Running Head: Leadership Overviews and Simulation Experience

Leadership Overviews and Simulation Experience:

Reflections on OGL 300 and Leadership Applications

Margaret EvanSon

Arizona State University

OGL-300-Module 7

February 29, 2020

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Part 1: Theories of Leadership

Leadership is the application of a leader's assessment, behaviors, support, and influence

to achieve a desired outcome. Leadership theory moves beyond the aspects of implicit leadership

and applies explicit actions, behaviors, and characteristics to affect the quality of leadership. This

is accomplished through the application of communication, technical skill, problem-solving

capacity, and quality relationship maintenance in ways that encourage followers in their

progress. Along the way the leader is also modeling positive leadership behaviors and assisting

others in their attainment of leadership qualities and characteristics.

Trait theory in leadership seeks to understand the traits inherent in leaders. In this theory

there are intrinsic characteristics that make leaders special and set them apart from others. Early

research into leadership focused on the individual, looking to identify the traits that differentiated

the "great-man" (Northouse, 2019).

Several models of trait theory evolved, listing the traits and characteristics of leaders.

Words like self-confidence, dominance, intelligence, drive, and motivation are prevalent on the

list. This demonstrates the internal focus of trait theory. Very little consideration is given to the

relationships, situations, and environment in which the leader and follower are operating. Later

research did recognize the importance of situational and social influences and added social and

emotional dimensions to the extended list of traits; however, these are still focused on the

individual.

Adhering to the trait theory may leave talented leaders unrecognized. Succession plans

that only search for the identified "positive leadership traits" are susceptible to bypassing

promising individuals. Additionally, early studies resulted in overtly masculine characterizations

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of strong traits. Several models list masculinity outright as a leadership trait. Other examples

include drive rather than passion, dominance rather than assertiveness, and persistence rather

than dedication. These trait models discount the feminine leader.

The strengths of trait theory lie in the fact that the list is so varied most people can

identify with multiple positive traits within themselves. Positively identifying with leadership

traits provides people with confidence in their own specialness, which possibly reinforces this

idea with others. By creating a matrix of leadership traits, researchers have provided a

framework through which aspiring leaders can assess their current and desired state. While some

models list inherent and deep-seated personal characteristics, many of the traits can be learned or

improved through thoughtfulness and reflection or compensated for through adaptation

(Northouse, 2019).

Skills approach to leadership presents the concept as a set of competencies that can be

acquired to enhance one's leadership abilities. In this approach Robert Katz first laid out the

basic three-skills approach: technical, human, conceptual. Further, Katz matched the leader's

management level to the desired application of each skill. He recognized that it is more effective

for first level supervisors to have more technical skill than conceptual skill, and vice versa for

executive levels (Northouse, 2019). This is a key insight of the model, as it acknowledges the

evolution of needed skills as leaders move into elevated positions. Based on Katz's three-skills,

the Skills model evolved to include individual attributes, competencies, and leadership outcomes.

This problem-solving approach starts with a set of individual attributes which can be parlayed

into competencies and applied to complex problems.

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Like the trait approach, the skills approach can be used as a framework for development

and growth. This makes leadership more accessible and obtainable. Rather than being gifted with

leadership traits one can study and acquire skills that are needed in leadership.

The practical applicability is questionable because it has mild consideration for

relationship and focuses on the aptitude of the leader instead of the influence of the leader. The

emphasis is on the acquisition and application of skills, without consideration for the relations or

behaviors connected to such skills. Lastly, the skills model relies on individual attributes as the

basis for skill development, and those attributes look very much like traits (Northouse, 2019). In

this regard, there is a fundamental baseline of traits that an individual must possess to build

competencies.

The Behavioral approach is concerned with how leaders act or behave in relation to task

accomplishment and relationship maintenance. This approach includes the consideration of the

follower as a part of the leadership equation. The Leadership Grid, a graphic representation of a

spectrum of styles which consider task and relationship in varying degrees, models 5 different

leadership styles (Northouse, 2019). This model posits that the most effective leadership has high

concern for results and high concern for people, resulting in a team management style. Critics

have expressed dissent in terms of endorsing the high, high leadership style as the most effective

because other factors are not considered, and it discounts the value of other styles according to

situations.

The behavioral approach differs from skill and trait approaches because it is adaptable.

The leader can assess effectiveness and adjust behaviors to better manage conditions. This

approach also considers the perspective of the followers and applies appropriate behaviors
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(Northouse, 2019). In another departure from the trait and skill approach, the behavioral

approach lays out an image of mediocre and ineffective leadership behaviors. This introduces the

prospective leader with caution-markers to watch for in their management practices.

Behavioral approach does not present a list of behaviors that are universally effective,

rather it provides a framework by which leaders can gauge their behaviors. Because of this, it is

harder to identify specific behaviors for specific outcomes. Finally, acceptable behaviors vary

from culture to culture and are not universally understood. The leader of a multi-generational and

multi-cultural team may need to apply a spectrum of task and relationship concern at the same

time to be effective.

The Situational approach has a much more dynamic aspect in relation to the follower. In

this approach the leader must assess the situation and apply appropriate leadership actions. This

assessment includes the developmental level of the follower, in consideration of their skill and

motivation for the task (Northouse, 2019). Appropriate leadership styles include delegating,

supporting, coaching, and directing contingent upon the follower's skill and motivation

(Northouse, 2019).

The basis for the situational approach is W.J. Reddin's 3-D Theory which presents several

defined leadership styles as two-sides of the same coin. Followers can perceive a leader's

behaviors and actions as either positive or negative depending on the situation. The 3-D Theory

puts a "more" and "less" scale to effectiveness and proposes that the exact same act can be

characterized differently based on perception (W.J. Reddin, 2017). In this way, Reddin

demonstrates that leadership styles are not "all good" (integrated) or "all bad" (separated) and
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that leaders can select a situational style as needed. This theory considers the leader's behavior as

well as the perceptions of the follower to gauge appropriateness.

The assessment of follower's development level takes into consideration their skill in the

task as well as their willingness or motivation to perform the task (Northouse, 2019). In doing so

the leader can customize their approach to each individual and even each task. A person may

need more support on one task because they haven't developed needed skill, while they can be

fully delegated another task because of their experience and confidence. This kind of application

makes the situational approach very flexible.

Some drawbacks to the situational approach lay in the leader's ability to accurately assess

the follower development. If the leader misjudges the follower's skill or commitment, it can end

up in task failure and create frustration. Additionally, when a leader is managing a group of

people, there is a certain aspect of fairness and equality that must be applied. Leaders must be

aware of perceptions and interpretations of actions. Providing coaching to one person may be

perceived as micro-managing to another, especially if the leader misjudged that person's

development level.

Situational leadership approach is easy to follow and understand. It acknowledges the

needs of the follower and lays out actionable behaviors that leaders can follow. Likely the most

attractive aspect of this approach is that its ultimate goal is to move the followers along a

continuum from developing to developed. Meaning, it is less focused on the leader and more

focused on the follower.

Path-Goal Theory is an approach that considers the characteristics of the follower and the

characteristics of the task and applies the appropriate leadership style to be most effective. The
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major leadership styles are directive, supportive, participative, and achievement oriented

(Northouse, 2019). In contrast to the situational approach the leader doesn't adapt to the

developmental level of the follower, the leader identifies barriers and provides or suggests

solutions.

The additional element in Path-Goal is that external conditions are part of the equation.

Environmental scanning helps the leader identify barriers to the follower's attainment of their

goal. By doing so the leader can apply appropriate leadership styles that help the follower over or

around the barrier to success (Northouse, 2019).

Path-Goal Theory can be criticized for the emphasis on compensating for followers' short

comings rather than building skill and ability. When a leader steps in to compensate,

subordinates may become over reliant on this assistance. A core building block of Path-Goal

Theory is that followers need to feel competent and trust that results will follow (Northouse,

2019). If the leader overcompensates this may be counterproductive to building competence.

This theory provides a strong framework for leaders to consider follower and task

characteristics and apply appropriate leadership styles. Practical application of this theory can be

complicated and requires the leader to interpret accurate information in order to apply an

effective style. While Path-Goal Theory considers the motivation of the follower, it does not

solicit input of the follower in the leadership process and focuses on the leader's actions.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) focuses on the quality of exchange between the leader

and the follower. By examining the dyadic relationship between individuals this theory promotes

empowerment and thoughtful attention to the follower. Leadership making through LMX is a
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process of building relationships through personable exchanges. Examining, nurturing, and

constructing these bonds can lead to more productive and motivated followers.

A core consideration of this approach is the development of in-group and out-group

cohorts. This can draw criticism, as it appears to promote favoritism and inequality of

organizational justice in the group as a whole. On the positive side, it also draws attention to the

reality of these groups existing. Acknowledging this dynamic can inform a leader on their role in

the process of out-group formation so that they can modify and improve the quality of exchanges

with all members (Northouse, 2019).

Leadership making through LMX is a positive attribute to this theory. By progressing

through the phases of stranger, acquaintance, and mature partnership the leader and member

build a productive and mutually beneficial relationship. The quality of exchanges in each phase

improves through the spectrum, which results in trust, respect, and dependability (Northouse,

2019).

There is an aspect of social interaction in LMX which enhances the quality of exchanges.

This builds a more intimate relationships which increases motivation and productivity with

followers. The natural tendency to become friendly with people we readily relate to can lead to

the formation of bias and discrimination. Leader Member Exchange Theory is a valuable

resource for leaders to understand dyadic relationship but should not overshadow the

consideration of the group as a whole.

Transformational leadership seeks to help followers transcend their own self-interest for

the interests of the organization. The transformational leader seeks to satisfy an individual's basic

needs for them to transcend their self-interest and contribute their intellect, effort, and energy to
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a bigger overarching goal (Northouse, 2019). Transformational leadership harnesses idealized

influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized concerned to

enact support for widespread change. The heart of transformational leadership is a strong value

set, high standards, and exemplary morals and ideologies.

Social and political change was at the heart of transformational leadership studies.

Historically, these leaders were intent on changing society and helping others reach their fullest

potential (Northouse, 2019). Examples such as Mohandas Gandhi, John F. Kennedy, and Martin

Luther king are towering figures for change. After all, how can a person reach their fullest

potential if they are starving or marginalized? Transformational leadership embodies powerful

influence and persuasion to effect large societal change.

Application of transformational leadership in the organizational context requires leaders

to engage with followers on a continuum of transactional and transformational leadership. The

transactional dimension of the exchange provides for the follower's basic needs. This leaves

them available to put their energy into the higher standards and morals espoused by the leader

(Northouse, 2019). In this way the core values and culture of a company can be transformed.

A transformational leader is charismatic, inspires purpose, affection, emotional

attachment, and devotion. This type of adherence to the leader risks the formation of blind

devotion and pseudotransformational leadership (Northouse, 2019). In these instances, the leader

harnesses power to promote their personal interests, not the greater good of all.

Charisma is a characteristic that requires validation on the side of the follower. Followers

develop a perception or schema of leadership subconsciously. When they encounter a leader who

embodies these behaviors and traits the leader is effective and accepted (Salter, Harris, &
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McCormack, 2014). Therefore, leaders may encounter sceptics and critics, who do not subscribe

to their schema of leadership.

Gender can be influential in the effectiveness of transformational leaders. Some followers

may have an affinity for a masculine or dominant personality as a leader and therefor respond

positively to these characteristics. However, many aspects of transformational leadership require

nurturing, consensus and community building, and caretaking to achieve transcending

motivation. For these reasons, women are attracted to transformational leadership. The role of

gender has not been fully realized in leadership research, yet the affinity of women toward

transformational leadership makes sense. Female socialization processes build characteristics

that support transformational leadership (Salter, Harris, & McCormack, 2014).

Transformational leaders can also be called visionary leaders. Through their commitment

to high standards, ethics, and morals they model the way and inspire motivation. Critically, in the

context of business, the application of transformational leadership could be interpreted as

manipulative or overly influential on a follower's personal beliefs and the importance of

charisma invokes trait theory rather than promoting development and education in leadership

qualities.

Authentic leadership is the development of leadership through time and experience and

relies on the ability of the leader to act in accordance with their internal personal morals and

guidance. Through connectedness, passion, consistency, and compassion they seek to strengthen

interpersonal bonds, and positively affect their followers. Their ability to self-reflect and

genuinely critique their own thoughts, actions, and behaviors give them the clarity to stand firm
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in their convictions. Authentic leaders build trusting relationships by telling their story and by

listening to other people's stories with empathy (Northouse, 2019).

An authentic leader harnesses the power of quality exchanges in the dyadic relationship

to establish authentic connections (Northouse, 2019). These build more than just trust, they build

obligation and transparency, resulting in motivation and productivity. In contrast to the

charismatic transformational leader, this leader is introspective about their intent and actions as

opposed to relying on trait-based characteristics.

It is important to note that authentic leadership is not a specific style of leadership. In

other words, being an authentic leader is not exclusive of directive, transformational,

participative, or other styles of leadership (Peus, Wesche, Streicher, Braun, & Frey, 2012). It is

more about developing an internal compass to guide the leader's actions and inform them on

moral direction. To this point the authentic leader will stand on conviction and dig in their heels

when they think they are right. Such behavior could lead to dissent and division among an

organization.

Authentic leaders have positive psychological capacities which promote optimism, hope,

confidence, and resilience (Northouse, 2019). They create a positive environment where people

can thrive. This capacity for positivity translates into meaningful relationships with clear

direction. Leaders can enhance their positive capacities through coaching and training.

Authentic leadership takes time and experience, which can be challenging for young

developing leaders. Life events, triumphs, and tragedies are the building blocks of conviction and

self-confidence in one's moral stance. This leadership concept focuses on the leader being their

true self rather than being who the follower needs. Authentic leadership utilizes compassion and
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empathy to understand the follower; however, it comes up short in consideration of the follower's

development, needs, and environment.

Adaptive leadership acknowledges the situational aspects of tasks and goals and applies

appropriate leadership behaviors to achieve a desired outcome. In this approach the leader faces

three types of situations: technical, technical, and adaptive, and adaptive (Northouse, 2019).

These situations closely mirror the leadership characteristics described in the skills approach:

technical, human, and conceptual. For technical challenges the leader provides skill and

guidance, for technical adaptive challenges the leader provides support, and for adaptive

situations the leader provides encouragement for others to act.

Several behaviors are employed in adaptive leadership to effectively manage situations.

These leaders can identify challenges or conflict by finding perspective, observing, and advising.

They regulate distress and maintain discipline, ultimately so that followers can feel confident in

performing the work. The adaptive leader protects the voices of low-status and out-group

members so that they can become more engaged and involved in the group's success (Northouse,

2019).

A strength of this approach acknowledges the transactional nature of work and uses

process-oriented steps to resolve problems; it is not reliant on characteristics or traits of the

leader. Based on Complexity Leadership Theory, the adaptive approach accounts for the

complex social and interpersonal interactions within a group and provides a roadmap for leaders

to follow. While the complexity theory relies on an individual's social capital, the adaptive

approach utilizes social interaction to produce adaptive change that enables the group to evolve

(Northouse, 2019).
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Adaptive leadership is a follower-based approach that is intent on helping group members

solve problems and navigate change. The leader contributes technical knowledge when needed,

otherwise they are a facilitator prompting followers to adjust and providing a safe space for

exploration and acceptance of change. It takes time and patience to utilized adaptive leadership,

as it requires persuasion and buy-in. In some situations, there may not be adequate time to utilize

adaptive behaviors effectively and the leader may need to use directive leadership methods.

This approach also assumes that the follower will be responsive to the behaviors of the

leader. Since the approach is process-oriented the leader must have tools to manage norms and

reorient the individuals when prescriptive behaviors are not working. Large challenges and

changes invoke emotional responses and personal reactions. Leaders must be adept at handling

these reactions with tact, empathy, and sensitivity while still promoting progress.

Servant leadership puts the followers first. This approach to leadership considers the

followers needs, goals, and abilities first. A servant leader embodies behaviors that are altruistic,

ethical, compassionate, empowering, and community oriented (Northouse, 2019). They seek a

positive societal impact both internally and externally by putting others first.

Servant leadership is manifested in organizational policies which put the concerns of the

employee first and the profitability of the company second. While this may seem counter

intuitive, this approach produces happy, motivated, and productive employees who improve the

company's performance (Northouse, 2019). This approach inspires solidarity, innovation,

initiative, and loyalty.

This approach could be the anti-leadership approach to leadership. It advocates for the

sharing of power and influence while shunning leader dominance and control. Followers are
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empowered and their personal and professional goals are facilitated (Northouse, 2019). The

servant leader strives to add value to the larger community and contribute to society. Leaders

develop meaningful emotional bonds with followers and espouse strong ethical beliefs.

The effectiveness of servant leadership is dependent on the overall organizational culture.

When servant leadership is espoused in the values and mission of the organization, then the

principles will permeate throughout. Follower reception and acceptance is a key factor in servant

leadership (Northouse, 2019). Therefore, the organization must take this into consideration when

making hiring decisions. They must hire for attitude not aptitude.

One of the dimensions of servant leader behavior is conceptualization. The practical

application of conceptualization was described as a sixth-sense as opposed to the evaluation of

situations and intentional application of activities in support of the organizational goals. The

concept of conceptualization is vague and mysterious in this sense. Additionally, servant

leadership in business may present ethical dilemmas in terms of stewardship and responsibility.

Ultimately, executive leaders have an obligation to protect the interest of the shareholders and

stakeholders. Servant leadership must be applied in a balanced manner that results in employee

satisfaction and shareholder value.

Followership is the paired dimension of leadership. This approach looks at the

construction of leadership as a shared effort of both the leader and the follower. A leader's goal is

to influence followers toward a desired outcome; this requires the follower's acceptance of

influence. There is currently an imbalance in the attention and esteem attributed to leadership

over that of followership (Northouse, 2019). By viewing the role of followership, a leader can

better understand interdependencies in the leadership process.

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Typology of followers include the isolate, the bystander, the participant, the activist, and

the diehard. These typologies measure the follower's level of engagement toward accomplishing

the set goals. Other suggested descriptions of leaders include passive, antiauthoritarian, and

proactive (Northouse, 2019). When leaders understand and recognize follower behaviors, they

are better at adapting their leadership style to be more effective. The most effective leadership

occurs when there is an ideal pairing of follower and leader, and they are complementary.

Followership requires the acceptance of the leader's authority and influence. Studies into

this field could lead to supportive leadership in team environments where leadership is project-

based as opposed to position-based. As companies flatten their hierarchies, they need project -

based multi-functional teams to perform productively and autonomously.

As with several other theories and approaches to leadership, research on followership is

lacking, as are followership models and principles (Northouse, 2019). The literature that does

exists on followership is anecdotal and lacks empirical evidence. To fully embrace and recognize

the strengths of followership, a paradigm shift is needed with respect to the esteem of the leader

(Northouse, 2019). While the servant leader approach affords the follower the highest concern

through benevolence and altruism, the followership approach would put the follower on equal

footing within the leadership process.

The three leadership approaches that resonate for me are Adaptive, Situational, and

Authentic. In reality, I think my philosophy uses a mix of all three. The adaptive approach is

likely my dominant leadership approach. As a follower-based approach it first considers the

challenges facing the follower. It is a process-oriented approach that I have used repeatedly with
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my staff. I lend my expertise, I support them as they become experts, and I encourage them to

look beyond their task-concerns and see the larger picture.

I relate to the situational approach because it also uses process or evaluative methods to

determine effective leader behaviors. The simplicity of delegating, supporting, coaching, and

directing appeals to my procedural nature. I am inclined to gather, assess, and act. Using the

follower-based situational approach I can do just that. Lastly, I have an affinity for aspects of

Authentic Leadership because I do feel that my experiences have shaped and formed my

convictions. Sharing my insights, thoughts, and values with staff forms a stronger shared

commitment. I value the quality and authenticity of the connections that form through authentic

leadership. All aspects of leadership need mutual trust and respect; I think that authentic

leadership methods are how these bonds are formed.

From a business perspective the servant leadership does not resonate or appeal to me.

Criticisms describe the approach as whimsical and fanciful, to me it was a bit New Age. I love

the philosophy of putting followers first, and I saw several other approaches that did that in a

more definitive way. The altruism and selflessness are admirable goals, yet they may cause

competing efforts in a business environment. Likewise, I was not drawn to the Leader-Member

Exchange theory as this approach did not preserve organizational justice. The focus on the

dyadic relationships and the quality of exchanges is useful in this theory; however, the promotion

of in-group and out-group formation make this theory unattractive. LMX leadership-making is

useful; however, I believe the adaptive or situational approach can accomplish the same thing.

Part 2: Followership questionnaire

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My classification on the Followership Questionnaire was exemplary. I do agree that this

corresponds to my followership qualities. I think that by default I must be engaged as a product

of my leadership position. Additionally, I do exhibit independent thinking and initiative. In

addition, I encourage my staff to do the same. Exemplary followers could be thought of as

people who are good at "leading up"; followers influencing their leaders and participating in the

leadership process.

Utilizing adaptive leadership, followers can be developed into exemplary followers. This

is because the processes of adaptive leadership develop acuity, resilience, and independence in

the followers. Couple this with a safe environment where followers feel they can address

difficult issues, and followers can be more engaged.

Part 3: Simulation recap

The simulation was a good opportunity to interact with classmates and self-reflect on

behaviors and actions associated with leadership. Even the process of coordinating the team and

selecting roles brought aspects of leadership. One of our teammates had a personal emergency

during the first simulation. We rallied, supported, and adapted to ensure the team could conclude

the first phase successfully.

Our team shared leadership through collaborative decision making and problem solving.

Each member brought a new perspective and input to our dilemmas. At times we even waited

until all members weighed in on a situation. At other times each member exercised their

individual ability to decide, and each person owned their decision. We developed solidarity and

commitment to our strategy and reconfirmed this as the simulation progressed.

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We started an offline group text to stay in touch and exchange thoughts. In the simulation

I think this provided the best lesson. We developed deeper relationships and had quality

exchanges that served us well when situations were the most challenging. We were able to face

them with humor, mutual respect, information exchange and trust.

Regarding the realism, I think I was at an advantage and a disadvantage. My position was

Chief Operating Officer, and my real-life job is Director of Operations. Additionally, I have 12

years of experience at a commercial airline including emergency response and Go Team

experience. Because of this I am well versed in the technicalities and regulations of aviation

disaster response. As a result, some of the choices that were intuitive to my teammates were not

in line with what is allowed. I was unsure if the simulation was taking this into account or solely

judging actions on leadership theories and roles. For instance, at one point there was an option

for HR to conduct investigations into the pilots' training. I know that all crew training, aircraft

maintenance, and passenger manifest records are quarantined subsequent to an event and only

released to the NTSB, so this was not a realistic choice to me. I also thought that some of the

actions presented to various positions were unrealistic because they took on the role of other

positions. Other aspects that tested resolve, integrity, ethics, and concern for employees and

customers were realistic. The budgeting process was not well explained at the outset.

Overall, this was a very good experience. The variety and intensity of the unfolding

conditions tested our resolve. To prepare for these kinds of challenges leaders need to develop

resilience, have a clear mission, and think strategically. Strategic thinking is a skill developed

overtime. The ability to get a "30,000-foot view" helps leaders engage in actions and behaviors

that are focused on the primary objective without the distraction of minutia.
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My decisions were thoughtful, information based, and in-line with my leadership style. I

stand by them.

References

Northouse, P. G. (2019). Leadership: Theory and Practice (8th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications Inc.

Peus, C., Wesche, J. S., Streicher, B., Braun, S., & Frey, D. (2012). Authentic Leadership: An

Empirical Test of Its Antecedents, Consequences, and Mediating. Journal of Business

Ethics, Vol. 107, No. 3 , 331-348.

Salter, D. C., Harris, D. M., & McCormack, J. (2014). Bass & Avolio's Full Range Leadership.

E-Leader. 2014: Chinese American Scholars Association.

W.J. Reddin, P. (2017, May 2). 3-D Theory by W.J. Reddin. Retrieved from

Reddinassessments.com: https://reddinassessments.com/3-d-theory-by-w-j-reddin/