applied

sciences
Article
Reservoir-Vascular Tubes Network for Self-Healing Concrete:
Performance Analysis by Acoustic Emission, Digital Image
Correlation and Ultrasound Velocity
Eleni Tsangouri 1 , Corentin Van Loo 1 , Yasmina Shields 2 , Nele De Belie 2 , Kim Van Tittelboom 2
and Dimitrios G. Aggelis 1, *

1 Department Mechanics of Materials and Constructions (MeMC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2,
1050 Brussels, Belgium; eleni.tsangouri@vub.be (E.T.); corentin.van.loo@vub.be (C.V.L.)
2 Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory, Department of Structural Engineering and Building Materials,
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark Zwijnaarde 60,
9052 Ghent, Belgium; yasmina.shields@ugent.be (Y.S.); nele.debelie@ugent.be (N.D.B.);
kim.vantittelboom@ugent.be (K.V.T.)
* Correspondence: dimitrios.aggelis@vub.be

Citation: Tsangouri, E.; Van Loo, C.;
Shields, Y.; De Belie, N.; Van
Tittelboom, K.; Aggelis, D.G.
Reservoir-Vascular Tubes Network
for Self-Healing Concrete:
Performance Analysis by Acoustic
Emission, Digital Image Correlation
and Ultrasound Velocity. Appl. Sci.
2022, 12, 4821. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app12104821
Academic Editor: Zoubir Mehdi
Sbartaï
Abstract: A novel linear reservoir-vascular tubes network is presented in this work and the design
efficacy is explored by testing concrete beams loaded on bending and by assessing their damage
healing and mechanical recovery. The healing system is composed of additively manufactured
polymer components that appear equally effective compared to conventional ceramic tubes since the
3D printed polymer-tubes instantly break upon cracking. It is shown that bulk reservoirs embedded
into concrete can deviate cracks and detrimentally affect the concrete’s resistance to failure. The crack
formation and re-opening is monitored by acoustic emission (AE) and digital image correlation (DIC)
concluding that initial brittle cracking is shifted after healing to a pseudo-ductile crack re-opening
with extended post-softening. The sealed cracks show significant strength and toughness recovery
(i.e., above 80% of the original value) escorted also by an ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) increase
(up to 126% relative to the damage state) after a healing intervention. The work critically reports on
obstructions of the current design: (i) the network tubes are clogged although the agent was flushed
out of the network after healing and as a result re-healing is unattainable; and (ii) vacuum spaces
are formed during casting underneath the network tubes, due to limited vibration aiming on the
tubes’ tightness, but also due to inefficient aggregates settlement, leading to a strength decrease. This
work calls attention to the impact of vascular networks design and performance on a complex cracks
network and fracture zone development.

Received: 5 April 2022 Keywords: concrete; self-healing; cracking; vascular network; reservoir; acoustic emission; digital
Accepted: 6 May 2022 image correlation; ultrasound pulse velocity
Published: 10 May 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil- 1. Introduction
iations. Two requirements of agent delivery arise for the optimal design of autonomously
healed concrete based on a decade of research [1], namely, (1) the amount of healing agent
should be sufficient to fill in and seal macro-cracks wider than 0.1 mm and up to 1 mm; and
(2) healing function should be continuous and repeatably provide crack healing during
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
the service life of the concrete. The concept of vascular healing networks attracts the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
interest of the research community today since their design can fulfil both of these essential
This article is an open access article
requirements. As a result, the research is gradually shifting from encapsulation-based self-
distributed under the terms and
healing approaches towards vascular network conceptualization as the need for upscaling
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
and commercialization is imperative. Recent studies demonstrate that encapsulation of the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
healing agent provides successive repair by reducing the capsules’ diameter to the material
4.0/).
granulometry [2] and by casting them through materials compatible to concrete (i.e., [3]).

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12104821 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 2 of 18

The main difference to the vascular network is the latter’s ability to continuously supply an
agent to different cracks and throughout the whole service life of the structure [4].
The early designs of hand-made ceramic [5], cement [6] and glass [7,8] tubes connected
to an inlet–outlet supply system, to build a one-dimensional vascular network that proved
its healing efficacy [9]. The breakthrough idea on healing conceptualization was the 3D
printed fabrication of hollow tube networks and supply components [10]. Upon cracking,
local stresses act on the tubes that eventually fracture at the crack plane. After fracture,
the agent is manually poured into the system [5,11,12] or deployed from the embedded
reservoir, and is then released through the tubes network, as capillary forces draw the agent
into the open crack void [13]. The agent flow is occasionally promoted by pressurizing air
throughout the network, an action that additionally facilitates the healing kinetics [13,14]
and the cleansing of the tubes after the healing intervention [11].
Additive manufacturing is fast, reliable and provides the freedom for any geometry
and shape of healing systems [4]. Recently, the research has focused on the fabrication of
2D and 3D vascular 3D printed polymer networks and significant advances are marked
on modelling [15] and experimental works [16]. In addition, the biomimetic pattern
design inspired by Murray’s law is now established to provide optimal agent distribution
and flow [12].
The recent advances on the autonomous healing of concrete are summarized in [17,18],
and this work aims to complementarily assess the limitations and obstacles that arise in
practice on the design of vascular healing networks for concrete. Preliminary tests are
performed on concrete beams with embedded hand-made and 3D printed vascular systems
and their fracture and recovery are tracked by an integrated inspection methodology that
provides insights into the damage–healing interaction. The phenomenon of network
thrombosis will be discussed since the agent cleansing after the healing intervention
appears the most critical design parameter for the durability of the network. The impact of
supply components on the damage is exploited, and the compatibility of reservoir-network
materials is critically assessed. Spotlight is set on the cracking zone, where the role of
the micro-cracking at the fracture process zone surrounding the prominent crack on the
re-opening of the crack after healing is investigated.
The online and post-testing monitoring of cracks provides, for the first time in the
literature, a direct link of the crack size and morphology to the healing efficacy and
mechanical properties restoration.

2. Research Significance
This work is a continuation of a decade of research on the design of autonomously
healed concrete and complementarily contributes to the damage and healing assessment.
For the first time, the focus is placed on the technical details regarding the inspection
methodology that reveals the conditions under which cracks are repaired. An integrated
monitoring methodology is adopted building on recent advances on monitoring systems
that combine the acoustic emission (AE), ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) and digital image
correlation (DIC) techniques for an online, accurate and full-field tracking of damage and
healing on small-scale concrete design prototypes [1,5].
By testing different healing configurations, the sensing technology is challenged to
identify the damage onset and the crack kinetics. The data obtained are analyzed concerning
the crack size and morphology and this has introduced a novel approach for an accurate
healing evaluation. In the last section of this paper, a critical analysis based on post-testing
visual inspection aims to shed light on the limitations of the current networks design. It is
the authors’ belief that a new era of healing conceptualization arises with the contribution
of additive manufacturing; therefore, future research should be dedicated to the optimal
design of printed networks.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 3 of 18

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Concrete Beams
Normal strength concrete (with CEM I 52.5 N) was prepared and mixed with the
material composition given in Table 1. River sand with a particles diameter up to 4 mm was
selected, whereas large (8–16 mm) coarse and rounded smaller (2–8 mm) aggregates were
utilized. First, the dry raw materials were mixed for 3 min, and mixing continued for 1 more
minute when water was added. Next, the mixed material was cast in layers into a wooden
mold placed on a vibration table. Constant vibration for 5 min ensured a good compaction
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 
  of the concrete material. The wooden mold had dimensions of 850 × 100 ×19 100 mm3 .
4  of 

The beam geometry was selected in order to compare the research outcome to previous
test results [6,8,19] and since it ensured pure flexural cracks formation under four-point
bending.3D  printed 
After tubes: 
casting, thePolylactic 
molds wereacid covered
(PLA)  0.8 
by mm‐thick  tubes 
a plastic film towere 
avoidadditively 
excessive drying
manufactured up to 250 mm long with an inner diameter of 6 mm. The networks were 
and stored in ambient conditions for 48 h. Then, the concrete was demolded and stored
printed using an Ender 5 Pro fused deposition modelling (FDM) printer, using a 0.4 mm 
underwater at 20 ◦ C until the age of 28 days.
nozzle, a layer height of 0.2 mm, printing speed of 60 mm/s, nozzle temperature of 200 °C 
and a heated build plate temperature of 60 °C. Each network was printed vertically to the 
1. Healing
Tablebuild  agent
plate  to  give properties andbrittle 
the  network  concrete composition.
properties  under  a  bending  load.  The  tubes 
geometric design is summarized in Figure 1b,c. Due to the size limitation of the 3D printer, 
Polyurethane (PU) Healing Agent Concrete
the vascular structure shown in Figure 1b was printed in two parts before being soldered 
together. The radius relationship of parent to daughter branches was in accordance with 
Polymerization Trigger Moisture Component Weight (kg/m3 )
Murray’s law, which minimizes the power required for fluid transport (Equation (1)): 
Curing time (20 ◦ C) 1–5 min CEM I 52.5 N 300
Density (20 ◦ C)   =  3   +   
1.12 g/cm Sand 0/4 (1)
670
Viscosity (20 ◦ C) 4200 mPa · s Aggregate 2/8 490
where rp is the radius of the parent branch and rd1 and rd2 are the radii of the daughter 
Shelf life 6 months Aggregate 8/16 790
branches. For this cube law, the optimal branching angle is 75°. For the network shown in 
Cost 14 EUR/lt Water 150
Figure 1c, an internal diameter of 3 mm for the smallest daughter branches was chosen as 
that was the minimum that could be stably printed. The network shown in Figure 1b was 
designed to be secured to the reservoir system with an adhesive glue, which constrained 
The healing system was pre-positioned into the wooden mold and its position was
the parent branch’s internal diameter to exactly 6.4 mm. 
adjustedInlet/outlet: Two connection systems ‘were considered: (1) A flexible PVC tube with 
during concrete pouring with a 10–12 mm concrete cover (Figure 1e). Attention
was an inner and outer diameter equal to 10 and 11 mm, respectively, was manually mounted 
given to ensure the concrete flowed below the network, filling the air gaps that might
haveon each side of the vasculature shown in Figure 1c. An effort was made to fit the flexible 
developed underneath the network. Low vibration enhanced the concrete flow
and tube at least 3 mm deep onto the vasculature; (2) for the remaining systems, 3D‐printed 
good adhesion with the network. All inlet/outlet connection tubes were covered by
ductpolyethylene terephthalate (PET) reservoir blocks were manufactured by PrintPlace using 
tape to avoid the concrete entering the healing network. After curing, the concrete
FDM  technology.  The  additively  manufactured  PET  reservoir  blocks  were  previously 
was applied 
taken out of the water and air pressure applied to remove water entrapped in the
and  proven  to  effectively  circulate  the  agent  through  the  healing  network  [6]. 
healing networks.
Geometrical details of the reservoir blocks are given in Figure 1d. 

a) 

 
Figure  1.  Reservoir‐vascular  network  details:  (a)  pair  of  ceramic  tubes  mounted  on  3D  printed 
Figure 1. Reservoir-vascular network details: (a) pair of ceramic tubes mounted on 3D printed
reservoirs; (b) 3D printed PLA tubes mounted on 3D printed reservoirs; (c) 3D printed PLA tubes 
mounted on flexible inlet/outlet tubes; (d) detail view of the 3D printed reservoir; (e) the networks 
reservoirs; (b) 3D printed PLA tubes mounted on 3D printed reservoirs; (c) 3D printed PLA tubes
embedded into the concrete mold during casting.   
mounted on flexible inlet/outlet tubes; (d) detail view of the 3D printed reservoir; (e) the networks
embedded into the concrete mold during casting.
   
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 4 of 18

3.2. Healing Networks

In total, three series of five concrete beams were cast. The healing system configuration
varied as reported in Table 2. The healing design components are described in this section.

Table 2. Healing configuration per beam.

Beam Healing Network Supply System

1 to 5 3D printed PLA tubes Flexible PVC inlet/outlet tubes
6 to 10 3D printed PLA tubes 3D printed PET reservoirs
11 to 15 Ceramic tubes 3D printed PET reservoirs

Ceramic tubes: Natural fine-grained, soft, white clay for modelling and pottery was
provided by Pebeo (Gedeo). The tubes were hand-crafted in a ceramic studio. The ceramic
paste was cast in a 400 × 400 mm2 plate 2 mm-thick and rolled on a long wooden stick with
an inner diameter of 6 mm. The stick was carefully removed after an hour. The ceramic
tubes were fired up to 950 ◦ C with a rate of 100 ◦ C/h and cooled down in a period of
3 days. The solid tubes were then stored in ambient conditions until the concrete casting.
The length obtained was 380 ± 43 mm, often constrained due to hand-crafting and shape
irregularities at the endpoints (Figure 1a).
3D printed tubes: Polylactic acid (PLA) 0.8 mm-thick tubes were additively manufac-
tured up to 250 mm long with an inner diameter of 6 mm. The networks were printed using
an Ender 5 Pro fused deposition modelling (FDM) printer, using a 0.4 mm nozzle, a layer
height of 0.2 mm, printing speed of 60 mm/s, nozzle temperature of 200 ◦ C and a heated
build plate temperature of 60 ◦ C. Each network was printed vertically to the build plate
to give the network brittle properties under a bending load. The tubes geometric design
is summarized in Figure 1b,c. Due to the size limitation of the 3D printer, the vascular
structure shown in Figure 1b was printed in two parts before being soldered together. The
radius relationship of parent to daughter branches was in accordance with Murray’s law,
which minimizes the power required for fluid transport (Equation (1)):

r3p = rd1
3 3
+rd2 (1)

where rp is the radius of the parent branch and rd1 and rd2 are the radii of the daughter
branches. For this cube law, the optimal branching angle is 75◦ . For the network shown in
Figure 1c, an internal diameter of 3 mm for the smallest daughter branches was chosen as
that was the minimum that could be stably printed. The network shown in Figure 1b was
designed to be secured to the reservoir system with an adhesive glue, which constrained
the parent branch’s internal diameter to exactly 6.4 mm.
Inlet/outlet: Two connection systems ‘were considered: (1) A flexible PVC tube with
an inner and outer diameter equal to 10 and 11 mm, respectively, was manually mounted
on each side of the vasculature shown in Figure 1c. An effort was made to fit the flexible
tube at least 3 mm deep onto the vasculature; (2) for the remaining systems, 3D-printed
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) reservoir blocks were manufactured by PrintPlace using
FDM technology. The additively manufactured PET reservoir blocks were previously
applied and proven to effectively circulate the agent through the healing network [6].
Geometrical details of the reservoir blocks are given in Figure 1d.

3.3. Healing Agent

A one-component expansive (up to 30 times in volume) foam polyurethane (PU) was
selected as the healing agent. Moisture was the polymerization trigger of the PU agent and
its chemical features are summarized in Table 1. This agent was selected as the optimal
solution after thorough comparison to alternative commercial solutions due to its high load
recovery and expansive properties, as extensively discussed in [11]. Although the expected
curing time was 1–5 min, the PU was shown to take longer to fully harden, therefore for
these tests the curing time was extended to a 24 h period.
 selected as the healing agent. Moisture was the polymerization trigger of the PU agent 
and  its  chemical  features  are  summarized  in  Table  1.  This  agent  was  selected  as  the 
optimal solution after thorough comparison to alternative commercial solutions due to its 
high load recovery and expansive properties, as extensively discussed in [11]. Although 
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821
the expected curing time was 1–5 min, the PU was shown to take longer to fully harden,  5 of 18
therefore for these tests the curing time was extended to a 24 h period. 
Only after the crack creation (see Section 3.4) was the agent inserted into the healing 
network by a syringe, while the outlet remained closed. First, up to 20 mL of PU agent 
Only after the crack creation (see Section 3.4) was the agent inserted into the healing
was  inserted,  with  the  exact  volume  depending  on  the  crack  shape  and  volume.  Next, 
network by a syringe, while the outlet remained closed. First, up to 20 mL of PU agent
pressurized air  was applied  at the inlet  as  the  outlet  was  capped off.  This  way,  due  to 
was inserted, with the exact volume depending on the crack shape and volume. Next,
high‐pressure conditions, the agent was forced to circulate throughout the network and 
pressurized air was applied at the inlet as the outlet was capped off. This way, due to
fill up the open cracks. After a few minutes, extra air was applied at the inlet, and this 
high-pressure conditions, the agent was forced to circulate throughout the network and fill
time the agent  could  be  flushed  out  of the  outlet tube  in  order to  clean up  the  healing 
up the open cracks. After a few minutes, extra air was applied at the inlet, and this time
system. A curing period of 24 h followed as the agent polymerized inside the cracks. 
the agent could be flushed out of the outlet tube in order to clean up the healing system.
A curing period of 24 h followed as the agent polymerized inside the cracks.
3.4. Four‐Point Bending Test 
The beams were loaded in four‐point bending as illustrated in Figure 2. The upper 
3.4. Four-Point Bending Test
span was set at 200 mm and the bending span was equal to 800 mm. The quasi‐static test 
The beams were loaded in four-point bending as illustrated in Figure 2. The upper
was displacement controlled and the load was applied at a rate of 0.1 mm/min. The load 
span was set at 200 mm and the bending span was equal to 800 mm. The quasi-static
and deflection were recorded in a sampling rate of 100 Hz. The test ended when at least 
test was displacement controlled and the load was applied at a rate of 0.1 mm/min. The
one 
loadcrack  was  up  to 
and deflection 0.3  mm 
were large in(crack 
recorded opening 
a sampling obtained 
rate by  DIC). 
of 100 Hz. The testAfter 
ended testing, 
whenthe at
ultimate  load  and  loading  compliance  were  reported.  The  compliance 
least one crack was up to 0.3 mm large (crack opening obtained by DIC). After testing, (crack 
the
opening/load) 
ultimate load and at loading
the  early  loading were
compliance stage,  as  a  relative 
reported. expression 
The compliance of  opening/load)
(crack stiffness,  was 
calculated 
at the early as  the  ratio 
loading stage,of asthe  DIC  crack 
a relative opening 
expression over  the was
of stiffness, applied  load. asThe 
calculated the relative 
ratio of
toughness as an expression of damage energy was measured as the area below the load‐
the DIC crack opening over the applied load. The relative toughness as an expression of
crack opening curve. 
damage energy was measured as the area below the load-crack opening curve.

 
Figure 2. Testing setup with AE sensors 1-8 marked in red.
Figure 2. Testing setup with AE sensors 1‐8 marked in red. 
3.5. Inspection
3.5. Inspection 
Microscopy: A Dino-lite AM4113T handheld digital microscope was used to capture
Microscopy: A Dino‐lite AM4113T handheld digital microscope was used to capture 
high-resolution 1.3-megapixel images of the cracked zones at the concrete surface. The
high‐resolution 
surface was scanned1.3‐megapixel  images 
considering of magnification
a wide the  cracked  zones 
rangeat (up
the toconcrete  surface. 
200×) and usingThe 
all
surface was scanned considering a wide magnification range (up to 200×) and using all 8 
8 LED illumination probes. The images were captured and stored with the Dino-Capture
LED illumination probes. The images were captured and stored with the Dino‐Capture 
2.0 software.
2.0 software. 
Water permeability: A water basin was developed in-house by means of poly (methyl
Water  permeability: 
methacrylate) (PMMA), theA design
water was
basin  was according
chosen developed toin‐house 
the testing by procedure
means  of and
poly 
is
(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), the design was chosen according to the testing procedure 
illustrated in Figure 3. The inner dimensions of the basin were 300 × 100 × 80 mm3 . Before
and is illustrated in Figure 3. The inner dimensions of the basin were 300 × 100 × 80 mm
testing, the basin was positioned at the bottom side of the beam, centered to the middle. 
3

Before testing, the basin was positioned at the bottom side of the beam, centered to the 
zone and sealed with silicone glue. A hole was drilled through the basin top plate, and a
measuring tube with an inner diameter of 12 mm was screwed on the basin (Figure 3a). The
basin was fully filled with water through the tube at the top (Figure 3a) to ensure enough
water pressure was built at the crack face during testing. The tube was aligned vertically
before testing (Figure 3b) and the test started when the water in the tube was up to 200 mm
high. Starting from this point, the water level drop was tracked by a chronometer. The time
at which the water level dropped by 100 mm was recorded and the permeability coefficient
(k in m/s) was obtained accordingly [8] (Equation (2)):
!
αT h0
k= ln (2)
At hf

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821
flexible tube
enough water pressure was built at the crack face during testing. The tube was aligned 
vertically before testing (Figure 3b) and the test started when the water in the tube was up 
to  200  mm  high.  Starting  from  this  point,  the  water  level  drop  was  tracked  by  a 
chronometer. The time at which the water level dropped by 100 mm was recorded and 
the permeability coefficient (k in m/s) was obtained accordingly [8] (Equation (2)):  6 of 18
k =  ln   (2)
where α is the tube cross-section (m22);); A is the water‐beam contact area (m
where α is the tube cross‐section (m A is the water-beam contact area (m22);); T is the beam 
T is the beam
height (m); t is the measured time (s); and h 0 and h f are the initial and final water levels,
height (m); t is the measured time (s); and h0 and hf are the initial and final water levels, 
respectively (m).
respectively (m). 
aligned 
flexible tube 
 
(a)  (b) 
Figure 3. The water permeability test setup: (a) before and (b) during testing.
Figure 3. The water permeability test setup: (a) before and (b) during testing. 
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV): The velocity of ultrasonic pulses through the beam 
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV): The velocity of ultrasonic pulses through the beam
was measured using the Controls PULSONIC portable device according to ASTM C597. 
was measured using the Controls PULSONIC portable device according to ASTM C597.
The transmitter probe was mounted to the beam side as illustrated in Figure 2 and the 
The transmitter probe was mounted to the beam side as illustrated in Figure 2 and the
receiver  was mounted
receiver was mounted at at 
thethe  other 
other end end 
of theof  the  sample. 
sample. This 
This way theway  the pulses
emitted emitted  pulses 
travelled
travelled through the beam’s length and transversely crossed the cracked plane. The pulse 
through the beam’s length and transversely crossed the cracked plane. The pulse had a
had a magnitude of 2500 V and frequency of 54 kHz, recorded in a sampling rate of 10 
magnitude of 2500 V and frequency of 54 kHz, recorded in a sampling rate of 10 MHz.
MHz. The transit time (Δt in s) was measured and the pulse velocity (UPV in m/s) was 
The transit time (∆t in s) was measured and the pulse velocity (UPV in m/s) was obtained
obtained 
taking intotaking 
accountinto 
the account  the  wave distance
wave propagation propagation  distance 
(∆x) equal (Δx) 
to 0.85 equal  to  (3)):
m (Equation 0.85  m 
(Equation (3)): 
∆x
UPV = Δx 
UPV =  (3)
(3)
∆tΔ
The crack opening was assumed negligible relative to the beam length, therefore it 
The crack opening was assumed negligible relative to the beam length, therefore it
was not considered when defining the wave propagation distance. 
was not considered when defining the wave propagation distance.
Acoustic  emission
Acoustic emission (AE):
(AE): An
An array
array of
of eight
eight AE
AE transducers
transducers were
were mounted
mounted  onon  the
the 
concrete surface using Vaseline couplant and the transducers were fixed with magnetic 
concrete surface using Vaseline couplant and the transducers were fixed with magnetic
holders.  The 
holders. The probes 
probes had 
had a a resonant 
resonant frequency 
frequency response 
response at 
at 150  kHz  and
150 kHz and  recorded
recorded  the
the 
damage-emitted signals pre-amplified by 40 dB. An amplitude threshold was set at 35 dB to
damage‐emitted signals pre‐amplified by 40 dB. An amplitude threshold was set at 35 dB 
eliminate the ambient noise and the frequency bandwidth was fixed from 20 kHz to 1 MHz.
to eliminate the ambient noise and the frequency bandwidth was fixed from 20 kHz to 1 
The
MHz. waveforms were recorded
The  waveforms  with a sampling
were  recorded  rate of 1 MSPS.
with  a  sampling  The
rate  of  DiSP-24The 
1  MSPS.  monitoring
DiSP‐24 
device was equipped with a PCI/DSP-4 data acquisition board and PowerPAC software
monitoring device was equipped with a PCI/DSP‐4 data acquisition board and PowerPAC 
provided by Physical
software  provided  Acoustics.
by  AEWin software
Physical  Acoustics.  AEWin  was used towas 
software  process the
used  to recorded
process  AE
the 
data and the post-processing was completed with Noesis software. Three-dimensional
recorded AE data and the post‐processing was completed with Noesis software. Three‐
AE events localization analysis was performed considering the AE transducers position
(Table 3) and assuming a constant wave propagation velocity equal to 4000 m/s. The
velocity was obtained by measuring the transit time between two sensors following Hsu-
Nielsen excitation (pencil lead break) [20] at an intact state. Inaccuracy on AE events
localization at the cracking state was acknowledged since at that moment, the wave velocity
significantly dropped, as illustrated by the UPV measurements as well; however, for reasons
of consistency, the velocity was assumed constant throughout testing. At the damage state
(crack width up to 0.3 mm), this loss of localization accuracy was approximately 20 mm/m
as reported in [19].
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 7 of 18

Table 3. AE sensors position.

Beam X (mm) Y (mm) Z (mm)

1 150 0 50
2 700 0 50
3 200 50 0
4 650 50 0
5 250 100 50
6 600 100 50
7 0 50 75
8 850 50 75

Digital image correlation: Prior to loading, the front side of the concrete beams were
painted white and random black speckle patterns with a diameter up to 1 mm were marked
by ink-rolling on the white surface. The speckle pattern covered the bending zone in an area
of 100 × 500 mm2 , as illustrated in Figure 2. A pair of high-resolution cameras were fixed
on a tripod at a distance of 0.8 m from the beam, facing the front side in a stereoscopic setup
(angle 30◦ ). Lenses of 12 mm focal length were mounted on the cameras and the aperture
was set at 1/5.6. Correlated Solutions provided the Vic-Snap software for the synchronous
triggering of images captured each 2 s during loading. The load and displacement of the
test bench were also recorded. Stereoscopic calibration was performed prior to testing.
The captured images were post-processed using Vic-3D computational software to
extract the deformation and strain maps. The analysis subset was fixed at 21 pixels and
the step at 7 pixels, whereas the strain window size was 15 pixels. A spatial resolution of
0.08 mm/px was obtained.
Testing procedure: The testing procedure is summarized in Figure 4. Before and after
loading, inspection of the cracks was performed combining the UPV, microscopy scan and
water permeability tests. It should be noted that the UPV measurements were conducted
on dry concrete beams and earlier to permeability tests. After the latter, the samples were
left to dry for at least 6 h prior to loading. Cyclic loading occurred as long as the cracks
were healed and the healing network was clear, therefore the agent could be cleaned out
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  8  of  19 
  after loading. Up to three loading cycles were performed at each beam.

 
Figure 4. Testing procedure. 
Figure 4. Testing procedure.
4. Results 
4.1. Mechanical Tests 
After  healing,  the  recovery  of  mechanical  features  was  the  first  indication  of  a 
successive  intervention.  The  load  is  plotted  in  Figure  5  against  the  crack  opening  as 
measured by the DIC horizontal displacement of two points fixed at both crack faces at 
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 8 of 18

4. Results
4.1. Mechanical Tests
After healing, the recovery of mechanical features was the first indication of a succes-
sive intervention. The load is plotted in Figure 5 against the crack opening as measured
by the DIC horizontal displacement of two points fixed at both crack faces at the bottom
of the beam. In contrast to other studies that report on load-deflection curves, herein the
DIC online and continuous displacement tracking permits accurate tracking of the crack
onset and progress. Three cases are illustrated in Figure 5 and their mechanical results are
summarized in Figure 6:
- Full crack healing (Beam 4): The early compliance was fully recovered (96%) and the
ultimate load reached after healing was up to 80% of the original value. The initial
crack reopened after healing; however, significant resistance to fracture was foreseen
(Figure 5a), as proven by the significant toughness recovery (71%, Figure 6).
- Partial healing (Beam 11): Figure 5b demonstrates the case of a beam at which partial
healing and moderate restoration was reported (i.e., recovery of mechanical features
by approximately 60%, see Figure 6). In this case, unexpectedly the crack was located
at the limits of the bending zone. This phenomenon was reported for the majority of
beams that carried 3D printed PET reservoirs. It was shown that the healing system
design impacted both healing efficacy and crack formation. Since the PET reservoirs
were standing only 30 mm away from the end of the limits of the bending zone,
the cracks were attracted by the boundary effect at the reservoir-concrete interface.
It should be noted that a clear distinction between the fully and partially healed
samples could not be made with confidence; however, this classification was chosen
to underline the healing potentials of the systems under design.
- No healing (Beam 9): In a few cases, the crack was formed out of the healing zone;
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  therefore, the agent delivery could not be obtained. This case reports the limited9  of  19 
 
recovery (Figure 6). Indicatively, the ultimate load at re-loading stage was equal to
the load reached at the end of the loading cycle. Additionally, considering the limited
toughness measured after healing and the absence of compliance recovery, this case
toughness measured after healing and the absence of compliance recovery, this case 
will be considered further in this study as the unhealed scenario.
will be considered further in this study as the unhealed scenario. 

(a)  (b)  (c) 

Figure 5. Load‐crack opening curves and strain maps at ultimate force for: (a) healed (Beam 4); (b) 
Figure 5. Load-crack opening curves and strain maps at ultimate force for: (a) healed (Beam 4);
partially healed (Beam 11); and (c) unhealed beam (Beam 9). 
(b) partially healed (Beam 11); and (c) unhealed beam (Beam 9).

By  implementing  DIC  analysis,  the  crack  position  and  propagation  could  be 
obtained,  a  result  that  demonstrates  the  potential  of  this  technology  for  the  online 
inspection of healing phenomena in the laboratory. 
Effective crack re‐healing was not achieved in any beam under study, as illustrated 
with the red plot in Figure 5a. The failure of the vascular network after healing will be 
further discussed in the following sections. It is concluded that the presence of 3D printed 
 obtained,  a  result  that  demonstrates  the  potential  of  this  technology  for  the  online 
inspection of healing phenomena in the laboratory. 
Effective crack re‐healing was not achieved in any beam under study, as illustrated 
with the red plot in Figure 5a. The failure of the vascular network after healing will be 
further discussed in the following sections. It is concluded that the presence of 3D printed 
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 9 of 18
PET reservoirs in the beam affects the crack formation since in all cases, the crack deviates 
from the middle bending zone. 

 
Figure 6. Ultimate force, toughness and compliance recovery for the healed (Beam 4), the partially 
Figure 6. Ultimate force, toughness and compliance recovery for the healed (Beam 4), the partially
healed (Beam 11) and the unhealed beam (Beam 9). The load‐crack opening curves of these samples 
healed (Beam 11) and the unhealed beam (Beam 9). The load-crack opening curves of these samples
are reported in Figure 5. 
are reported in Figure 5.  

    By implementing DIC analysis, the crack position and propagation could be obtained,
a result that demonstrates the potential of this technology for the online inspection of
healing phenomena in the laboratory.
Effective crack re-healing was not achieved in any beam under study, as illustrated
with the red plot in Figure 5a. The failure of the vascular network after healing will be
further discussed in the following sections. It is concluded that the presence of 3D printed
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  10  of  19 
 
PET reservoirs in the beam affects the crack formation since in all cases, the crack deviates
from the middle bending zone.
4.2. Healing Inspection 
4.2. Healing Inspection
The 
The results 
results of  the 
of the UPVUPV  and  permeability 
and permeability tests 
tests are are  presented 
presented in  this 
in this section section  to 
to highlight
highlight  the  impact  of  reservoir  systems  on  the  crack  healing.  In  Figure 
the impact of reservoir systems on the crack healing. In Figure 7 the UPV measurements 7  the  UPV 
measurements are reported and the data are split into two groups: Figure 7a presents UPV 
are reported and the data are split into two groups: Figure 7a presents UPV values for
values for partially and fully healed beams (B2–B4 and B11–B12) and Figure 7b illustrates 
partially and fully healed beams (B2–B4 and B11–B12) and Figure 7b illustrates the results
the results for unhealed beams (B7–B10 and B13–B15). 
for unhealed beams (B7–B10 and B13–B15).

5000 5000

4000 4000
UPV (m/s)

3000 3000
UPV (m/s)

2000 Intact  2000

Cracked 
1000 1000
After healing 
After re‐healing 
0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Crack opening (μm) Crack opening (μm)
   
(a)  (b) 
Figure 
Figure 7. 7. 
UPV UPV  measurements 
measurements for partially
for (a) (a)  partially  and healed
and fully fully  (B2–B4
healed and
(B2–B4  and  and
B11–B12) B11–B12)  and  (b) 
(b) unhealed
unhealed beams (B7–B10 and B13–B15). The UPV is not measured at the re‐healing phase for the 
beams (B7–B10 and B13–B15). The UPV is not measured at the re-healing phase for the unhealed series.
unhealed series. 
It is shown that the UPV through the crack after healing was almost fully recovered
(blackIt is shown that the UPV through the crack after healing was almost fully recovered 
compared to the intact light blue points series) for all beams where healing was
(black compared to the intact light blue points series) for all beams where healing was 
present (Beams 2, 3, 4, 11 and 12). The UPV recovered by 95% on average and increased 
by 126% relative to the damaged state (dark blue dot series).   
On the contrary and as expected, the UPV recovery was not evident in the unhealed 
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 10 of 18

present (Beams 2, 3, 4, 11 and 12). The UPV recovered by 95% on average and increased by
126% relative to the damaged state (dark blue dot series).
On the contrary and as expected, the UPV recovery was not evident in the unhealed
series (Beams 5–10 and 14–15). Indicatively, in none of the cases, the UPV did reach values
higher than 4000 m/s after cracking. The UPV results demonstrate the potential of the
technique to track the crack refilling, agent polymerization and mechanical restoration
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  11  of  19 
  after healing.
It should be reported that the UPV was also measured after the second round of
healing and no recovery of UPV was evident (red series), another indication that repeatable
On the contrary, no link between the crack width and the water permeability could 
healing cannot be reached with this beam’s design.
be acquired. Previous studies reported on the fact that healing can be achieved, although 
The water permeability test results validate the crack tightness by tracking the water
the  crack  is 
transport partially 
rates [21]. Assealed  [22]. 
reported in The  crack 
Figure plane 
8, the roughness 
permeability and  spatial 
coefficient topography 
reached very high
appeared to control the water flow and as a result, cracks of identical size appeared to 
values in the unhealed case (black series), whereas low values were obtained for partially
healed beams (red series).
have different permeability coefficients [23]. 

6
k (x10‐6 m/s)

0
0 200 400 600
Crack opening (μm)
 
Waterpermeability 
Figure8. 8.Water 
Figure  permeabilitycoefficient, 
coefficient,k kas 
asmeasured 
measuredon  onhealed 
healed(red 
(redseries, 
series,with 
withflexible 
flexiblePVC 
PVC
inlet/outlettubes, 
inlet/outlet  tubes,B2–B5) 
B2–B5) and
and unhealed
unhealed (black
(black series, with
series,  3D 3D 
with  printed PET PET 
printed  reservoirs, B8–B13)
reservoirs,  beams.
B8–B13) 
beams. 
It should be noted that both Figures 7 and 8 report on inspection relative to the crack
size at the end of the first loading cycle as obtained by DIC. This way the authors wish to
4.3. Post‐Softening Fracture after Healing 
communicate the critical
The  transition  from  a role of crack
brittle  to  a  opening on healing
pseudo‐ductile  feasibility.
mode  The UPV inspection
with  progressive  cracking, 
accuracy was proven by the fact that the velocity remained high relative to the intact state
only after successful healing, was tracked by DIC horizontal displacement and AE hits 
for small-size cracks (see dark blue dots series) and significantly dropped as the cracks were
analyses for Beam 4, as illustrated in Figure 9a,b, respectively. The case of a fully healed 
open up to 550 µm. Interestingly, after healing, all cracks, regardless of their size, appeared
sample  after  loading  is  presented  herein.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  damage  progress 
well-sealed and recovered in Figure 7a. Thus, it is shown that the healing provided by
remained invariable for the beams at which limited or negligible healing was reported, 
vascular networks can be effective at any crack size.
therefore, and due to space limitations, these results are not extensively reported. 
On the contrary, no link between the crack width and the water permeability could be
The  AE  and  DIC  results  are  presented  standardized  to  maximum  deflection  for 
acquired. Previous studies reported on the fact that healing can be achieved, although the
comparison reasons. Both methods validate that the crack initially formed in the brittle 
crack is partially sealed [22]. The crack plane roughness and spatial topography appeared
mode,  almost  instantly  reaching  the  ultimate  load.  The  crack  re‐opening  was 
to control the water flow and as a result, cracks of identical size appeared to have different
characterized by a limited crack opening at the ultimate load; however, extensive post‐
permeability coefficients [23].
softening occurred and as a result the crack gradually widened and, due to healing, the 
brittle catastrophic failure was not developed. This is also reported by the progressive rise 
4.3. Post-Softening Fracture after Healing
on AE hits, compared to the late and steep increase of this at the first loading cycle (Figure 
The transition from a brittle to a pseudo-ductile mode with progressive cracking, only
9b). At the third loading cycle, the material resistance to damage was limited as depicted 
after successful healing, was tracked by DIC horizontal displacement and AE hits analyses
by 
forthe  early 
Beam 4, large  crack  opening 
as illustrated in Figure and  the respectively.
9a,b, premature  high 
The population  of  AE 
case of a fully hits, sample
healed clear 
evidence of unsuccessful re‐healing.   
after loading is presented herein. It should be noted that the damage progress remained
Analytically, the crack profile at each loading cycle is given in Figure 10. The DIC 
invariable for the beams at which limited or negligible healing was reported, therefore, and
full‐field view of the crack’s morphology illustrates the damage state, respectively: 
due to space limitations, these results are not extensively reported.
‐ The crack initially forms in a brittle mode and opens instantly (Figure 10a). 
‐ After healing, the cracked zone is restored and as a result, the crack widening is 
limited and occurs in a stable mode at the post‐softening stage (Figure 10b). 
‐ After re‐healing and since any additional healing agent cannot be delivered, the 
crack freely re‐opens. At the post‐softening stage, the crack is up to four times 
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 11 of 18

The AE and DIC results are presented standardized to maximum deflection for com-
parison reasons. Both methods validate that the crack initially formed in the brittle mode,
almost instantly reaching the ultimate load. The crack re-opening was characterized by a
limited crack opening at the ultimate load; however, extensive post-softening occurred and
as a result the crack gradually widened and, due to healing, the brittle catastrophic failure
was not developed. This is also reported by the progressive rise on AE hits, compared to the
late and steep increase of this at the first loading cycle (Figure 9b). At the third loading cycle,
the material resistance to damage was limited as depicted by the early large crack opening
and the premature high population of AE hits, clear evidence of unsuccessful re-healing.
Analytically, the crack profile at each loading cycle is given in Figure 10. The DIC
full-field view of the crack’s morphology illustrates the damage state, respectively:
- The crack initially forms in a brittle mode and opens instantly (Figure 10a).
- After healing, the cracked zone is restored and as a result, the crack widening is
limited and occurs in a stable mode at the post-softening stage (Figure 10b).
- After re-healing and since any additional healing agent cannot be delivered, the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  12  of  19 
  crack freely re-opens. At the post-softening stage, the crack is up to four times larger
compared to the healed state (Figure 10c).

Loading 
0.6 After healing 
Crack opening (mm)

After re‐healing 

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Deflection/Max deflection  
(a) 
20,000

15,000
Number of hits

10,000

5,000

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Deflection/Max deflection  
(b) 

Figure 9. Beam 4: (a) crack opening as extracted by DIC horizontal displacement and (b) number of
Figure 9. Beam 4: (a) crack opening as extracted by DIC horizontal displacement and (b) number 
AE hits for the case of the healed beam.
of AE hits for the case of the healed beam. 
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821
pl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  13  of  19  12 of 18

 
(a) 

 
(b) 

 
(c) 

Figure 10. Beam 4: (a) crack profile at loading; (b) reloading after healing; (c) reloading after re-healing.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  14  of  19 
 

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 Figure 10. Beam 4: (a) crack profile at loading; (b) reloading after healing; (c) reloading after re‐

13 of 18
healing. 

4.4. AE as a Tool to Track Crack Extension after Healing 
4.4. AE as a Tool to Track Crack Extension after Healing
AE reports on crack onset, formation and re‐opening with an accuracy at nanoscale. 
AE reports on crack onset, formation and re-opening with an accuracy at nanoscale.
For  this reason,
For this reason, 
AE AE 
hashas  proven 
proven to  precisely 
to precisely localizelocalize  the  fracture 
the fracture process 
process zone builtzone  built 
surround-
surrounding  the  macro‐crack  [24,25].  In  this  section,  an  additional  outcome 
ing the macro-crack [24,25]. In this section, an additional outcome of AE is discussed that of  AE  is 
discussed  that  can  validate  effective  healing.  In  Figure  11a,  the  AE  events 
can validate effective healing. In Figure 11a, the AE events distribution along the height distribution 
along 
of the the 
beam height  of  the  beam 
are presented for are  presented 
the loading for series)
(blue the  loading  (blue  series) 
and reloading (blackand  reloading 
series) tests.
(black series) tests. A marginal zone of 10 mm at the top of the beam was also taken into 
A marginal zone of 10 mm at the top of the beam was also taken into account to compen-
account to compensate on the AE localization accuracy. A shift in AE events population 
sate on the AE localization accuracy. A shift in AE events population was observed from
was  observed 
the lower from  crack
to higher the  lower 
levelsto athigher  crack  levels 
the reloading cycle.at Due
the to
reloading  cycle. 
the healing Due  to 
agent’s the 
elastic
healing 
response to loading, no extra AE activity was developed at the healed section (markedthe 
agent’s  elastic  response  to  loading,  no  extra  AE  activity  was  developed  at  in
healed section (marked in Figure 11b) as the crack reopened. Only the higher part of the 
Figure 11b) as the crack reopened. Only the higher part of the concrete beam, where the
concrete beam, where the agent could not effectively penetrate was further cracked and 
agent could not effectively penetrate was further cracked and the AE activity was emitted
the AE activity was emitted due to local friction and micro‐cracking at the main crack and 
due to local friction and micro-cracking at the main crack and the surrounding fracture
the surrounding fracture process zone. 
process zone.

Loading   
 

100
After healing 

80
Beamʹs height, Y (mm)

60

40

20

Events population (‐)
0  
0 10 20 30 40 50  
(a)  (b) 
Figure 11. (a) AE events distribution along the beam’s height (Beam 4); (b) detail of the crack plane 
Figure 11. (a) AE events distribution along the beam’s height (Beam 4); (b) detail of the crack plane
with the area covered by healing agent marked in blue. 
with the area covered by healing agent marked in blue.

4.5. Effect of Crack Morphology on Healing 
4.5. Effect of Crack Morphology on Healing
The crack shape was modified when healing agent was delivered, filling the crack 
The crack shape was modified when healing agent was delivered, filling the crack
void. As shown in Figure 12a, a discrete unique crack formed and re‐opened in the case 
void. As shown in Figure 12a, a discrete unique crack formed and re-opened in the case of
of an unhealed beam. On the contrary, a second branch of the initial crack was formed in 
an unhealed beam. On the contrary, a second branch of the initial crack was formed in the
the case of a healed crack depicted in Figure 12b. The right branch of this crack formed at 
case of a healed crack depicted in Figure 12b. The right branch of this crack formed at initial
initial 
loading,loading, 
whereaswhereas  the  left informed 
the left formed in  the test
the following following  test  healing.
cycles after cycles  after  healing. 
Additionally,
another branch of this crack initiated at the bottom of the beam at the end of the reloading
Additionally, another branch of this crack initiated at the bottom of the beam at the end 
cycle (detail view—Figure 12c).
of the reloading cycle (detail view—Figure 12c). 
These post-testing pictures illustrate the complex crack-healing relation proving that
healing does occur on an ideal plane. In reality, the micro-cracks formed surrounding the
principal crack were also interacting with the agent that was transported throughout the
fracture process zone. The tortuous and uneven crack plane at the first loading cycle was
controlled by the aggregate distribution [26]; however, the role of the healing agent on
crack morphology should be investigated at the reloading cycles.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  14 of 18 15  o
 

     
(a)  (b)  (c) 
Figure 12. (a) crack of an unhealed beam (B9); (b) crack of a healed beam (B4); (c) detail view of 
crack branches after healing (B3). 

These post‐testing pictures illustrate the complex crack‐healing relation proving that 
     
healing does occur on an ideal plane. In reality, the micro‐cracks formed surrounding the 
(a)  (b)  (c) 
principal crack were also interacting with the agent that was transported throughout the 
Figure 12. (a) Figure 12. (a) crack of an unhealed beam (B9); (b) crack of a healed beam (B4); (c) detail vie
fracture process zone. The tortuous and uneven crack plane at the first loading cycle was 
crack of an unhealed beam (B9); (b) crack of a healed beam (B4); (c) detail view of crack
crack branches after healing (B3). 
controlled by the aggregate distribution [26]; however, the role of the healing agent on 
branches after healing (B3).
crack morphology should be investigated at the reloading cycles. 
The crack size These post‐testing pictures illustrate the complex crack‐healing relation proving 
at different positions along the beam’s height appeared to also control
The crack size at different positions along the beam’s height appeared to also control 
the healing does occur on an ideal plane. In reality, the micro‐cracks formed surrounding
healing agent delivery. As shown in Figure 13a,b, the agent fully covered a crack with
the healing agent delivery. As shown in Figure 13a,b, the agent fully covered a crack with 
an opening  principal crack were also interacting with the agent that was transported throughout
an  opening up
up  to
to  0.2
0.2  mm;
mm;  however,
however,  the
the  crack
crack  void
void  was
was  filled
filled  up
up  by
by  the
the  agent
agent  and
and  air
air 
bubbles fracture process zone. The tortuous and uneven crack plane at the first loading cycle 
at a lower height across the same crack where the opening was larger than 0.3 mm.
bubbles at a lower height across the same crack where the opening was larger than 0.3 
This
mm. occurred controlled by the aggregate distribution [26]; however, the role of the healing agen
becausebecause 
This  occurred  the large crack
the  void
large  could
crack  notcould 
void  be filled
not with
be  the agent
filled  delivered
with  at
the  agent 
once, thereforecrack morphology should be investigated at the reloading cycles. 
the pressurized air that transports the agent in steps was also
delivered at once, therefore the pressurized air that transports the agent in steps was also  entrapped.
These air voids
entrapped.  These  The crack size at different positions along the beam’s height appeared to also con
can detrimentally
air  affect the agent
voids  can  detrimentally  polymerization
affect  into the crack void
the  agent  polymerization  into and
the 
trigger the healing agent delivery. As shown in Figure 13a,b, the agent fully covered a crack w
premature agent detachment at future loading.
crack void and trigger premature agent detachment at future loading. 
an  opening  up  to  0.2  mm;  however,  the  crack  void  was  filled  up  by  the  agent  and
bubbles at a lower height across the same crack where the opening was larger than
mm.  This  occurred  because  the  large  crack  void  could  not  be  filled  with  the  ag
delivered at once, therefore the pressurized air that transports the agent in steps was 
entrapped.  These  air  voids  can  detrimentally  affect  the  agent  polymerization  into
crack void and trigger premature agent detachment at future loading. 

   
(a)  (b) 
Figure 13. (a) fully filled with healing agent (B3); (b) air bubbles entrapped into a large crack (B2). 
Figure 13. (a) fully filled with healing agent (B3); (b) air bubbles entrapped into a large crack (B2).

5. Discussion 
5. Discussion
5.1. Cracking Deviation Due to Reservoirs
5.1. Cracking Deviation Due to Reservoirs     
Post-testing visual inspection of the crack planes validated the hypothesis
Post‐testing visual inspection of the crack planes validated the hypothesis that the 
(a)  (b)  that the 3D
printed reservoirs crossed the cracked sections of the beam. As illustrated in Figure 14a,
3D printed reservoirs crossed the cracked sections of the beam. As illustrated in Figure 
Figure 13. (a) fully filled with healing agent (B3); (b) air bubbles entrapped into a large crack (B
the reservoir system was fully de-bonded from the concrete along the crack plane. It is
14a, the reservoir system was fully de‐bonded from the concrete along the crack plane. It 
evident that the reservoir material was too stiff and the component was cast in such a
is evident that the reservoir material was too stiff and the component was cast in such a 
5. Discussion 
large volume that it attracted the cracks and was responsible for the deviation of damage
large volume that it attracted the cracks and was responsible for the deviation of damage 
5.1. Cracking Deviation Due to Reservoirs 
from the middle bending zone to the edges of the beam. Additionally, the cracking at the
reservoirs insteadPost‐testing visual inspection of the crack planes validated the hypothesis that
of the middle section appeared to lower the ultimate load reached. The
ultimate load measured for beams with a crack at the middle was about 4.71± 0.32 kN,
3D printed reservoirs crossed the cracked sections of the beam. As illustrated in Fig
load dropped to 3.94 ± 0.77 kN. The reservoir design should be revised in
whereas the 14a, the reservoir system was fully de‐bonded from the concrete along the crack plan
future work is evident that the reservoir material was too stiff and the component was cast in su
and the possibility to replace the PET skeleton with a flexible, smaller in size
large volume that it attracted the cracks and was responsible for the deviation of dam

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821
(a)  (b)  (c)
from the middle bending zone to the edges of the beam. Additionally, the cracking at the 
reservoirs instead of the middle section appeared to lower the ultimate load reached. The 
ultimate load measured for beams with a crack at the middle was about 4.71± 0.32 kN,  15 of 18
whereas the load dropped to 3.94 ± 0.77 kN. The reservoir design should be revised in 
future work and the possibility to replace the PET skeleton with a flexible, smaller in size 
component  should be
component should be explored.
explored. ItIt 
waswas shown  that 
shown that thethe  flexible 
flexible tubetube  did impact
did not not impact the 
the crack
crack formation and effectively delivered the healing agent. 
formation and effectively delivered the healing agent.  
 
Figure  14.  (a)
Figure 14. (a) reservoir
reservoir de-bonded
de‐bonded  from 
from thethe  concrete 
concrete at  the 
at the crackcrack 
planeplane 
(B14);(B14);  (b,c) 
(b,c) air air  under-
voids voids 
underneath a ceramic (B12) and 3D printed polymer tube (B7), respectively. 
neath a ceramic (B12) and 3D printed polymer tube (B7), respectively.
5.2. Casting Irregularities Due to Vascular Network 
5.2. Casting Irregularities Due to Vascular Network
Another issue detected at post‐testing visual inspection of the cracked section was 
Another issue detected at post-testing visual inspection of the cracked section was the
the formation of large air voids underneath the tubes during casting. As shown in Figure 
formation of large air voids underneath the tubes during casting. As shown in Figure 14b,c,
14b,c,  this  phenomenon 
this phenomenon was  observed 
was observed for  both 
for both ceramic andceramic  and tubes.
3D printed 3D  printed  tubes.  It 
It is concluded is 
that
concluded that the position of the vascular network should be adjusted to higher levels in 
the position of the vascular network should be adjusted to higher levels in order to ensure
order to ensure that the aggregates can freely move and settle below. Additionally, the 
that the aggregates can freely move and settle below. Additionally, the beam’s vibration
can be of a higher magnitude to eliminate these casting irregularities.
beam’s vibration can be of a higher magnitude to eliminate these casting irregularities.   
5.3. Tubes’ Thrombosis and Cleansing after Healing
5.3. Tubes’ Thrombosis and Cleansing after Healing 
The unsuccessful 
The  unsuccessful repeatable 
repeatable healing 
healing can 
can be 
be attributed 
attributed to 
to extensive 
extensive clogging of 
clogging of the 
the
vascular network tubes as illustrated in Figure 15. Post-testing visual inspection
vascular network tubes as illustrated in Figure 15. Post‐testing visual inspection proved proved
that up to 50% of the cross-section of the ceramic tubes was filled up with healing agent
that up to 50% of the cross‐section of the ceramic tubes was filled up with healing agent 
that polymerized into the vascular network (Figure 15a,b). Although a high pressure (up
that polymerized into the vascular network (Figure 15a,b). Although a high pressure (up 
to 6 bar) was applied during the tubes’ cleansing to omit this phenomenon, the agent’s
to 6 bar) was applied during the tubes’ cleansing to omit this phenomenon, the agent’s 
viscosity was too high for the experimental needs and the agent was entrapped into the
viscosity was too high for the experimental needs and the agent was entrapped into the 
printing folds. The phenomenon was severe for the 3D printed tubes, where some sections
printing folds. The phenomenon was severe for the 3D printed tubes, where some sections 
were 100% clogged. Based on Figure 15c,d, it is hypothesized that the 3D printed vascular
were 100% clogged. Based on Figure 15c,d, it is hypothesized that the 3D printed vascular 
networks were either too thin, and therefore permeable, or otherwise and due to a thin
networks were either too thin, and therefore permeable, or otherwise and due to a thin 
section, the tubes were suspected to have easily broken during the concrete casting since
section, the tubes were suspected to have easily broken during the concrete casting since 
the tubes appeared filled with cement paste as well. These remarks should be taken into
the tubes appeared filled with cement paste as well. These remarks should be taken into 
account in the future design modifications and while the tubes should be sufficiently brittle
account  in  the  future  design  modifications  and  while  the  tubes  should  be  sufficiently 
to fracture along with the concrete during a damage event, they must also have a high
brittle to fracture along with the concrete during a damage event, they must also have a 
enough strength to survive the casting process.
high enough strength to survive the casting process. 
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW  16of 
17  of 19 
18
 

   
(a)  (b) 

   
(c)  (d) 

Figure 15. (a,b) clogged ceramic (B11–B15) and (c,d) 3D printed polymer tubes (B1–B10).
Figure 15. (a,b) clogged ceramic (B11–B15) and (c,d) 3D printed polymer tubes (B1–B10). 
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions 
The performance of a novel vascular network healing system is evaluated in this study
The  performance  of  a  novel  vascular  network  healing  system  is  evaluated  in  this 
by performing cyclic loading on concrete beams and monitoring the cracks response by
study by performing cyclic loading on concrete beams and monitoring the cracks response 
advanced non-destructive testing techniques. Among the different healing configurations,
by  advanced  non‐destructive  testing  techniques.  Among  the  different  healing 
the 3D printed polymer network with flexible inlet/outlet tubes achieves effective sealing
configurations, the 3D printed polymer network with flexible inlet/outlet tubes achieves 
and the greatest mechanical recovery of the crack after a healing intervention. As an
effective 
extension sealing 
to previousand work
the  and
greatest  mechanical 
considering recovery 
the remarks andof  the  experimental
herein crack  after  a evidence,
healing 
intervention. As an extension to previous work and considering the remarks and herein 
this novel, additively manufactured healing network can be implemented in the future
experimental 
when designing evidence, 
large-scalethis  novel, elements
concrete additively  manufactured 
configured healing healing.
for repeatable network  can  be 
implemented in the future when designing large‐scale concrete elements configured for 
The main findings with respect to the healing design are summarized below:
repeatable healing. 
- The detrimental impact of embedded bulk agent reservoirs is reported since under
The main findings with respect to the healing design are summarized below: 
bending the cracks deviate from the middle bending zone towards the reservoir
‐  The detrimental impact of embedded bulk agent reservoirs is reported since under 
sections and failure occurs at the concrete-reservoir interface. The incompatibility of
bending  the  cracks 
concrete with deviate reservoir
a stiff polymer from  the suggests
middle that
bending  zone  towards 
alternative the  reservoir 
agent delivery systems
sections and failure occurs at the concrete‐reservoir interface. The incompatibility of 
should be explored. The use of a thin flexible plastic inlet/outlet tube system proved
concrete 
its efficacywith 
and a 
it stiff  polymer  reservoir 
is recommended suggests 
for future designs.that 
Thealternative 
position of agent  delivery 
the connection
systems should be explored. The use of a thin flexible plastic inlet/outlet tube system 
tubes into the beam and relative to the vascular networks should be also revised.
- proved  its  efficacy 
The 3D printed and  it 
polymer is  recommended 
network for  future 
appears equally designs. 
effective The  position 
compared of  the 
to the conven-
connection tubes into the beam and relative to the vascular networks should be also 
tional ceramic tubes since in both cases the tubes break instantly upon cracking and
revised. 
the subsequently healing agent is effectively released and distributed into the cracks.
‐ - The  3D  printed 
The healing agentpolymer 
viscosity network 
should beappears 
modifiedequally 
(reachingeffective  compared 
lower viscosity) to  the
since the 
conventional 
tubes are onlyceramic 
partially tubes 
cleaned since 
byin  both  cases air
pressurized the  tubes 
after thebreak  instantly 
healing upon 
intervention.
cracking and the subsequently healing agent is effectively released and distributed 
Future work should explore the tightness of the 3D printed vascular networks as it is
into the cracks. 
observed that cement paste can penetrate through the tubes during concrete casting.
‐  The healing agent viscosity should be modified (reaching lower viscosity) since the 
Clogging phenomena should be eliminated in the future by printing polymers with a
higherare 
tubes  thickness.
only  partially  cleaned  by  pressurized  air  after  the  healing  intervention. 
- Repeatable healing could not be reached due to the tubes’ internal clogging and to
Future work should explore the tightness of the 3D printed vascular networks as it is 
re-opening of the same crack or of a crack in its vicinity at the reloading cycles. The
observed that cement paste can penetrate through the tubes during concrete casting. 
complex fracture process and dense cracks network should be taken into account in
Clogging phenomena should be eliminated in the future by printing polymers with 
future works in order to design a network that performs optimally under concrete
a higher thickness. 
service loads.
 ‐  Repeatable healing could not be reached due to the tubes’ internal clogging and to 
re‐opening of the same crack or of a crack in its vicinity at the reloading cycles. The 
complex fracture process and dense cracks network should be taken into account in 
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 17 of 18
future works in order to design a network that performs optimally under concrete 
service loads. 
‐  Effective crack healing is described by a combination of two fracture phenomena: (1) 
- the healed crack section elastically deforms under load, building great strength and 
Effective crack healing is described by a combination of two fracture phenomena:
(1) the healed
toughness  crack and 
recovery;  section
(2)  elastically deforms
as  the  crack  forms, under load, building
the  fracture  gradually great strength
propagates 
and toughness recovery; and (2) as the crack
along the crack contributing to great post‐softening. forms, the fracture gradually propagates
along the crack contributing to great post-softening.
The  main  observations  and  updates  regarding  the  well‐established  inspection 
The main observations and updates regarding the well-established inspection method-
methodology are: 
ology are:
‐  AE and DIC complementarily contribute to the online monitoring of crack formation 
AE and
- and  DIC complementarily
reopening  contribute
after  healing.  The  use  of to thefor 
DIC  online monitoring
a  precise  crack of crack formation
opening  analysis 
and reopening after healing. The use of DIC for a precise crack opening
appears crucial for the accurate assessment of healing efficacy. The AE hits distribution  analysis
appears crucial for the accurate assessment of healing efficacy. The AE hits distribution
indicates the transition of damage from brittle to pseudo‐ductile for a healed crack. The 
indicates the transition of damage from brittle to pseudo-ductile for a healed crack. The
AE localization analysis can identify the active cracking zones even after healing. In an 
AE localization analysis can identify the active cracking zones even after healing. In an
upcoming study dedicated to the AE as a tool for damage and healing identification, 
upcoming study dedicated to the AE as a tool for damage and healing identification,
both the damage mode shift and the post‐healing crack kinetics will be associated to 
both the damage mode shift and the post-healing crack kinetics will be associated to
the AE wave features’ trends and variations during testing. 
the AE wave features’ trends and variations during testing.
‐  UPV inspection before and after cracking and healing intervention provides direct 
- UPV inspection before and after cracking and healing intervention provides direct
information on the damage state of the concrete and can pinpoint the crack recovery 
information on the damage state of the concrete and can pinpoint the crack recov-
cases. 
ery cases.
‐  Optical microscopy after each test cycle effectively detects the crack filling by agent 
- Optical microscopy after each test cycle effectively detects the crack filling by agent
and visual inspection at post‐testing reports on the tubes clogging, cleansing issues 
and visual inspection at post-testing reports on the tubes clogging, cleansing issues
and failures of the network. 
and failures of the network.
In the next steps of this research, the focus will be placed on improving the 3D printed 
In the next steps of this research, the focus will be placed on improving the 3D printed
network  tightness, modifying
network tightness, modifying  thethe  agent 
agent viscosity 
viscosity to  ensure 
to ensure effective 
effective cleansingcleansing  and 
and replacing
replacing the reservoirs with a less stiff and potentially flexible component that does not 
the reservoirs with a less stiff and potentially flexible component that does not affect the
affect the concrete’s response to fracture. 
concrete’s response to fracture.

Author 
Author Contributions:  Conceptualization, Y.S.
Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.S. and
and  E.T.; 
E.T.; methodology, 
methodology, E.T.,E.T.,  Y.S. C.V.L.;
Y.S. and and  C.V.L.; 
valida-
validation, D.G.A., K.V.T. and N.D.B.; investigation, C.V.L., Y.S. and E.T.; data curation, C.V.L. and 
tion, D.G.A., K.V.T. and N.D.B.; investigation, C.V.L., Y.S. and E.T.; data curation, C.V.L. and E.T.;
E.T.; writing—original draft preparation, E.T. and C.V.L.; writing—review and editing, D.G.A., Y.S., 
writing—original draft preparation, E.T. and C.V.L.; writing—review and editing, D.G.A., Y.S., K.V.T.
K.V.T. and N.D.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 
and N.D.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Financial support of FWO (Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek‐Vlaanderen, 12J7720N (of 
Funding: Financial support of FWO (Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek-Vlaanderen, 12J7720N
Tsangouri  Eleni))  is  gratefully  acknowledged.  Yasmina  Shields  acknowledges  funding  from  the 
(of Tsangouri Eleni)) is gratefully acknowledged. Yasmina Shields acknowledges funding from the
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska‐
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie
Curie grant agreement no. 86006. 
grant agreement no. 86006.

 
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Data available on request from the authors. 
Informed Consent Statement: Data available on request from the authors.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. 
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.  

  References  
1. Tsangouri, E. A decade of research on self-healing concrete. In Sustainable Construction and Building Materials; IntechOpen: London,
UK, 2018; pp. 21–36.
2. Davies, R.; Teall, O.; Pilegis, M.; Kanellopoulos, A.; Sharma, T.; Jefferson, A.; Gardner, D.; Al-Tabbaa, A.; Paine, K.; Lark, R. Large
scale application of self-healing concrete: Design, construction, and testing. Front. Mater. 2018, 2018, 51. [CrossRef]
3. Papaioannou, S.; Amenta, M.; Kilikoglou, V.; Gournis, D.; Karatasios, I. Synthesis and integration of cement-based capsules
modified with sodium silicate for developing self-healing cements. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 316, 125803. [CrossRef]
4. Shields, Y.; De Belie, N.; Jefferson, A.; Van Tittelboom, K. A review of vascular networks for self-healing applications. Smart Mater.
Struct. 2021, 30, 063001. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 4821 18 of 18

5. Tsangouri, E.; Lelon, J.; Minnebo, P.; Shiotani, T.; Van Tittelboom, K.; De Belie, N.; Aggelis, D.G.; Van Hemelrijck, D. Feasibility
study on real-scale, self-healing concrete slab by developing a smart capsules network and assessed by a plethora of advanced
monitoring techniques. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 228, 116780. [CrossRef]
6. Minnebo, P.; Thierens, G.; De Valck, G.; Van Tittelboom, K.; De Belie, N.; Van Hemelrijck, D.; Tsangouri, E. A novel design of
autonomously healed concrete: Towards a vascular healing network. Materials 2017, 10, 49. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Dry, C. Matrix cracking repair and filling using active and passive modes for smart timed release of chemicals from fibers into
cement matrices. Smart Mater. Struct. 1994, 32, 118. [CrossRef]
8. Van Tittelboom, K.; Tsangouri, E.; Van Hemelrijck, D.; De Belie, N. The efficiency of self-healing concrete using alternative
manufacturing procedures and more realistic crack patterns. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2015, 57, 142–152. [CrossRef]
9. Huang, H.; Ye, G.; Shui, Z. Feasibility of self-healing in cementitious materials–By using capsules or a vascular system? Constr.
Build. Mater. 2014, 63, 108–118. [CrossRef]
10. Hossain, M.; Sultana, R.; Patwary, M.; Khunga, N.; Sharma, P.; Shaker, S.J. Self-healing concrete for sustainable buildings. A review.
Environ. Chem. Lett. 2022, 20, 1265–1273. [CrossRef]
11. Shields, Y.; Van Mullem, T.; De Belie, N.; Van Tittelboom, K. An Investigation of Suitable Healing Agents for Vascular-Based
Self-Healing in Cementitious Materials. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12948. [CrossRef]
12. Li, Z.; de Souza, L.R.; Litina, C.; Markaki, A.E.; Al-Tabbaa, A. A novel biomimetic design of a 3D vascular structure for self-healing
in cementitious materials using Murray’s law. Mater. Des. 2020, 190, 108572. [CrossRef]
13. Selvarajoo, T.; Davies, R.E.; Freeman, B.L.; Jefferson, A.D. Mechanical response of a vascular self-healing cementitious material
system under varying loading conditions. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 254, 119245. [CrossRef]
14. Selvarajoo, T.; Davies, R.E.; Gardner, D.R.; Freeman, B.L.; Jefferson, A.D. Characterisation of a vascular self-healing cementitious
material system: Flow and curing properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 245, 118332. [CrossRef]
15. Jefferson, A.; Selvarajoo, T.; Freeman, B.; Davies, R. An experimental and numerical study on vascular self-healing cementitious
materials. In Proceedings of the Concrete Solutions- 7th International Conference on Concrete Repair, Cluj, Romania, 30
September–2 October 2019.
16. De Nardi, C.; Gardner, D.; Jefferson, A.J. Development of 3D printed networks in self-healing concrete. Materials 2020, 13, 1328.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Kanellopoulos, A. Self-Healing Construction Materials: Fundamentals, Monitoring and Large-Scale Applications; Springer Nature:
Berlin, Germany, 2022.
18. De Belie, N.; Gruyaert, E.; Al-Tabbaa, A.; Antonaci, P.; Baera, C.; Bajare, D.; Darquennes, A.; Davies, R.; Ferrara, L.; Jefferson, T.;
et al. A review of self-healing concrete for damage management of structures. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 5, 1800074. [CrossRef]
19. Tsangouri, E.; Karaiskos, G.; Deramaeker, A.; Van Hemelrijck, D.; Aggelis, D.G. Assessment of acoustic emission localization
accuracy on damaged and healed concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 129, 163–171. [CrossRef]
20. Hsu, N.N. Acoustic Emissions Simulator. U.S. Patent 4018084 A, 19 April 1977.
21. Hou, S.; Li, K.; Wu, Z.; Li, F.; Shi, C. Quantitative evaluation on self-healing capacity of cracked concrete by water permeability
test—A review. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2022, 127, 104404. [CrossRef]
22. Wang, J.; Mignon, A.; Trenson, G.; Van Vlierberghe, S.; Boon, N.; De Belie, N. A chitosan-based pH-responsive hydrogel for
encapsulation of bacteria for self-sealing concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2018, 93, 309–322. [CrossRef]
23. Van Mullem, T.; Gruyaert, E.; Debbaut, B.; Caspeele, R.; De Belie, N. Novel active crack width control technique to reduce the
variation on water permeability results for self-healing concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 203, 541–551. [CrossRef]
24. Zhang, F.; Pahlavan, L.; Yang, Y. Evaluation of acoustic emission source localization accuracy in concrete structures. Struct. Health
Monit. 2020, 19, 2063–2074. [CrossRef]
25. Carpinteri, A.; Lacidogna, G.; Niccolini, G. Critical behaviour in concrete structures and damage localization by acoustic emission.
Key Eng. Mater. 2006, 312, 305–310. [CrossRef]
26. Zhang, X.; Qian, C. Effects of the crack geometric features on the probability density of spherical healing agent particles in
concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 301, 124083. [CrossRef]