116.6 11.7 3.3 4.0 1
3 B 45.0 45.0 42.0 45.0 41.7 45.0 4 15.6 3.0 12.33 80.0 48.7 4.2 4.1 1
*No available DIC measurement.

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