Falconiformes (Aves) Husbandry Manual (FZG)

The Federation of Zoological Gardens of
Great Britain and Ireland
Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo

Animals - Falconiformes
Jemima Parry-Jones
© The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland 2000
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo Animals - Falconiformes
Jemima Parry-Jones
First published 2000
Published and printed by The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and
Ireland, Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, United Kingdom.
ISSN 0963-1712
MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE WELFARE OF ZOO ANIMALS
FALCONIFORMES
(Diurnal birds of prey)
Written & compiled by Jemima Parry Jones, National Bird of Prey Centre
Edited by Gordon T. Mellor, De Montfort University Bedford
2000
The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland

Falconiformes TAG
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Section 1: Biology and field data 1

Suborder – Cathartae 2
1.1 Morphology/description 2
1.2 Distribution/habitat 2
1.3 General Behaviour 3
1.4 Diet and feeding behaviour 4
1.5 Reproduction 4
1.6 Survival 4
1.7 Conservation Status 5
Suborder - Accipitres (family - Pandiondae) 5
1.5 Reproduction 6
1.6 Survival 7
Suborder - Accipitres (family - Accipitridae) 7
1.5 Reproduction 10
1.6 Survival 11
Suborder – Sagittarii 11
1.5 Reproduction 12
1.6 Survival 13
Suborder – Falcones 13
1.5 Reproduction 15
1.6 Survival 16
Section 2: Management in Captivity 17
2.1 Enclosure 17
2.1.1 Boundary 18
2.1.2 Substrate 19
2.1.3 Furnishings and Maintenance 20
2.1.4 Environment 23
2.1.5 Dimensions 23
2.2 Feeding 24
2.2.1 Basic Diet 24
2.2.2 Special Dietary Requirements 25
2.2.3 Method of Feeding 25
2.2.4 Water 26
2.3 Social Structure 26
2.3.1 Basic Social Structure 26
2.3.2 Changing Group Structure 26
2.3.3 Sharing Enclosure with Other Species 27
2.4 Breeding 27
2.4.1 Mating 27
2.4.2 Egg Laying and Incubation 28
2.4.3 Hatching 32
2.4.4 Development and Care of Young 33
2.5 Population Management 37
2.5.1 Population Status 37
2.5.2 Species Management Programmes 37
2.5.3 Individual Identification and Sexing 37
2.6 Handling 38
2.6.1 General Handling 38
2.6.2 Catching/Restraining 38
2.6.3 Transportation 39
2.6.4 Safety 40
2.7 Legislation 40
2.7.1 Conservation 40
2.7.2 Health and Welfare 41
2.7.3 General 42
2.8 Specific Problems 43
2.9 Additional Research 44
Section 3: References 44
Tables
Table 1 i
Table 2 xliv
Introduction
Raptors, the diurnal birds of prey, generally have much the same needs in captivity even though the group includes many differing species from
eagles to secretary birds, ranging in size from condors to pygmy falcons, and are adapted to habitats from rain forests to deserts. Given the similar
management requirements these Guidelines treat families and species together, illustrating differences only where necessary. Some, such as the
Accipiters are rarely kept in zoos with the exception of specialist collections, indeed certain species are unsuitable for public display. These Guidelines
have been compiled with the help of those who have long-term experience of managing birds of prey in captivity and breeding them successfully. The
Guidelines are written with the temperate British climate in mind and if used in other parts of the world, climatic changes, different problems with
building material and the availability of specialised food sources should be taken into consideration.
The raptors kept in zoos and collections tend to be grouped together. Often they are housed in close proximity and indeed some zoos keep certain
species together in mixed exhibits. As with wildfowl and butterflies, there are an increasing number of specialist collections dealing only with birds of
prey and owls. Given this situation the Falconiformes TAG has considered all of the diurnal birds of prey under a single set of management
Guidelines. These Guidelines should enable collections to achieve excellence in the management of their raptors and also allow easy access of
information to zoo inspectors, welfare interests, and those wishing to start collections.
It should be noted that whilst the Owl TAG will be producing specific guidelines, in terms of management and care owls can often be treated in much
the same way as diurnal birds of prey.
Section 1: Biology and Field Data
The Order of diurnal birds of prey has generated considerable admiration, excitement, argument and interest. One only need look at the available
literature both popular and academic, to see how mankind’s imagination has been stirred by the raptors. In all probability man has a longer
historical involvement with this Order than any other with the possible exception of the chicken.
Scientific investigation has shown that there are no obvious links with any of the other Orders of birds apart from the owls and the storks.
Historically the diurnal birds of prey and owls were thought of as being related, however the obvious resemblance came to be thought of as
superficial. Some recent research indicates that the owls may be related to the falcons, albeit distantly.
In the Order FALCONIFORMES, there are four Suborders and five Families; two of these Families contain one species only. The tree below shows the
accepted groupings.
Falconiformes
Cathartae Accipitres Sagittarii Falcones
Cathartidae Pandionidae Accipitridae Sagittariidae Falconidae

New World Vultures Osprey Hawks & Eagles Secretary Bird Falcons & Caracara
Taxonomic data for all the families can be found in table 1.
Biometrics data is not presented in table form since these Guidelines deal with diurnal birds of prey together rather than by individual species.
Physiological data vary from one group of birds of prey to the next, and much is beyond the scope of this publication. General information is
presented in table 2.
A reference section is provided and those seeking specific or detailed information are directed to it, remembering that publications are being pro duced
and updated continuously thus this section is authoritative only at the time of these Guidelines going to print.
Suborder - Cathartae.
Family Cathartidae (New World Vultures)
• Small, medium sized, to very large birds of prey. Bare head and neck, feeding mainly on carrion, powerful hooked beak, relatively weak feet,
medium and large to very large wingspan for soaring flight.
• North and South America
• Wide habitat variation - high mountains, deserts, coastal areas and rain forests.
• More closely related to storks than other diurnal birds of prey
• 5 Genera.
• 7 Species.
• 13 Taxa (subspecies)
1.1 Morphology / Description
Superficially this family is very similar to the Old World vultures and have evolved on parallel lines, but with some significant differences: the back toe
is residual; some of the smaller species have varying degrees of a sense of smell; all the species urinate on their legs leaving them looking white;
there is no internal separation of the nostrils, thus when the head is view ed in profile the nares or nostrils can be looked straight through from one
side to the other.
1
Four of the species are small in terms of vultures, indeed they are the smallest species of vulture, not much bigger than a large chicken. The King
Vulture is a medium sized vulture, closer to the size of a wild goose and the two Condor species are very large birds comparable in size to a large
dog.
All have robust legs. Their feet are quite large and are used as in all the vultures, as air brakes to assist in landing. They are poorly adapted for
gripping thus they perch on large branches or rock outcrops. Unusually for vultures some of the species are found in forest areas rather than the
more common open habitats. In general the Cathartids are able to climb remarkably well and at a fairly young age.
They have strong wings for soaring and powered flight. Some of the smaller species migrate considerable distances. Moulting is very protracted
because these birds need to retain as many flight feathers as possible at all times. In juvenile plumage all the vultures are a dull colour, and even
when adult they tend towards large areas of black feathering.
The beak does not look as fearsome as many of the Old World vultures, but it is an extremely powerful tool. All have bare skin on the head and neck,
which is used in display, may well regulate body temperature, and allows ease of cleaning the head after messy feeding. They have large crops to
facilitate gluttonous appetites.
The large olfactory bulbs of the three Cat hartes vultures give it its unusual ability to be able to find food by scent. The other New World vultures are
not thought to have this ability to the same extent.
New World vultures do not have a syrinx and so are technically voiceless although they can make various growling vocalizations.
1.2 Distribution / Habitat
Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura Black Vulture Coragyps atratus
These two small vultures inhabit much the same range although the Turkey Vulture is found further north in the United States. They are found
throughout the southern part of the US and Mexico, through Central America and much of South America. Almost any habitat is utilised by these
birds from mountains, deserts, farmland and tropical forests. The Black Vulture however prefers forest clearings and is more inclined to gather round
human habitation and feed off the garbage and waste that humans produce.
Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes burrovianus Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes melambrotus
It is often difficult to distinguish between the two. The Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture has a wide range from Central America through to Northern
Venezuela to the east of the Andes. This vulture is found in more open grasslands and plains although it is recorded as using forest edges. The
Greater Yellow-headed Vulture has a more restricted range in forested areas in the northern half of South America and has only been found in
lowland forest and then, only where the forest is undisturbed.
King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa
This strikingly coloured vulture, smaller than the condors but larger than the rest of the New World species, is found throughout the tropical regions
from Central America to northern Argentina. It inhabits both primary and secondary forest and is seen occasionally foraging over open savannah
and plains. The King Vulture is forest dependant for nest sites and where deforestation has occurred it is absent. In the dense jungle where it often
feeds, it is the largest and most powerful vulture but when feeding it appears to tolerate the smaller vultures without aggression. It may have a
rudimentary sense of smell although this is not as developed as in the Turkey Vulture.
California Condor Gymnogyps californianus
The native range of the California Condor was originally across most of North America however it is now found only in the remote hills close to Los
Angles and as part of a captive release programme in the Grand Canyon in Arizona. Inhabiting open high plains, mountains and prairies, this huge
vulture requires considerable space. Elevation is vital to enable this bird to become airborne.
Andean Condor Vultur gryphus
The largest of flying birds ranges throughout the Andean Mountains, living in the high mountains and scavenging over grassy plains and coastal
areas. Like all the huge vultures the Condor requires great areas over which to soar searching for carcasses. It requires hills and mountains to assist
in take off.
1.3 General Behaviour
Activity/ locomotion/ migration
Vultures are motivated to save energy. As they scavenge for food they are reliant on finding carcasses in the most efficient manner. Generally they do
not attempt to fly until the day warms up. They sun themselves early in the morning when the weather allows, and are reluctant to move until
thermals are forming and will assist them in gaining soaring height easily. Once soaring they can stay airborne for hours given the right weather
conditions. The Turkey Vulture undertakes a long migration and can cover hundreds of miles in a day. Once they have fed the vultures, like most
large carnivores are content to sit still and digest their meal thus saving energy.
Social Behaviour.
Unlike some of the Old World Vultures the New World are not particularly gregarious. Although they will feed together they are all solitary breeders.
However Black Vultures and Turkey Vultures will share roosts and it has been suggested that these roosts are socially important. Black Vultures that
have failed to find food alone, may use the movement of other birds the following day to find feeding sites. Families stay together and will preen
and feed one another. Although the Black Vultures have the most complex social structures they are probably the most aggressive.
Voice
Most of the cathartid vultures are vocally silent although the male Andean Condor makes a deep drumming noise when displaying to a mate. The
New World vultures lack the correct muscles to vocalise and so do little more than hiss, grunt and make growling and barking sounds. However all
young New World Vultures can be very noisy when hungry or when alarmed.
1.4 Diet and Feeding behaviour
In general all the New World vultures eat carrion, anything from tiny carcasses to dead whales washed up on the Chile coast. Vultures can consume
large quantities when they do find a carcass. They show a marked preference for fresh meat. The Turkey Vulture and the Black Vulture will eat eggs
and young birds and the Black Vulture is known to catch and eat small crabs and hatching turtles. Although carrion forms the bulk of their diet
most of the species are known to supplement it with fresh fruit and vegetable matter, with the exception of the condors that lay in surplus stores of
body fat to carry them over periods of enforced fasting. It has been said that Andean Condors can go without food for five or six weeks.
With their chicken like feet and residual back toes, none of the New World vultures are built to kill quarry in the same way as the other raptors. All bar
the condors are very agile and have very powerful beaks, which are capable of killing smaller prey although is rarely used for such. Their broad wings
allow soaring flight that gives them the ability to use the winds in mountainous regions and thermals in other areas, to stay airborne for many
2
hours. Once a carcass is spotted the birds will spiral down to feed. There are ‘pecking orders’ when feeding with adult birds taking preference over
juveniles and larger species over smaller being the general rule.
As stated previously the Cathartes vultures also have a well-developed sense of smell, which allows them to find carcasses hidden from sight on the
forest floor. Although the other species of New World vultures do not appear to have this ability, they have learnt to follow the Cathartes vultures to
food sources.
1.5 Reproduction
Considering the amount of interest there is in raptors, surprisingly little is known about the breeding habits of the New World vultures.
It appears that the smaller vultures reach mature breeding age at about 3 years old, with the larger species becoming capable of breeding between 6
and 8
As these species cover both hemispheres and many climates their breeding seasons vary, however it would probably be fair to say they all breed in
the climatic equivalent of spring in the temperate zones, with species that breed in colder areas breeding later in the year. In the tropical regions the
start of the breeding season probably coincides with the change from wet to dry seasons.
None of the New World vultures breed in colonies as do some of the Old World vultures and little is known of their breeding behaviour. It is
believed that the birds are pair faithful once the pair bond is established. The skin on the neck is used in sexual display. This is most evident in
the condors that puff up the skin and expose the colours of the neck in a dramatic fashion. The condor makes a drumming noise, using this
expanded area of neck and throat. All the New World vultures partake in a courtship dance on the ground.
Despite being related to the storks which build substantial nests, none of the New World vultures do so. All lay their eggs on the ground in piles of
rocks, on cliff ledges, in caves, holes in trees or in thick undergrowth. The three largest vultures lay one egg only. Nothing is recorded of the Yellow-
headed Vultures in this respect but the Turkey and Black Vultures lay two eggs in a clutch. Incubation periods are approximately 40 days for the
smaller vultures and 55 days for the condors and King Vulture.
In comparison to similar sized raptors the smaller New World vultures are slow developers and are not ready to fledge until they are three months
old. Fledging appears to be at three and a half months for the King Vulture although it is dependent upon its parents for at least a year after that.
Condors do not fledge until six months old which means that with a protracted fledging dependency; they together with the King Vulture breed in
alternate years.
1.6 Survival
Longevity
Normally the larger the bird the longer lived it tends to be both in the wild and captivity. However the larger birds often have a high mortality rate in
the wild especially during the period of gaining independence. All the New World vultures are long-lived, the condors being amongst the longest-lived
birds in the world. It is thought that a life span of up to 50 years for a condor reaching the relative safety of adulthood is a reasonable estimate.
The smaller New World vultures probably manage 15 - 20 years in the wild. Obviously in captivity where many of the threats and difficulties that
face wild birds are absent, the expected life span is extended.
Factors of mortality
Because many of the New World vultures have low level or ground nesting habits, there is predation of eggs and young by snakes, wild pigs, rodents
and other carnivores. In addition to this, forest owls and eagles take the young. However once the vultures are adult and even given the ever-present
danger of starvation, persecution by humans is the most likely cause of death. Black Vultures have been killed in large numbers in southern US, due
to suspicions that they carry disease that affect cattle. In certain areas trade may affect King Vultures. Andean Condors are killed by those who think
that they kill domestic livestock and some are still used in religious ceremonies. California Condors have been persecuted by shooters and have
suffered from electrocution on power lines.
1.7 Conservation status
The Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura and the Black Vulture Coragyps atratus are common and not globally threaten ed. These two species have no status
under CITES.
The Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes burrovianus is fairly numerous and is not globally threatened. The Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes
melambrotus although it is considered not threatened, is only found in undisturbed forest and is under more threat than the other small New World
vultures. The two Yellow-headed species have no status under CITES.
The population density of the King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa is not well recorded, but what is known is that this species vanishes with depleting
forests. Therefore like many species it is as threatened as is the forest. The King Vulture is CITES III in Honduras but has no CITES status elsewhere.
The rarest vulture in the world, the California Condor Gymnogyps californianus, had a population of less than 30 individuals by 1982. In 1987 all the
remaining individuals were taken into two captive breeding programmes, at the Los Angeles and San Diego Zoological Societies and now the
population stands at 111 in captivity with 30 returned to the wild in planned releases. California Condors remain endangered and will be so for some
considerable time. The California condor Gymnogyps californianus is listed at ENDANGERED. CITES I.
The Andean Condor Vultur gryphus , whilst being the subject for some research and survey, is of unknown status in the wild. There is a profound need
for detailed studies of population dynamics. It is still common in some areas, namely Peru, Chile and Argentina, the Andean Condor is much rarer in
the northern part of its range. These long-lived birds are adapted for low mortality and low breeding, and so are vulnerable to persecution. Although
the Andean Condor Vultur gryphus is not globally threatened, it is disappearing fast in many places. This vulture is listed as CITES I,
Suborder - Accipitres
Family Pandiondae (Osprey)
• Medium sized birds living almost solely on live caught fish, specialised physical adaptations for fish catching.
• Worldwide distribution.
• Shallow coastal waters, inland rivers and lake, fresh and saline water.
3
• Validity of family status recently questioned by DNA testing
• 1 Genus.
• 1 Species
• 4 Taxa.
1.1 Morphology / description
A very specialised feeder, the Osprey has several adaptations that reflect its way of life. The outer toe is unusually flexible to aid in carrying fish ‘fore
and aft’, in an aerodynamic fashion. The pads of the toes are spiny to help in gripping the quarry and the talons are particularly curved. The small
intestine is long, probably to help with digestion of its specific diet. Oily plumage and nasal valves assist it in almost total submersion in water when
diving for food. Long narrow wings enable the Osprey to hover and soar reasonably well, but also to achieve long distances of powered flight on
migration.
Ospreys vary in size, depending on their geographical region; those from the Southern Hemisphere tend to be smaller than those from the more
northern climes. As with many raptors the female is larger than the male, by some 20% in weight. There is no colour dimorphism other than
females are inclined to be darker on the breast and head. They are dark brown on the back and wings and white under-parts with a dark strip
through the eye. The juvenile birds are similar but each brown feather is edged in buff. In flight their ‘crook’ position in the wing shape makes them
readily identifiable.
Length 55-58cm. Weight 1600gms
The Osprey is found throughout the paleartic regions, most of South America and Africa, the more coastal areas of the Middle East, India, South
East Asia and around the coastline of Australia, in fact on almost every continent around the world. The species inhabits rivers, lakes, shallow
coastal waters, almost anywhere where they can fish. The Osprey has become very tolerant of humans in some areas and will live and nest in quite
urban situations.
Activity/locomotion/migration
Like most birds of prey, once they have succeeded in feeding themselves they are fairly sedentary apart from during the breeding season. Those
sections of the population that migrate can cover long distances moving from one climate to another. They have a powerful flapping flight but like
many of the migrant raptors, they rely greatly on thermals and updrafts.
Social behaviour
Ospreys are not social birds, they make their migrations alone, strongly defend nests sites from other Ospreys and hunt alone except when there is a
super abundance of prey, when small groups may form.
Voice
They have three types of calls, a guard call, the alarm or courtship call and a begging call given by the young and the sitting female when hungry
and requiring the male to feed them.
This ‘hawk’ is a specialist. Its physical shape and habits have all developed around its specialisation of hunting and feeding on fish. Unlike many of
the other fish eating birds of prey, the Osprey only eats fish and almost always live fish. They will very occasionally scavenge dead or dying fish. They
hunt mostly surface, or shallow water fish, diving feet first into the water to grasp the fish and then flying off to the shore or nest to feed.
1.5 Reproduction
The Osprey reaches breeding age by 3 years and normally breeds in the springtime. They are usually monogamous although occasionally a male
may have two mates. They build a substantial nest usually in trees. On the Eastern coast of the US they have used artificial pole nest sites, and pole
Buoys. In some places they will even nest on the ground. They are nest site dependent and will be very faithful to the chosen location. The older birds
are more successful breeders. The male establishes and reinforces the pair bond by feeding the female. Mating occurs throughout the nest building
period and during incubation.
Two to four eggs are laid with both male and female undertaking incubation. The incubation period is
approximately 40 days. Males do the bulk of the hunting for the young. They develop rapidly and fledge at 2 months, with parents feeding them for
another 5 weeks after fledging.
1.6 Survival
Longevity
Once birds reach maturity they can be quite long lived and pairs have returned to the same nest sites for many years. They are thought to live up to
25 years.
Factors of mortality
Those subspecies, which undertake long migrations, have a much higher mortality rate than sedentary populations. Up to 70% of the young of
migrating populations fail to survive to adulthood. Most of those die in their first 6 months. Mediterranean crossing places like Malta and indeed
much of Southern Europe are hazardous, due to the lack of restrictions on shooting. Ospreys have few natural predators but suffer from human
persecution and are affected by pollution and pesticides.
1.7 Conservation Status
The Osprey is not globally threatened; in fact it is a frequent to common species throughout most of its range. Only in areas where it was reduced
either by persecution or pesticides did it decline and it is showing signs of recovery.
Apart from being thought vulnerable on the Southern coast of Australia, it is doing well in most parts of the world. The Osprey Pandion haliaetus is
listed as CITES II.
4
Suborder - Accipitres
Family Accipitridae (hawks Old World vultures and eagles).
[It should be noted that in this instance the term ‘hawks’ covers hawks, kites, buzzards and many others]
• Tiny to huge birds of prey, diverse in shape, size, evolution and hunting methods.
• Worldwide distribution.
• Diverse habitats from dense forests to open plains, mountains to highly populated river valleys.
• 64 Genera.
• 237 Species. (Although in some reference books the numbers range from 212 - 240 species).
• 535 Taxa.
This is a huge family, indeed not only in relation to the raptors but also in comparison to all the avians. This family can be divided into ten groups:
1. Kites - this includes the baza’s, the honey buzzards, and 14 genera of kites, the last genus being the fishing kites.
2. Fish Eagles - 10 species, the largest being Steller’s Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus. The best recognised vocally is probably the African Fish Eagle
Haliaeetus vocifer and the most well known is the Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus .
3. Old World vultures - ranging from the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus as the smallest to the Eurasian Black Vulture Aegypius monachas
which is probably the largest.
4. Snake eagles - the common name of some of the species being serpent eagle, with their bare legs covered in very close scales they are well
adapted to catching the quarry after which they are named.
5. Harriers, harrier hawks and the Crane Hawk Geranospiza caerulescens from South America. All this group have long legs, fairly weak feet and light
wing loading.
6. Sparrowhawks and goshawks – the largest of all the groups with 58 species. This group ranges from the African Little Sparrowhawk Accipiter
minullus which is the smallest, to the Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis as the largest representative. Included in this group are the chanting-
goshawks that are really closer to the harriers and also the Lizard Buzzard Kaupifalco monogrammicus, which probably lies closer to the sub-
buteonines.
7. Sub-buteonine Raptors - including such as the well known Harris Hawk Parabuteo unicinctus , a bird widely kept in captivity and used in
demonstrations and in falconry.
8. Buzzards - mostly medium sized birds, often soaring, armed with heavier feet and shorter toes than the accipiters.
9. Large tropical rain forest eagles - two of which, the Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi and the Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja are amongst the
largest of birds.
10. Booted or true eagles - those with feathered tarsi. The hawk eagles are the least known and probably one of the most threatened genera. The
best known are the Aquila’s which include the most commonly recognised, the Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos , and one of the rarest, the Spanish
Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti declining to the point where captive breeding programmes are being initiated. The Verreaux Eagle (Black Eagle) Aquila
verreauxii is probably one of the most studied eagles in the world. This group is the most highly evolved in the family Accipitridae.
As can be seen this huge family ranges in size dramatically. The smallest is the Pearl Kite Gampsonyx swainsonii at 25 cm in length and weighing only
80-100gms. Some of the male sparrowhawks are also very small. Because of the reversed sexual size dimorphism between the males and females,
the smallest of the birds will tend to be male and the largest female. The female Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja and Steller’s Sea Eagle Haliaeetus
pelagicus are the heaviest flying birds together with some of the Old World Vultures. The size difference between males and females tends to be less
marked in those birds that eat insects or rodents and most greatly marked in the more rapacious bird eating species. The female Eurasian
Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus is almost twice the size of the male.
All the Accipitridae have the familiar hooked beak of birds of prey, some are much more markedly hooked and stronger than others. The insect
eating birds, such as the baza’s, have a fairly shallow hook and weak beak, whereas the large vultures, such as the Lappet Faced Vulture Torgos
tracheliotus have a large, strongly curved and very powerful beak. Some of the species have developed specialisation’s, such as the Snail Kite
Rostrhamus sociabilis with its very long and slender curved beak adapted for winkling snails out of their shell.
Similarly the feet are adapted to the quarry species taken. Those catching large powerful quarry have large powerful feet, whilst those hunting small
or sedentary quarry have feet appropriate to requirements.
All of the Accipitridae fly well. The large soaring birds such as the plains and mountain eagles, the Golden Eagle Aquila chysaetos and the Martial
Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus, as well as the huge vultures, the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus and the Eurasian Black Vulture Aegypius monachus,
require mountainous areas or hot weather to create thermals so they can get airborne efficiently. Once aloft they can soar for hours watching for
prey. The vultures tend to drop earthwards at a gentle pace, but the eagles can stoop at high speeds. The bird catchers such as Sparrowhawks with
the short round wings and long tails can manoeuvre rapidly after their extremely evasive quarry. Many of the Accipitridae migrate, often covering
thousands of miles each year.
1.2 Distribution / habitat
The Accipitridae are distributed worldwide.
The baza’s tend to be forest birds, the honey buzzards and specialist kites inhabit open woodland.
The fishing kites and the fish eagles by definition live near water, be it coastline or inland waters or marshlands.
5
The Old World vultures need open spaces so inhabit either mountains or plains and savannahs in hotter climes. The exception is the Pondicherry
Vulture Sarcogyps calvus that is a forest dweller, the Old World equivalent of the King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa.
The snake eagles all live in the Old World and inhabit the open woodlands in warm climates. The Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur is the
main exception here preferring primary rain forest
The harriers and harrier hawks are slow flying birds that dwell in open woodlands, often fairly sparsely dotted with trees or open areas of marshland
or long grass.
The sparrowhawks and goshawks are almost all woodland and forest birds, being well adapted to hunt in enclosed habitats.
The sub-buteonine birds, some of which resemble the ‘true’ hawks whilst some are more like the buzzards, cover a variety of species with a very
varied range of habitats including open forests, forest edges and open areas.
The buzzards with their broad wings and short tails are less adapted for dense forest and so inhabit more open woodlands, forest edges, clearings,
river banks and open farmlands, uplands and rough pastures.
The four large rain forest eagles inhabit the forests of South American and Southeast Asia.
Lastly the ‘true’ eagles, like the large vultures need open space and so live in the plains, steppes, mountain ranges and desert savannah. The hawk-
eagles being the exception and mainly inhabiting primary forest.
Most but not all of this diverse group are diurnal. Some like the Bat Hawk Machaerhamphus alcinus , hunt at twilight or even after dark. But generally
this group of raptors hunts in full daylight. Those who do not require the heat of the day to give them lift will tend to hunt at first light and towards
the end of the day, particularly if from hot countries. Others, inhabiting inhospitable northern climates hunt when they can. Apart from hunting or
migrating, most raptors are very sedentary, especially those that catch quarry over half their own body weight. Those reliant on small prey items
such as insects are more active. All and particularly the males, are very active when attempting to feed and rear young.
Social Behaviour.
There is very little social behaviour in any of the raptors. Despite certain species of vulture that colony nest and others, like some harriers that roost
together, they are relativity unsociable. They usually hunt alone, and are very protective of their nesting areas during breeding. Vultures do observe
other vultures to see if carrion has been spotted and will gather to feed in large numbers. Many of the smaller species socialise only during the
breeding season and become solitary once the young have gained independence. The Harris Hawk Parabuteo unicinctus is rare among raptors, in that
it does appear to live and hunt in groups or extended families, often working together co -operatively.
Voice.
It is not possible to describe all the voices of the Accipitridae in these Guidelines. They exhibit a considerable range of vocalisation and can be very
noisy particularly during the breeding season.
1.4 Diet and feeding behaviour
Most of the Old World vultures, like the New World vultures, have specialised in feeding on carrion and so do not have feet designed to catch and kill.
However a few species of these vultures, such as the Palmnut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus and a few
others, have some power in their feet and do take small live prey on occasion. Almost all other raptors catch their food using their feet. The size and
strength of those feet will depend entirely on the species of quarry normally caught. Most eagles have feet that are very powerful and in some cases
are capable of catching and holding small antelope, medium sized monkeys and geese.
Many of the very small raptors have small feet suitable for catching the insects and small reptiles, which constitute their diet. Others, like the Snail
Kite Rostrhamus sociabilis only need their feet for picking up, carrying and holding the Apple Snails Pomacea that they eat with their specially adapted
beak. However the sparrowhawks have long legs, and long very narrow toes suitable for grabbing the small birds that they hunt and feed on.
The fish eagles have developed especially rough and scaly feet for grasping slippery fish. Red Kites Milvus milvus , although large birds have small feet
and catch relatively small prey or scavenge.
All the Accipitridae eat meat or fish of some description: ranging from tiny insects, amphibians, reptiles, small to medium sized mammals, small to
large birds and carrion, crabs, surface fish, and including dead and dying spawning fish and washed up carrion fish. A very few will eat vegetable
matter such as palm fruits.
1 . 5 Reproduction
The age of sexual maturity varies tremendously and is related mainly to the size and longevity of the species. Tiny birds such as the sparrowhawks
and some of the small kites breed in their first year. This means they are breeding before they are a year old themselves. It is not that uncommon
for many species to breed whilst still in juvenile plumage. Some will also produce more than one clutch of young per year, depending on the
abundance of the food. At the other extreme some of the very large birds don’t reach breeding age until 6 - 8 years old and may, where the young
take many months to gain independence, have a two year breeding cycle.
Raptors have a complex set behaviours for finding suitable mates and breeding. In many species the females are larger than the males so they
signify their willingness to allow mating by letting males bring them food, feed them and by mutual preening. This lets the male know he is relatively
safe in the proximity of the larger female. By supplying food frequently he illustrates to her that he will be efficient enough to feed her and
subsequent young.
Some males will attempt to hold particularly food abundant territories in order to attract females; some will build several nests. Some species bond
for life and so the male once he has paired, does not have to overtly demonstrate suitability. Some species remain together for the breeding season
only and have no pair fidelity. There are also species that will participate in polyandry.
Females will signal their readiness to mate by certain postures and stances, accepting food, dropping the head, wailing for food, dropping their
wings, all of these are signals to the males. Some, however can also be signs of aggression such as the head dropping. Some species are very noisy
during mating, others silent.
All of this diverse group build a nest, although the size and structure can vary from 3 metres deep, to an insubstantial platform that is see-through.
Some birds will use the nest for so many years that eventually the weight of the nest destroys the branch or tree that it occupies. Others build a new
nest every year. Some males will build several nests to give the prospective female a choice.
6
Laying times vary considerably in the wild. Even within members of the same species breeding can occur at very different times. In such a large
group as this breeding is inevitably diverse.
The size of eggs and of the clutch is also very variable. Here there is no set pattern, some eagles, such as the Steppes Eagle Aquila nipalensis may lay
up to five eggs (more normally 2 - 3) wherea s the Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus lays only one. Again the Steppes Eagle Aquila nipalensis may
quite commonly rear two or three young when the prey base is high, but the Verreaux’s Eagle Aquila verreauxii only rears one, with the second hatched
young almost invariably being killed by its older sibling, regardless of the food supply. The Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus will lay up to seven
eggs in abundant vole or lemming years.
Incubation periods differ widely with the smallest birds hatching the quickest and the largest birds taking the longest to develop. The incubation
times vary from 30 - 32 days for the smallest of the sparrowhawks to 50 - 56 for the large Old World vultures and 60 - 61 days for the Philippine
Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi
Fledging follows the same pattern – the smallest raptors fledge in 26 - 30 days and the huge raptors 4 - 6 months with parent dependency after
fledging much longer in the larger species. All the Accipitridae young are semi altricial and remain helpless, needing to be actively fed for at least half
of the time spent in the nest.
1 . 6 Survival
Longevity
As might be expected when the genera in this group vary so much, the longevity is highly varied. The larger birds - the huge vultures and eagles can
live 20-30 years in the wild and upwards of 40 years in captivity, whereas the smaller species such as the Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus may
only survive 4 years or so. Most have a high mortality rate of between 40 - 70% in the first year. Once past the critical first year the chances of
survival increase with experience.
Factors of Mortality
The smaller raptors are often taken as food by larger avian, mammal and reptilian predators. In addition to this, hunting or foraging accidents
result some deaths either directly or as a result of subsequent performance impairment. Starvation accounts for many of this group particularly in
the first year. Degradation of the environment or direct persecution makes man the most significant factor in mortality.
1.7 Cons ervation status
The populations of the Accipitridae vary tremendously, some such as the Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur is so rare that it was thought to
be extinct, although recently a bird has been found and photographed. Others like the Black Kite Milvus migrans is one of the commonest and most
widely spread.
Threats are most commonly habitat destruction, so island species tend to be vulnerable. The Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus was brought close to
extinction by destruction of natural forest, mainly due to clearing for crops, invasion of non-indigenous plants and a high human population. The
Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi again at dangerously low numbers through habitat destruction, but in their case the forests are being over-used
for hard wood timber extraction and substance farming. This felling of timber threatens most species indigenous to primary rain forest. For many of
the species there is little or no information available on the habits, breeding rates or population.
Pollution and pesticides are increasingly dangerous, particularly in third world countries where the priorities are not conservation, but survival of the
human population. Birds of prey being ‘indicator species’ are amongst the first to show the effects of a poisoned environment.
To an extent human persecution threatens raptors, particularly migrating species. Malta, at the time of writing, is responsible for the deaths by
shooting of up to 5,000,000 migratory birds each year. Up to 100,000 of these are raptors and owls.
All the Accipitridae have CITES status II or I.
Suborder - Sagittarii
Family Sagittariidae (Secretary Bird)
• Large, pedestrian bird of prey, long stork-like legs, mainly terrestrial, long crest with loose quill-like feathers.
• Africa - south of tropic of Cancer
• Grassland, savannah, desert steppes
• 1 Genus
• 1 Species
• 1 Taxa
1.1 Morphology /Description
Like the Osprey this species is so distinct that it is placed in it’s own family. There is much discussion as to the relationship between the Secretary
Bird and other birds, but its origins may possibly lie between the birds of prey and storks. In behaviour it is very typical of most birds of prey, in its
hunting manner, eating an all meat diet and killing its prey with its feet.
There is no other raptor that this bird can be mistaken for, standing at 1.2m tall with stork-like legs, feathered black to the ankle and on down with
pink scales and a powerful if not very raptor like foot. The head is large, the beak curved and eagle like with a huge gape. The eyes are also large,
brown and with magnificent upper eyelashes, and bare orange skin above the beak and round the eyes. The feathers on the nape are plume-like,
long, fine and black with white tips, the Secretary Bird is able to raise them into a crest at will. The wings are long and broad and the two centre tail
feathers are almost double the length of the other ten. Colouring is pale grey with black flight feathers and tail tips. Juvenile birds are slightly
browner and there is no colour dimorphism between males and females.
Length 125-150cm. Wingspan 212cm. Weight 2300-4270gms.
1.2 Distribution /Habitat
7
Secretary Birds are found from north central Africa to Cape Horn. Apart from forest areas and dense woodland this bird exists in almost all other
habitats; dry and wet grasslands, desert edges through to inhabited farmlands. They show preference for areas where the walking is fairly
comfortable and avoid thick bush or over long grass. They require at least one good nest tree in their territory.
Secretary birds spend most of their time on the ground; it is estimated that they can walk up to 18 miles per day looking for food. They can and do
fly, often waiting for the day to be warm enough for thermals to form. They are reported to soar as high a 3800m in the heat of the day - either to
cool down or move from one area of their territory to another. They will lie down to rest, will take dust baths and walk significant distances to find
water to bathe and drink. They are not thought to migrate, although they may move considerable distances depending on rainfall and food
availability.
Social behaviour
These birds are territorial, holding areas from 20 km 2 to 500 km 2, depending on the quality of the area. They will dispute territories vigorously, and
tend to be pair faithful. They are rarely seen in groups except where water is scarce or plagues of locusts or rats attract large numbers.
Voice
They make a variety of vocalisations, mostly hoarse groaning, croaking or growling noises. Young make a ‘chee-up’ call for food.
Secretary Birds eat almost anything that they can kill with the characteristic stamping method of attack. It is best known for killing snakes, but eats
more large insects than anything else. It also takes small mammals up to the size of a hare, tortoises, lizards, ground living birds and even eggs
from nests or young if they have hatched. It uses its’ powerful legs to kick and stamp on quarry, hitting mainly with the back toe and talon. This
method, despite looking haphazard, is very effective and the blow is very powerful.
1.5 Reproduction
The Secretary bird will nest at any time of the year depending on food availability. Pairs will soar and call at the start of breeding and display in
‘pendulum’ flights They build a large nest on top of a flat-topped tree or bush which is trampled flat ready to start building. Both sexes partake in
nest building. There is much feather display and head bowing during courtship and incubation change over. 1 to 3 eggs are laid, incubation is 42-46
days and fledging is about 8 weeks. The young do not try to stand until they are about 6 weeks old and well feathered. The parents bring food to
the nest in their crop and regurgitate the catch onto the nest, then feeding the young by picking up or tearing off small pieces.
The young stay in the nest area for four to eight weeks and are dependent on the parents for about another six months. They probably reach
breeding age at four years.
1.6 Survival
Longevity.
Little is known about the longevity of this bird in the wild however they can live up to twenty years in captivity.
They are occasionally predated upon by large carnivores and eagles and in addition are very susceptible to accidents with overhead wires and
vehicles.
Their numbers are thought to be good, although never adequately estimated; however they should be in the tens of thousands. The Secretary Bird
Sagittarius serpentarius is not globally threatened - status CITES II
Suborder - Falcones
Family - Falconidae (falcons and caracaras)
Subfamily - Polyborinae (caracaras and forest falcons
- Falconinae (falcons and falconets)
• Tiny to medium sized birds
• Worldwide distribution
• Diverse habitat - forests to open plain, deserts, tundra and urban areas
• 10 genera
• 61 Species
• 149 Taxa
Like the Accipitridae this family is very diverse ranging from the falcons with their long pointed wings, through the terrestrial caracaras, the forest-
falcons that are more like the true hawks, and the tiny falconets.
The caracaras have the long, pointed wings of the falcons and the relatively short tail, but the face is not the shortened shape of the falcons, it is
longer more like the sub-buteonine birds. They all have fairly bright facial skin and in some the crop shows bare skin when full. The legs are strong
and long, very suitable for their ground living habits and scavenging.
8
Very little is known of the Forest Falcons, they tend to look very much more ‘hawk’ like with long barred tails, short rounded wings and long legs.
Some have the yellow eye of the hawk family, others the brown eye of the falcons.
The falconets look more like the ‘true’ falcons. Although they do not have the long wings and short tail, the head and beak are very falcon-like. The
tiniest of all the diurnal raptors, these little birds are nevertheless fearsome hunters.
The rest of this family from the Kestrels through to the largest of all, the Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus, are very similar. A short rounded head, with long
pointed wings and a shortish tail makes them very obvious as falcons in silhouette. The beak, which is very strong for its size, has an extra tooth on
either side of the main hook to assist in the killing of prey. Their feet are not as powerful as many other species, but in some of the falcons, such as
the Peregrine Falco peregrinus , they are so large that they look out of proportion. All the falcons have dark brown eyes - except the Greater Kestrel
Falco rupicoloides, which is also known as the White-eyed Kestrel for obvious reasons. Most of the falcons are varying shades of brown and the
juveniles all tend to be browner than adult coloration with buff edging to the darker feathers.
This whole group can be divided into two, three or four subfamilies, but most modern classifications go for two. The caracaras and the forest
falcons which are closely allied, being placed together and the falconet and falcons forming the second subfamily.
All bar one falconet comes from the Old World and the falcons are found worldwide apart from the Antarctic.
Caracaras come only from Central and South America, as do forest falcons. Most of the caracaras live in open treeless areas, mountainous country
and plains except for the Black Caracara Daptrius ater and the Red-throated Caracara Daptrius americanus , both of which live in primary forest. All the
forest falcons live in primary tropical forest or forest edges.
The falconets are found in South East Asia except for the Spot-winged Falconet Spiziapteryx circumcinctus found in South America, and the two
African species. All live in open forest, forest edge and clearings with the exception of the African species that live in more arid savannah type habitat.
Africa and its islands form the centre of dispersion for the kestrels that are probably the most primitive of the falcons. The rest of the falcons are
globally present, with the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrin us being the most widely spread.
Apart from the kestrels, the others - particularly the large falcons, such as the Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus and the Saker Falco cherrug live in very
open terrain. The smaller falcons can live in more enclosed countryside, although none with the possible exception of the New Zealand Falcon Falco
novaezeelandiae inhabit heavily wooded areas.
The caracaras spend much of their time on the ground and are active, curious birds, however they fly well in a falcon-like style. They are all sedentary
to their locale except for the Chimango Caracara Milvago chimango, which appears to be partially migratory.
The forest-falcons due to the nature of their habitat are little known, but they are probably fairly active during hunting and sedentary otherwise -
none are thought to be migratory.
The falconets are active little birds in hot weather and spend many hours in their nest cavities when it is cold. They are non-migratory.
The falcons, like many birds of prey only spend a small percentage of their life on the wing. They have an active method of hunting which is
particularly evident in the large falcons. Some are migratory, others are sedentary, this often depends on the climate where they live.
Social Behaviour.
The Daptrius caracaras Daptrius alter and Daptrius americanus , appear to have an important and unique social structure amongst birds of prey; they
hunt and breed in groups. The other caracaras will feed together in groups where food is plentiful or at carcasses, but otherwise are not social birds.
The forest-falcons are not social; living solitary lives except in the breeding season.
Falconets have close territories due to their small size and limited needs. Families will stay together, but apart from that they are not social and can
be aggressively territorial.
A few of the ‘true’ falcons are colony nesters, but generally the falcons live and hunt alone apart from when paired up. Juvenile birds are often
tolerated in a breeding territory but pairs keep other adults well away.
Voice
The caracaras have a harsh rasping call and all appear to have some sort of stylised head movement associated with the call.
Little is known of the voice of forest falcons although the consensus opinion seems to be a call like “our, our, our,” or “how how how”.
The falconets have a similar call to the falcons but faster and higher pitched.
The falcons have a ‘kekking’ noise in single or repeated notes, and a ‘keeing’ scream, the pitch of which depends on the size of the bird.
Most of the caracaras are opportunist feeders eating whatever is available; including palm nuts, garbage, carrion, insects, reptiles, mammals and
birds. They have powerful legs and feet to allow them to dig and root around. They can be considered to be searchers, walking the ground,
scratching and scavenging. When the hunt they select easy, small and abundant quarry.
The Laughing Falcon Herpetotheres cachinnans hunts snakes almost exclusively. The rest of the forest falcons appear to feed on a variety of lizards,
insects and birds, although little is known of two of the species.
The falconets are predominantly insectivorous, catching large insects on the wing, but occasionally taking small birds.
The falcons have very catholic tastes; the Hobby Falco subbuteo feeding from insects on the wing, whilst the Saker Falcon Falco cherrug takes
mammals up to the size of a rabbit, and the Gyr Falco rusticolus which will take birds up to the size of a Sage Grouse.
The falcons are probably best known for aerial manoeuvres. The kestrels are masters of hovering - hence their old English name ‘wind hover’. The
large falcons have no equal for sheer speed and drama. The fastest is the Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus which is also the largest and most powerful of
the falcon family. The falcons like other raptors strike their quarry with their feet. The smaller falcons will snatch small quarry out of the air, the
larger falcons when chasing airborne quarry strike with enough speed to kill or maim. It is unlikely that the speeds often quoted for the large falcons
such as the Peregrine Falco peregrinus are correct. When stooping vertically, with folded wings, they reach terminal velocity and no more.
9
1.5 Reproduction
Like all the raptors the Falconidae pair up and once paired will stay faithful for the season and often for life. A very few species may allow helpers
but this is unusual. Pre-mating feeding by the males, shared nest building and spectacular aerial displays are all a prelude to breeding.
The caracaras all build stick nests, although not always a very structured one. They lay 2 - 4 eggs and breed at varying times of the year depending
on altitude, latitude and food abundance. Almost nothing is known of what age they start breeding. The Crested Caracara Polyborus plancus has an
incubation period of 32 - 35 days, the others are probably similar. The fledging period is approximately three months, but the young will be under
parental care for some time after that.
The forest falcons probably mature at one year old and may well breed in juvenile plumage, as do many small raptors. This group nest either in
cavities in trees or use disused birds nests. This habit is typical of many of the ‘true’ falcon family, none of which build their own nests. Very little is
known about clutch sizes, the Laughing Falcon Herpetotheres cachinnans only lays one egg, the rest probably lay 2 - 3 eggs. Fledging periods are not
known, but they are likely to be similar to sparrowhawks and kestrels - 27 - 35 days.
The falconets mature within their first year, often moulting before one year old and breeding once in adult plumage. They nest is tree cavities,
sometimes holes in buildings, and other birds nests such as weaverbirds. They lay 2-5 eggs, incubation is 28 - 30 days, fledging is 27 - 35 days,
and juveniles remain with parents for up to two months after fledging.
The ‘true’ falcons all nest in tree cavities or cavities in buildings, on ledges, on the ground or occasionally in disused birds nests. They dig a small
scrape or hollow in which to lay their eggs. All reach mature plumage in their first moult. The small falcons such as the kestrels will breed in their
first year with the larger species reaching breeding age at 2 - 3 years, 2 –6 eggs are laid, incubation is 30 - 35 days and offspring are fledged in 4 -
8 weeks. The young stay with the parents learning to hunt for 1 - 3 months.
1.6 Survival
Longevity
None of this family are very large birds, with the Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus the largest. In the falcon family the caracaras are the longest lived and
the Crested Caracara Polyborus plancus has been known to live over 30 years in captivity. In the wild the smallest, such as the falconets may only live
three or four years. The kestrel-sized falcons can live and breed for up to 12 years although this would be unusual. The large falcons can live into
their twenties but most captive falcons appear to be far less fecund after 14 years.
Falcons have comparatively few natural predators, with the exception of man. They are much more likely to meet their end through accident or
starvation. They are sensitive to both pollution and poisoning together with changes in habitat.
None of the Caracaras are globally endangered, although those living in primary forest decline as do the forests. The Striated Caracara Phalcoboenus
australis, due to its island habitat is rare overall and currently thought to be near-threatened, mainly due to persecution by farmers. All the caracaras
are CITES II
The forest falcons are not globally threatened, but the status of some is little known. The Plumbeous Forest-falcon Micrastur plumbeus is considered
VULNERABLE and is suffering from habitat destruction through deforestation. All the forest-falcons are CITES II.
Of the falconets only the White-fronted Falconet Microhierax latifrons is thought to be near threatened due to loss of forest habitat. Research is
required on breeding biology and population densities to ascertain status. The rest of this small family is considered not globally threatened. All
species are CITES II.
The largest of these groups, the falcons, have greatly differing populations. The Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni is considered RARE as there has been a
drastic decline in the species in the later half of this century, probably due to over use of pesticides and loss of old buildings used as nest sites. The
Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus is listed as one of the rarest birds in the world and considered ENDANGERED. However a concerted captive-breeding
programme has increased the breeding population by 300%. The Fox Kestrel Falco alopex may be vulnerable and the Banded Kestrel Falco zoniventris is
considered near threatened. All the kestrels are CITES II except the Mauritius Kestrel that is CITES I.
Affected by habitat problems and DDT the Grey Falcon Falco hypoleucos from Central and NW Australia is RARE, and declining with a total breeding
population estimated at 1000 pairs. The Sa ker falcon Falco cherrug , the Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus and the Taita Falcon Falco fasciinucha are
considered near threatened. The rest of the falcons are not globally threatened. All are CITES II except for the Lugger Falcon Falco jugger the Gyr
Falcon Falco rusticolus and the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus which are CITES I.
Section 2: Management in Captivity
This section has been written with two very different programmes in mind. Taking into account the World Zoo Conservation Strategy, the
emphasis in zoos today has moved to captive breeding and research into endangered species. It is often the case that the general public,
while well informed about high profile and often non indigenous species, are ignorant of their own native species. Another important factor is
that while a species might not be endangered at the present time, there are many species that are being profoundly affected by habitat
changes and human activity. Therefore, although it is important to consider housing and keeping raptors so that well managed captive
breeding programmes can be achieved, there are other factors to consider when managing species in captivity.
In the raptor group, there are at present no endangered species amongst native raptors in the UK. Indeed some species, such as the
common Kestrel and several of the owl species, need breeding in captivity to be curtailed: A surplus of common species is a drain on space,
release schemes can be detrimental to wild populations unless carefully considered, and birds can end up in unsuitable homes.
So there are two different categories that can be managed in two quite different ways. Firstly, indigenous species that are common are
educationally very useful, can make for excellent exhibits, however they require no specific captive breeding programmes. These birds can be
housed so that they require little in the way of monitoring of nest sites or breeding. Using suitable species, this group can be housed in
enclosures that are designed to look like natural environments. Educa tion is the theme for the visiting public. Locally native species are able
to cope with local climates well if housed correctly. Other common species that are suited to the local climatic conditions can also be housed
in ‘natural environment’ pens.
The second category - species that require captive breeding programmes. These need much more specialised enclosures. The emphasis
should be on the creation of optimum breeding performance, rather than the recreation of natural habitats. These enclosures need to be
10
built for the comfort and security of the birds, and to enable ease of monitoring and management. Thus allowing the use of techniques
such as artificial incubation, returning of young, and such other processes that can be used to achieve successful breeding of birds of prey.
The two types of enclosures, and management of such will be explained in the following criteria for management of falconiformes in
captivity.
NOTE
There are some groups of raptors that do not do well if on view to the general public, except under exceptional circumstances. This includes all of the
accipiters and some other related species that have a highly nervous nature. The Falconiformes TAG advises that these species should only be kept in
specialist collections and by those with expert knowledge of the various problems likely to be faced when keeping these raptors in captivity. Gyr Falcons
(Falco rusticolus) should also be avoided unless very specialist enclosures are constructed because this species is very susceptible to Bumble Foot and
Aspergillosis. Both diseases can kill very quickly.
2.1 Enclosure
With few exceptions breeding raptors require individual territories, which means when in captivity, separate enclosures are required for each
potential pair.
If in order to show natural habitats, large exhibits are required, then species should be selected that will live together in reasonable harmony.
These should be made up of individuals for which there are no specific breeding programmes or conservation needs and ought to meet the
educational requirements of the viewing public. They must be adapted to cope with the local climate in which the zoo is situated.
In natural enclosures it is very important that account is taken of the needs of the species housed. For example, African vultures are very
susceptible to frostbite, as are the tropical New World vultures. Often large enclosures with natural habitats despite looking attractive and
spectacular, lack sufficient shelter, ‘safe havens’ and warmth. The right native species that have the ability to cope with local weather
conditions, will do far better in this type enclosure.
Raptors are more settled when given the elevation to get above the watching public. Some species of raptors will not breed if able to see
adults of their own species and many will partake in aggressive territorial disputes between enclosures if other species are in close proximity.
Raptors are susceptible to disturbance during the breeding season and can injure themselves in the enclosure if disturbance is not kept to a
minimum. Some raptors are very aggressive when nest sites are approached. Until pair bonds are formed, which can take several years some
raptors will not share perches or shelter.
Both types of enclosures - those built for aesthetic and educational reasons to house suitable native species in natural looking enclosures
together with those built specifically for breeding projects, should be designed to give more than adequate shelter for each individual bird,
and for young on nest sites.
Siting of enclosures
No raptors should be ever be able reach another in an adjoining enclosure. Should breeding enclosures be built in close proximity to each
other lines of sight must be obscured. Some species such as Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus ) are unlikely to breed if able to see
another adult pair. If new enclosures are being considered, siting them away from the coldest winds and exposed areas leads to more
comfort for the occupants.
Public Barriers
Most breeding pairs of raptors should have a further boundary fence away from the outside of enclosures to discourage visitors from either
putting fingers or foreign objects though wire mesh front. A post and railed fence appears to discourage close contact and should last the
punishment given by the public for several years, if the posts are set in concrete. Wire may be put up on the inside of the post of rail fence to
stop small children from going under the rails.
2.1.1 Boundary (walls/roof/doors etc.)

Pinioning or wing clipping is totally unacceptable for raptors, it is an outdated and inappropriate.
Because raptors fly well, aviaries with some sort of enclosed top is needed to keep birds from escaping. At least one side, and preferably two
sides of an enclosure should be secluded or of a solid material. This allows for keepers to approach for management purposes without birds
seeing them. Even enclosures that are built for educational viewing rather than captive breeding should give the falconiformes, most of which
are naturally nervous, a large area where they cannot see any approaches. This will enable them to feel secure.
Aviaries that are being used for several species, or where breeding is not the principle aim, need to be spacious enough to house those
species without aggression. Enough good shelter should be available for each individual bird. Over crowding can be a significant problem.
Chicken wire is a highly unsuitable medium for raptors and does them physical damage if they fly into it. Chain link as roofing material has
been known to kill birds that have managed to catch a flight feather in one of the twisted links. Welded mesh is the most suitable, with a
hole diameter of 50mm being suitable for all but the small birds such as kestrels in which case 50mm x 25mm is small enough. Very small
mesh (10mm) should only be used for the tiny raptors such as merlins, American Kestrels or Pygmy Falcons, as larger birds can catch a
talon and become entangled on the wire, or injure toes.
Painting the outside of the wire with black emulsion paint leads to far better visibility for the public, whatever the size of the mesh.
Raptors are more secure if they are able to gain some height, but high enclosures should also be long enough for birds to manoeuvre. The
old type Victorian enclosures which were high but short are not suitable. As raptors can defecate some considerable distance, enclosures
wide enough for perching to be placed well away from walls or wire lead to less time spent cleaning and tidier looking enclosures.
Enclosures to house birds with breeding as the main aim, should be constructed with at least two solid sides. This makes monitoring and
feeding without disturbance easier. Nest ledges or boxes should be placed on these solid walls with permanent access ladders or upper
corridors and passageways in place, together with access doors and viewing panels or spy holes available for breeding management
techniques.
Enclosures should be roofed with weatherproof material so that birds have adequate shelter and nest areas are completely covered far
enough out to prevent rain or snow blowing in. Small triangular timber or tin roofs over nest ledges in totally open wire built enclosures are
no longer an acceptable design for any zoo intent on serious breeding programmes, nor indeed are they suitable for any birds of prey.
Roofing material used should prevent excessive build up of heat in the summer or condensation in winter - steel, tin and large areas of
transparent roofing material are not suitable. Concrete fibre roofs, or bitumus sheets both have good insulating properties and cut down
condensation to a minimum. Transparent sheeting may need to be used to give extra light, these sheets are better placed away from nesting
areas. Enclosures should be designed to encourage good ventilation but without drafts. Air vents in the roof of the service passage can help
if designed correctly.
11
If birds become nervous or territorial during the breeding season or at any other time Netlon Windbreak material, or similar can be stretched
taut across the inside of the wire, using battens and giving an inside barrier of a material that birds can hit without physical damage.
Aviary access and the ability to clean enclosures with the minimum of disturbance are best from a darkened service passage. Doorways
should be large enough to allow easy access for wheelbarrows and people alike –1m x 1:75m makes for safe and comfortable entrance for
keepers. A double door system is recommended to avoid escapes and for security. Feeding trays should be out of direct public view.
2.1.2 Substrate
In enclosures built as natural environments, the substrate will be dictated by the type of environment emulated - for example desert type
environments would usually have sand, gravel or stones as the base of the flooring material. These materials are probably suitable for most
raptors.
Raptor droppings are very damaging to any form of natural undergrowth that they fall on, so for environments with natural plantings,
perches should be placed out of reach of expensive plants. Enclosures where indigenous undergrowth is allowed to grow unchecked, apart
from looking unsightly can be dangerous to raptors in wet cold weather, particularly the smaller species. Once birds get into the undergrowth
and get wet, they are unable to get off the damp floor and this will have a detrimental effect to them. Where young birds are just learning to
leave the nest and are not yet strong flyers, long wet undergrowth can trap them and cause death through hypothermia. There are specific
grass species adapted for slow low growth and should a natural substrate be required perhaps some investigation into these types would be
advisable. Ground cover plants such as winter heather’s or similar, with sand under perch areas would also allow for natural appearances
without high growth of vegetation. Plants to give cover in enclosures can be planted in pots and either buried in the substrate or placed
where they can be watered from outside. Whatever material is used, enclosure floors should be as clean and dry as possible. Birds constantly
having to land on cold, muddy floors are likely to experience health problems eventually. This is particularly true of vultures, caracaras and
Secretary Birds which spend a larger proportion of their time on the ground.
For breeding enclosures rather than natural appearances, sand seems to be the best substrate. It absorbs droppings well, is easy to rake
and keep clean and will absorb rainwater if drainage is sufficient. At the National Birds of Prey Centre we have recently changed all our
enclosures to a concrete base, sloping for drainage, covered in at least four inches of sand. This solves the problem of pests such as rats
taking up residence in enclosure floors. Concrete can be disinfected after removal of the sand in the event of infection or disease.
Wood chips or bark are not a suitable substrate in confined as they harbour spores of Aspergillus sp. which can lead to Aspergillosis.
Concrete with no covering or substrate is not suitable being unforgiving for birds to land on. This is a considerable problem in the larger
species. Large stones (over 25mm) are very difficult to rake and hard to get clean and like uncovered concrete bad for raptors that land
heavily. Fine gravel is acceptable, but not as easy to keep clean and maintain as sand, nor is it absorbent.
2.1.3 Furnishings and Maintenance

Apart from building enclosures that are comfortable, manageable, and attractive, they need to be furnished with perches, nest areas, baths,
feed ledges and hidden retreats for some species.
Perches
Perching for birds of prey needs to suit the species housed. Secretary Birds unless housed in huge enclosures which would need to include
small flat topped trees, are unlikely to perch other than on the ground, so low tree trunks, large rocks and stumps are sufficient. Vultures,
both Old World and New World do not have feet that grip well, so they require large, non slip perches with plenty of space for landing.
Because vultures tend to squabble, sufficient high perches are advisable. There should be enough space round the perches for very big birds
to be able to land with ease from a height. Eagles need large branch type perches, with space for well over their wingspan for landing on the
perch, this avoids feather and wing damage. Large falcons need forgiving surfaces, ledges of rock, large diameter branches, half round
wooden ledges covered in coco matting or astroturf will all assist in making the birds comfortable and avoid foot problems. The buzzards,
hawks and small raptors will all do well with a mixture of low and high tree type perching. All bar the big vultures and Secretary Bird seem
to enjoy a swinging perch.
Perches of differing diameters, from wide to narrow, provide valuable gripping exercise for the birds and irregular shapes mean less chance
of pressure sores or bumble foot.
Over the years wooden perches season and the timber can get very hard and slippery. It is advisable to keep an eye on perches and change
them regularly. This changing of the perches also give mental stimulus to raptors. The sighting of perches will lead to either reasonably clean
enclosures that are easy to maintain, or if badly placed will make for droppings all over walls which are difficult to clean and unsightly.
Wooden branch type perches placed too close to corners is poor practice, apart from the build up of droppings on walls, flight feathers can
be damaged as birds fly into corners. Perches sited away from walls make for better visibility, cleaner enclosures and birds in better feather
condition. Good perches with plenty of branches should be placed close to nest areas so that young birds have a place to hop to once they
become active.
12
Nest areas
Some raptors prefer to nest on ledges, others in holes or cavities. By checking the nesting requirements of individual species in good
reference books it is easy to provide for specific breeding needs. In captivity the size of the nest area is quite important and optimism should
be taken into account when building a ledge or box. Allow for the area to house both parent birds and the highest likely number of young
with ease, rather then putting up small nesting areas that will lead to overcrowding, dirty young, stressed adults and difficult maintenance.
The nest ledges for birds at NBPC usually run the whole length of the back wall of the enclosure, backing onto the service passages. Eagles
have ledges that are 2:5m wide and 5m long, falcons and hawks have 1:25m x 3m and even small birds such as merlins have 0:75m x
1:25m. This gives room for adults to display without getting too close to one another in the early, sensitive stages and room for pairs to
choose a nest area at different points on the ledge. It gives sufficient space for developing young to grow, practise wing flapping and play. It
also gives room for keepers to get onto the ledges out of season and clean them properly.
Nest boxes are a minimum of 0:5m square for small birds, with an access panel at the back for monitoring, egg removal, replacement of
young birds, ringing of young birds and so on.
All nest areas should be easily monitored with the minimum of disturbance and easily accessible to facilitate the removal or replacement of
eggs and young. Spy holes, or one way glass or painted glass windows are a must where captive breeding is a serious intent, and access
doors should be incorporated in any nest area.
As eggs are fragile it is advisable to have a soft substrate material on nest ledges and nest boxes. Some groups of raptors, such as the falcons do
not build nest, but like the owls, dig a scrape in the substrate on the nest ledge and lay their eggs in the hollow. As some individuals can dig
quite a deep ‘scrape’ the substrate needs to be at least 150mm – 220mm deep. By experimenting the NBPC has found that sand or pea gravel is
the best material available in the UK. Wood chip is dangerous, both in terms of harbouring infection and for young swallowing large pieces. Peat
is too dust and can cause gut impaction in young birds. Gravel is acceptable in some species but once the nest areas get dirty during incubation
the stones stick together forming a hard base, this can lead to broken eggs so care must be taken. Sand is not too dusty, absorbs droppings,
small amounts can be swallowed without too detrimental an effect, however it is heavy and nest ledges need to be strongly constructed to support
the weight.
Even with those other species that build their own nests, a soft under carpet of sand will stop eggs being broken if the nests are poorly
constructed by the birds.
With species that prefer nest boxes such as the kestrels, it is no bad thing to give a choice of nest box. By putting two boxes into a enclosure
not only is there choice, but the male has somewhere to go away from a demanding female and young during the breeding season. Both
nest boxes should be easy to monitor and access.
Retreats
Some species or even individual birds are more settled if there is an area or ‘safe haven’ in the enclosure where they can get out of sight of
the viewing public. Enclosures for such birds should be designed to give some sort of refuge for them. The ‘safe haven’ must allow enough
room for all individuals in the enclosure and give good perching facilities. This is especially important for nervous species or individuals.
Some species such as the large accipiters require separate enclosures for the male and female outside the breeding season. A divided
enclosure giving ample room for each bird, but with viewing areas so they can see one another is advisable for species such as the Northern
Goshawk and others of similar habits. The viewing areas should be constructed with double wire to stop either bird grabbing the other
through the mesh. A sliding door between the enclosures will allow the birds to be given access to each other at the right time.
13
Baths
Although birds of prey do not drink a great deal, all of them drink at some time, especially when young, in hot weather or if ill, so there
should always be clean fresh drinking and bathing water available. Baths in ‘natural environments’ will have to reflect the setting, but still
should be easily accessible for cleaning and maintenance preferably from outside the enclosure. They should be large enough to give the
species enough room to bath sufficiently, but fairly shallow with a non-slip surface. Too deep a bath can lead to drowning particularly in
young birds. Four to six inches of water depending on the species is deep enough for most birds.
Baths in enclosures built for captive breeding are best sited so they can be cleaned and filled without entrance to the enclosure itself. Siting
on an outside wall, with an access door makes for easy care. A shallow concrete pan, large enough to give space for the individual bird is
easy to construct, lasts well and gives a good surface for the bird. Baths are best situated away from corners and perches where droppings
can fall into the water.
Feed Ledges
Feeding birds from a service passage is the easiest way to manage feeding regimes. However feeding is achieved, a ledge or sliding drawer for
food, away from direct public view, out of the sun and weather and easily removable for cleaning is advisable. Dropping food onto enclosure
floors encourages vermin, looks unsightly for the public, can cause food to be lost in snowy winter conditions.. In a recent study at NBPC it was
shown that doing a food collection each evening for all the diurnal birds of prey was not only beneficial but gave a good indication as the
amounts consumed by each pair of birds. It also stops food being ‘cashed’ for several days which can lead to acute bacterial enteritis and other
fatal infections. This should not be done for species with young or nocturnal species, but is useful with others as food intake can be monitored,
less food is wasted, less food is left around to encourage vermin after dark and aviaries are kept cleaner. If food drawers are placed underneath
nest areas, they are less likely to get dirty as the ledge protects the area from droppings, young only see food arrive when delivered by parents and
parent birds are encouraged to work a little harder collecting food thus mimicing natural foraging behaviour to a small extent.
Maintenance
For birds of prey to breed successfully in captivity a certain amount of privacy should be given to pairs. Cleaning enclosures on a daily basis
can cause disturbance and stop birds from feeling they have their own territory which can lead to breeding failure. Nevertheless, enclosures
do need to be kept looking cared for or the visiting public become concerned. If the enclosure is well designed with perching well away from
walls, birds of prey are reasonably easy to keep clean and a rake of the substrate of the enclosure once a week will suffice to keep the birds
from feeling invaded. Once egg laying commences it is best to leave enclosures until young have hatched. A notice on the front of these
enclosures explaining that as the birds have eggs, disturbance through cleaning is being kept to a minimum, will explain to the public why
the enclosure is untidy and at the same time inform them of the success.
Baths need to cleaned out at least once a week and more during the summer months when green algae can build up very quickly.
Food drawers and ledges also need cleaning very frequently to stop the build up of old food.
Each enclosure should be completely cleaned out once a year. About six to eight weeks before the start of the breeding season is a good time
to undertake this. The birds should be caught up - giving the chance for beaks and talons to be trimmed, birds to be wormed, blood tested
occasionally and generally checked over. They should then be placed in a dark box lined top and bottom with carpet, and left somewhere
secure, quiet and cool but not too cold, while their enclosure is cleaned, disinfected and generally checked over. This is the time to remake
nests, clear nest boxes and get ready for the coming breeding season. Once the enclosure is cleaned and ready, the occupants can be
returned. They should not spend more than 12 hours in the box without being fed, However it is rare that an enclosure will take more than a
day to clean. Should enclosures need major refurbishing, birds should be placed in a safe holding enclosure until the work is complete.
At NBPC each nest ledge is cleared and cleaned completely every other year and in the intervening years the nest just tidied and added to. All
walls, nest areas and baths are scrubbed with a virocide, sand is sprayed and raked clean, and fresh sand added.
The easiest, quickest and safest way to catch up birds is with a large, deep, small meshed landing net such as those used by fishermen. The
birds can be caught quickly, talons on birds that can easily injure themselves can be clipped while the bird is grasping the net thus ensuring
that once out of the net the talons don’t inflict injuries to the base of the foot - this is particularly important with large falcons. Gloves
should be worn by handlers as most birds of prey can inflict painful bites and have a powerful grip with their feet.
2.1.4 Environment
Although many birds of prey can withstand a cold environment, there is a distinct difference between being able to survive cold weather and
being comfortable and secure while subjected to poor weather conditions. What should always be remembered is that wild birds can and do
move their location to deal with differing weather conditions, whereas a captive bird does not have that option.
Species that come from hotter climes than the UK may well require more sheltered enclosures or extra forms of heating. Secretary Birds are
without doubt more comfortable lying down at night, so providing a warm sheltered area, out of view, with a dust free dry bed of sterilised
hay or straw or shredded paper will keep them warm. An overhead heat-lamp, as long as all wires are protected and birds cannot reach the
actual hot bulb, is very useful in a sheltered area for birds such as Mauritius Kestrels, the New World vultures, those Old World vultures found
in hotter areas and most of the tropical species. Under-perch heaters such as the low voltage electric heaters used in greenhouses or to stop
pipes from freezing, can also be used. Tiny birds such as African Pygmy Falcons require fully heated winter quarters. Electricity should be
used as a power source as it is fume free. All electrical cables should be hidden, covered or well protected, especially from inquisitive birds
such as vultures and caracaras.
Totally roofed enclosures should still be light and airy. Ventilation is important to reduce the risk of a build up of infection. Enclosures with
wire roofs should be built substantially enough to hold the weight of snow and plenty of sheltered areas should be provided in these
enclosures. Aviaries should wherever possible be faced away from cold prevailing winds and if this is not possible then non migratory species
from more northern climes should be housed there.
2.1.5 Dimensions
This is an area where opinion differs greatly. There is no doubt, that despite being in what might be considered small aviaries, some
surprising species have bred.. However there is also no doubt that the general public, who by their entrance fee make the running and
continuance of most zoos and collections possible, prefer to see birds and mammals in larger enclosures.
Square shaped enclosures give more room for flying and ease of cleaning as opposed to long narrow ones. However, depth can be
important for nervous birds. High enclosures should have enough length for birds to get onto high perches and fly to the ground safely,
particularly for the larger, more clumsy birds such as eagles and vultures. There should be enough room for birds to ‘brake’ their flight and
land gently - thus avoiding bruising to the feet or damaging wings.
The following are the sizes at NBPC:
Eagles and Large Vultures - Wingspan 1:25m – 3m

Enclosures 10m long. x 5m wide x 7m high. (built 1987)
14
Preferred – 8:5m l x 8:5m w x 6m h to allow more turning and landing space, and for perches to be further away from walls.
Buzzards, Kites, Large Falcons, Small Eagles. – wingspan 1m – 1:75m.

Enclosures 6:5m l x 3:25m w x 4m h. (built 1988)
Preferred – 6:5m l x 6:5m w x 4m h.
Small Falcons, Small Buzzards, Small Kites. - wingspan 500mm – 950mm

Enclosures 4m l x 2:5m w x 3m h. (built 1992)
Preferred –4m l x 4m w x 3m h.
Accipiters are not mentioned. Unless there are very exceptional circumstances the accipiters and their close relations do not do well in public
enclosures. They are better kept off show in specifically built enclosures, or only viewed by the public through spy-holes or one way glass. Size
requirements would be the same as the other species depending on the comparable size of the Accipiter. Note; where one way glass is used,
strips of back tape should be run on the inside of the glass as the reflective surface can lead to birds attacking their own reflections.
By comparing the enclosure sizes to the wingspan of the birds it can be seen that approximately three times the size of the wingspan would
be acceptable as a minimum standard.
2.2 Feeding
Birds of prey are carnivorous with one or two exceptions, mostly they are not fussy feeders and are happy on a diet of dead meat. However
a single food source is not good for them, nor is it advisable to feed such. A wide variety of food leads to a better balanced diet, more
interest for the birds, and less reliance on one food type thus avoiding problems should that food type become unavailable.
2.2.1 Basic Diet

The main food fed to birds of prey in the UK is hatchery waste - dead day old cockerels of either chickens or turkeys. These are culled as they
are not needed by the poultry industry and are available, sold frozen from several suppliers. Although these are fine for the birds and give a
convenient sized food parcel for most species except the large eagles and vultures, they are not sufficient on their own. The danger of using
day old chicks or any avian derived feed, is greater risk of food borne infection than if mammalian food is used.
Quail, rats, mice, guinea pig, rabbit and beef or horse, all used in a feeding regime for birds of prey make for a good diet. It must be
reiterated the use of one food type only is not advised.
Fresh food such as culled rabbits should never be fed if shot with anything other than a rifle and then the food should be checked for the exit
point of the lead bullet. Stillborn calves donated by farmers make excellent food for vultures and large eagles but must be fresh and free from
antibiotics. If animals such as rabbits are used, and particularly if young birds are being raised, fracturing the long bones will help to prevent
impactions and blockages should parents feed too large a mouthful.
Food should always be as fresh as possible, even if from frozen stock. Frozen stocks should be rotated to keep freshness to a maximum.
Old food in enclosures should be removed and disposed of, particularly when pairs have young, or in the summer when the weather is hot.
Supplementary
There are a number of multi vitamin supplements available on the market today. Some are made specifically for birds, others even more
specialised are just for birds of prey. All should be used according to the manufacturers instructions. Only one supplement should be used at
a time, and possibly with the advice of a good and experienced veterinary surgeon. Calcium supplements such as Nutrobal (Vetark) for egg
laying birds can be useful, Calcium phosphate is not always a good calcium supplement for birds of prey as it can cause an imbalance.
Vitamins only have a certain shelf life and should not be kept for too long.
2.2.2 Special Dietary Requirements
Young birds of prey require the same food as adult birds, but far more of it. So during the breeding season plentiful supplies of food should
be available to the rearing pairs, particularly after the first week when the young birds start to grow quickly. The best rule of thumb is that if
all the food has gone, give more, if some is left after dark, feed slightly less. Care should be taken that adult birds do not ‘cache’ or store
food that will then go ‘off’, and that the food is being taken by the raptors not by pest species such as rats or magpies. Over feeding can
cause parent birds to only feed the choicest meat, rather than the whole food item and this can lead to calcium deficiency.
Vultures, when given a large feed may well take longer than 24 hours to put over their crop. It is a good idea to have a couple of days per
week where they are not fed. This, of course, does depend on the individual birds and on the time of year. However birds with young must
have access to food on a daily basis.
Tiny species such as Pygmy Falcons and the falconets should be fed mainly insects, or where larger food items as used, such as day old
chicks or mice, these should be skinned and cut in half.
The young of merlins and some other similar species can suffer from impacted stomachs if fed food items that have fur or fine fluff when
under 20 days of age. Skinning the food until the young are fully fledged will solve that problem.
Birds fed on a rising protein level e.g. from chicks to quail appear to gain a higher fertility.
Sick birds should be removed from enclosures to specially designed sick quarters and fed accordingly. A very good diet for sick birds needing
force feeding and unable to hold down solid food is a proprietary food made for recuperating cats called Hills A/d Diet. With care and
experience this can be given with a crop tube and will keep sick birds going for some time until they are able to return to a solid diet. Usually
20-30 ml/kg is given every two hours until the bird shows signs of returning strength and appetite.
Sick birds should always be seen by an experienced veterinary surgeon.
2.2.3 Method of Feeding

As stated before, a special ledge or drawer for feeding is advisable. It keeps food off the floor of the enclosure and away from the viewing
public, uneaten items can be removed, and the area can be cleaned with no disturbance to the birds.
Except during the breeding season, which varies between species and latitude, birds of prey can be fed once a day. This can be done at
anytime, although a specific time is probably easier on the birds and the keepers. The zoo should consider if it wants the public to see the
birds eating or not before deciding on the time of feeding.
15
During courtship smaller feeds given more often can lead to more food passes between the pair and the possibility of better bonding and
breeding. Feeding at least twice a day once young are hatched is vital. Probiotics, which are mentioned in hand-rearing, can also be given to
birds feeding their own young, reducing disease and possibly enhancing growth rates.
For cleanliness in enclosures, rabbits and quail are better if gutted first as are calves, but the latter should be butchered into sections
anyway. If the wings and feet are cut off dead quail, the feet from rabbits and the tails from rats, this too assists in keeping enclosures
clean. Uneaten food should be removed except where there are growing young. Old food should be removed daily wherever possible without
disturbance. Methods of disposing of uneaten food remains should be efficient, safe and legal.
With the exception of insect feeders, live food should not be fed to birds of prey in the UK. It is not legal and there is no need.
2.2.4 Water
As stated before, all birds of prey should have access to clean water for drinking at all times. Bath water is not necessary for sick birds,
although water for drinking must be available. Baths should be always available for aviary birds and offered on a very regular basis to
tethered, trained birds in cold weather and on a daily basis in warm weather.
At NBPC automatic cattle drinkers have been installed in mews areas for tethered birds to make fresh drinking water available at all times.
2.3 Social Structure

A few species of birds of prey are colony nesters such as some of the vultures, Sooty Falcons, Lesser Kestrels and so on, and some will feed
in groups such as the vultures and a few of the eagles. Nevertheless birds of prey are not gregarious and do not tolerate other members of
their own kind with any degree of ease.
If birds are being kept with breeding as the main aim, then pairs should be kept separately as stated elsewhere in the Guidelines. If groups of
birds are being kept in educational environments then the group should be educational - that is species from the same country and area
being kept together and they should be tolerant species that might normally be living in the same territories in the wild.
2.3.1 Basic Social Structure

Generally birds of prey do not have much of a social structure, other than single birds pairing up either just for breeding or for a life mate.
Some species, such as the harriers are polygamous during the breeding season, with males pairing with up to three different females and
providing for three families, however to achieve this in captivity would require very spacious enclosures.
In captivity juvenile birds can sometimes be left in groups until they reach adult plumage, although they should be monitored to spot any
potential bullying. Some pairs will put up with juveniles they have parented for some time, even up to the young achieving adult plumage,
although this is not a wise course to follow if further breeding from the adult pair is desired. Stress can cause bullying and even injury to one
or other of the birds
Apart from Harris Hawks that do have a social structure in the wild where older young will often assist in the rearing of siblings, and Black
Vultures who appear to have a social role in roosting and feeding habits; most other raptors have no bond to hold them together once
young are considered independent of parents. Some species do not stay together as a pair for the whole year, but instead split up after the
breeding season and pair up again, barring accidents, the following spring. Many of the smaller species may not even be mate faithful.
2.3.2 Changing Group Structure

Usually this will only concern young birds being removed once they are fully fledged and this does not cause any problems with the breeding
pair, often quite the reverse - it relieves the parents of the burden of the young. Young should be caught up quickly and either dispersed to
their new homes or put in groups in another suitable enclosure. Birds that may be trained for educational demonstrations should never be
tethered until they are fully grown, the feathers are ‘hard down’ and bones fully developed.
In educational aviaries where different species or groups of birds may be being kept, the introduction of new members to the group or new
species should be well monitored and any individual being introduced should be of the right upbringing to fit in well.
On the death of one of a pair, new mates should be introduced well outside the breeding season and the mate should be given time to
recover from the loss. Some birds will never be offered an acceptable replacement despite several being tried.
For the keeping of the true Accipiters specialist reading is suggested prior to building enclosures and structuring management plans.
2.3.3 Sharing Enclosure with other Species

As all birds of prey are meat eaters and the majority are hunters they can be very aggressive to other species, It is not a good idea to consider
Raptors suitable for sharing enclosures with other species. Breeding pairs should have their own enclosure with no other species involved.
Educational aviaries can possibly, and with care, mix taxa, but if any breeding is attempted, young birds will be very vulnerable during the fledging
period. Birds in breeding condition can get very territorial. In mixing species of the same taxa not only should the species be chosen carefully, so
should the individual bird.
2.4 Breeding
2.4.1 Mating
Some raptors are aggressive when in breeding condition. Aviaries should be entered with great care and feeding done carefully if pairs are
showing territorial or breeding behaviour.
With most birds of prey the female will stop going to collect her own food and will allow the male access to food first. She may call to him
for food, she may chase him begging for food, and she may, if he is unresponsive, take food from him whether he wishes it or not. This is
normally the stage when pair bonds can be seen to form. If males are not giving the responses that the females need then she may turn on
the male and start chasing him, terrorising him, or even injure or kill him. If a male is showing signs of fear, injury or unacceptable levels of
stress he should be removed without delay. Although generally, because of her larger size the female usually is the more aggressive of the
two, it does not always follow that the female is dominant, sometimes she can be the one showing signs of stress and be in need of
removal. In these cases a reasonable amount of knowledge and experience in dealing with breeding birds is needed to find out which of the
pair is perhaps not suitable for breeding, or if the problem is just that the particular pair are not compatible.
Aggression towards intruders in the enclosures can continue until young birds are fledged.
Food passing, nest building, copulation, calling, all of these are a fair indication that breeding attempts may be made. Mating can occur at
anytime, it may be very obvious to the onlooker, it may never be seen, even by those monitoring the enclosures. There is little that can be
16
done to encourage mating except putting the birds in the right surroundings and aiming for compatibility. Many birds will breed very readily
whilst some individuals may never breed in captivity.
If nest building is seen, the adding of small amounts of new nest material, fresh greenery, and dry gra ss towards the end of nest building may
help to encourage interest. The material should be placed in the enclosure with the minimum of disturbance.
Feeding regimes can be changed to smaller amounts given more often, thus allowing mates more opportunities for feeding the females.
Higher quality food can be used prior to the breeding season to stimulate breeding activity.
In the wild state falconiformes breed at greatly differing times of the year depending on the species, food availability, altitude and weather
conditions. The same occurs in the captive state, with different species coming into breeding condition at unexpected times of the year. Bateleur
Eagles can be very early, laying in December or even earlier. Monitoring of paired birds should continue throughout the year until breeding seasons
are established.
Diurnal birds of prey mature at various differing ages, some such as the kestrels will lay in their first year, others such as the large eagles or
vultures can take up to seven years or more to reach breeding age. Placing younger birds in with older birds can bring younger birds to breeding
condition earlier than if young birds are paired together. The same procedure works putting experienced breeders in with less experienced birds.
2.4.2 Egg Laying and Incubation

Eggs
As we are dealing with all the Falconiformes, egg sizes and incubation periods are not discussed here. There are many good, up to date reference
books that give this information. All the falcons lay brown speckled eggs, the cara caras being closely related do the same. The rest lay eggs of
varying colours of blotched white, buff, or greenish blue. The colour tends to be paler to non existent as each subsequent egg is laid. It is not
unusual for the last egg in larger clutches of falcons eggs to be almost white.
Much information is needed on egg measurements. These data can easily, and sometimes can only, be collected by those in charge of captive
collections.
Most birds of prey lay an egg every other day, although larger birds such as eagle can have a longer gap between eggs. There are individual birds
that do not conform and will lay with varying intervals between eggs. One problem to be watched for is egg lethargy in the females. Often females
will look sick or ill just prior to laying eggs. This can lead to difficulties as on occasion the female is actually ill rather than in egg lethargy. So care
should be taken at this time to ensure that egg laying females are not suffering from infection, or egg binding. If females are sitting for an
unusual period on the ground, rather than perched or on the nest area, catching up and checking them should be a matter of course. Handling of
females that might be due to lay imminently or are suffering from being egg bound should be undertaken with extreme care. Sudden bouts of
cold weather can cause egg binding, particularly in enclosures facing into chill winds.
Keepers should start to monitor nest sites some time before egg laying occurs. This habituates the pair to keepers near the next site and should
also give the date of first lay. As many of the falconiformes do not incubate from the first egg, unless the nest site is checked daily laying may not
be noticed straight away.
Incubation
Natural incubation, egg manipulation
Established, experienced pairs of birds are perfectly capable of incubating, hatching and rearing without assistance. However young or
inexperienced pairs may need some assistance in the first few seasons. With endangered or valuable species it is not advisable to leave the whole
process to inexperienced parents as many things can go wrong.
Some birds are naturally clumsy with eggs, once a pair shows signs of breaking eggs examine the nest area carefully. Remaining eggs should be
removed and if a second clutch is not required, dummy eggs can be substituted for the parent birds to continue incubating. Turned wooden eggs
make excellent dummies.
If allowing birds to achieve the whole breeding cycle unaided, eggs should at least be checked for fertility after the first ten days of incubation.
Egg retrieval, candling, egg returning
Thin rubber gloves should be worn for handling eggs to avoid contamination. Two people should be present when eggs are removed. One person,
with a net should gently fend off, or remove from the nest the incubating female. The female will tend to be the more aggressive bird during
incubation, although that is not always the case. Care should be taken to make sure that in defending the nest, the female does not damage her
own eggs. A net slid under her and either containing her, or pushing her off the nesting area is the best method. Both keepers should wear a good
quality falconry glove to protect themselves. The second person, guarded by the first, should then carefully remove the eggs into a softly lined,
secure and clean container, making sure that the eggs are safe. If the candling of the eggs is going to take more than a few minutes, then
dummy eggs can be left in the nest, if not, returning the eggs quickly will be sufficient. Returning eggs should be done in the same manner, with
two people, one to concentrate on the birds, one to manage the eggs. It is not advisable to remove eggs at night as birds may not return to
incubate. Once eggs have been returned the enclosure should be left well alone to give the birds time to settle. This process is best achieved with
the absence of the general public and well before dark.
Most good commercial egg candlers will give out enough light to candle all but the densest of raptor eggs. An ultra violet lamp is not necessary.
Keepers should gain experience in candling eggs by learning on chicken eggs before testing the eggs of endangered species. Gentle handling of
eggs is the key as rough handling can cause internal damage to the attached embryo.
If eggs are fertile and the pair is to be allowed to hatch them naturally then the clutch should be returned to the pair as soon as possible in the
manner described above. If the eggs are clear then it is probably best to try and recycle the birds thus giving a second chance in the same
breeding season. If so, and dummy eggs have been placed with the female during egg candling, these will have to be removed, leaving the birds
with no eggs, which should, in most cases stimulate second attempts at breeding.
Most of the small to medium sized species of falconiformes will recycle at two to three weeks after the eggs have been removed. The larger species,
such as the eagles don’t normally lay until a month has elapsed, sometimes even longer. Some birds may not recycle, but if the first clutch of
eggs was clear, nothing is lost.
If recycling is required, the eggs should not be left with the parents for much longer than 14 days before removing or candling as once the bird is
too far into incubation the desire to replace a lost clutch is past.
If clutches are found to be fertile, but the pair of birds has never reared, it is probably advisable to artificially incubate the eggs, or let broody hens
do part of it. Do not let broody hens hatch eggs as they are liable to kill the young. Once hatched, young can then be hand reared for a few days
before returning to the parents. A slightly older, stronger and more experienced chick is easier for the inexperienced parent bird to manage.
17
Alternatively, if young from a suitable, less vital species are available, they can be used as foster young to see how the adults cope. If coping well
the correct youngster can be substituted or even added to the clutch, depending on the species.
Breeding birds must be left on dummy eggs if young are to be returned, but double clutching is not required. Falconiformes will not accept young
if they have not been sitting on eggs of some description.
Many of the eagle species suffer from cainism in the nest with the first hatched young killing the second hatched. Careful management can avoid
these unnecessary deaths. By removing the second (and third if there is one) egg after two weeks of natural incubation and hatching artificially,
deaths are avoided. The young can then be switched at five day intervals so that both are getting natural rearing as well as hand rearing, until the
danger point is past (usually at about two and a half weeks old) and all the young can complete the rearing with their own natural parents.
If double clutching is required to produce more young of endangered species, it is advisable to have spare pairs of birds to act as foster parents.
The clutches will be at least two weeks apart at hatching and the age difference is too great to allow all young from both clutches in the same
nest at the same time.
During natural incubation nests should be monitored daily to check incubating birds are well and the eggs are not broken. A moment of listening
may tell the keeper when young have hatched as they can sometimes be heard calling. It may be necessary to have two people approach the nest
site and leave one silently there while the other retreats again. This may give the chance to see the eggs, but some birds are very loath to leave the
nest. Checking at feeding times may help.
As all pairs of birds are different, common sense should be used to access each pair and decide on the best course of breeding management.
Without doubt raptor eggs have a higher percentage hatch if the eggs have some natural incubation in the first week to ten days. This does not
necessarily have to be by the parent bird. Well managed broody hens will successfully incubate all but the smallest species of eggs. The hens must
be kept in clean dry conditions and be used to being handled during incubation.
Egg storage
Fresh eggs that have received no incubation can be stored for short periods. However unless absolutely necessary this practise is not advised. Egg
hatchability will decline after a few days. It is recommended that raptor eggs be stored only if proper storage conditions are available and then for
no longer than five days. Eggs should be kept in a dry stable room, commercial chickens eggs are stored at 60.f-15.c at a relative humidity of 75
- 80%. The Peregrine Fund have had good success storing eggs for short periods with their large end uppermost and turn them through 90
degrees at least twice daily.
Artificial Incubation
Incubators
There are many different commercial incubators on the market. However the make does not really matter as long as the keepers in charge of
incubators are completely at home with the make used and as long as the instruments used to measure the temperature and humidity are
accurate. It is probably best to stick to one manufacturer rather than having several different types as repairs are easier and so are comparisons.
For the serious breeder at least two and preferably three incubators should be running during the breeding season. One for incubating, one for
actual hatching and one to cover for mechanical break down, or disinfecting. If dealing with a large variety of species different incubators may be
required to deal with the widely differing egg sizes.
Incubators and the room containing them should be well sterilised and cleaned prior to the breeding season. Incubators should be turned on at
least four days before required to hold eggs. They take at least 24 hours to stabilise at the right temperature and humidity. Thermometers should
be checked by placing them in ice to bring them right down and then putting them together in hand warm water and then making sure they all
read the same temperature. Hygrometers, or other methods of assessing humidity should also be cleaned and checked.
Water containers and any other equipment used in incubators should be sterilised.
This cleaning process should be repeated at regular intervals during the breeding season. However if fumigation is to be the method used, viable
eggs should be removed from the incubation room while any fumes are present. Keepers and any other living creature must also be well away
from fumigation sites.
Incubators will run better if kept in a room with a stable ambient temperature. Incubator rooms should be well away from any tampering and
staff should always announce their presence before entering as a quickly opened door can startle technicians and cause problems should eggs be
being handled at the time.
If the incubator room has windows care should be taken to ensure that sunlight does not fall on the incubators at any time. A blind at the
window will protect incubators from overheating due to direct sunlight.
Egg Handling
Egg collection has been dealt with earlier. However it is vital that all keepers should thoroughly cleanse their hands before either collecting eggs or
handling them during incubation. Disposable surgical gloves or sterile rubber gloves should be used wherever possible.
If possible it is better to avoid washing or wetting eggs as external bacteria can quickly be absorbed through the shell into the egg. Very dirty eggs
can be carefully scraped clean with a sterile scalpel blade. They can also, once surface dirt has been removed be wiped clean with a sterile
dampened cloth. It is possible to obtain a commercially made egg disinfectant used in the poultry industry, this can also be used if absolutely
necessary.
If hand turning eggs or candling eggs, they should only be turned slowly and gently. Quick, sharp movements when turning can damage eggs.
Eggs should only be turned 180 degrees. Mark eggs on two opposite sides with arrows facing one another and only turn the egg the way the
arrow showing points, until the other arrow is uppermost.
Once eggs have had a certain amount of incubation and are proved to be infertile by candling they should be removed from the incubator to
prevent cross infection of viable eggs. Having an incubator solely for suspect eggs is useful.
Position, temperature and humidity
Some people incubate eggs on their ends, with the pointed end down. Some prefer to let the eggs lie naturally on the side. Most commercial
incubators turn the eggs up to 24 times per day. If an odd number of hand turns is added - 3, 5, 7, not only does it mean that the incubators
and eggs are checked regularly, but the eggs will get at least that number of full turns and should spend the longest break on a different side each
day.
Raptor eggs have been hatched in incubators at varying temperatures, but the most used and seemingly most successful is 99. 5 f - 37. 5 c with
between 30 and 35% relative humidity, however this may need to be changed if an egg is either loosing too much weight, or not enough. All
18
known species of birds should lose 18% of the fresh egg weight by the time they hatch, 15% of this weight loss should have occurred by the time
the egg has pipped.
Often the most difficult thing to measure is the fresh egg weight (FEW) Unless each egg is weighed as it is laid, it impossible to know the FEW of
a clutch of eggs that is removed from parents after say 10 days of natural incubation. A formula from the Peregrine Fund has been made by
Burnham By carefully measuring the egg ( Several times in differing areas as no egg is perfectly symmetrical) both the length and breadth with
callipers, the following formula can give and estimated FEW.
W = Kw (LB 2 ) where W = fresh weight
Kw = observed weight
coefficient for peregrine
eggs (0,0005474)
L = Length of egg (mm)
B = breadth of egg (mm)
A sample calculation for an egg 50mm long, 40mm in breadth would look as follows:
W = Kw (LB 2 )
= 0.0005474 (50 x 402 )
= 0.0005474 (80,000)
= 43.79 grams
This calculated FEW can be in error by as much as 2%, however, this is not normally enough to affect the hatchability of healthy eggs. Although
this formula has been worked out for Peregrines, it seems to work well for other species.
Eggs begin to lose weight as soon as they are laid. So by various calculations the estimated, desired weight loss can be approximated. By
weighing all the eggs at regular intervals Keepers can see whether or not to change the humidity to increase or decrease weight loss. For further
information see references.
It is advisable for keepers or technicians responsible for incubation to gain experience on Chicken eggs through every stage of egg handling and
incubatio n before going on to more important species.
Incubation Periods
The majority of raptor eggs hatch in 28 to 35 days, the larger species can go as high as 55 to 60 days. It is strongly recommended that all eggs
thought to be viable are given continued incubation at least one week over the known incubation period.
2.4.3 Hatching
Some chicks will become very vocal close to pipping and whilst still in the egg. Sometimes movement can be seen as the embryos start to get
active, others make no sound or movement until the pipping process has
begun. By hand turning on a regular basis pipping eggs should be spotted soon after the shell has been cracked. With the more strongly coloured
eggs such as the falcons the first crack may be difficult to spot, however it can usually be felt by running a gentle and clean finger round the egg.
Once an egg has pipped it should be moved to another incubator for hatching, particularly if other eggs are present, but not hatching. Turning
ceases and the egg should be placed so that the pip is uppermost. The hatching incubator is run at the same temperature (99.5.f - 37.5.c) but
the relative humidity is raised to 55 to 60%. After the egg has pipped there will be an interval of rest for the chick, some will enlarge the pip area
to a hole and can be seen moving, others may have no movement until actually starting to turn. This period can be very worrying for the
technician, but patience is needed, particularly by those new to the experience. Interference too early is often not needed and can be fatal to the
hatching chick. Once the embryo starts to turn in the egg the hatching process should only take from ten minutes to an hour. King Vultures are
not inclined to move in the shell and often have to be helped after making a large hole.
If the hole has become too enlarged before turning commences the membrane may start to dry out and cause the embryo to become stuck and
unable to move, spraying with a fine mist of warm sterile water, or painting with a soft, wet, sterile paintbrush can help the membrane to become
loose. The hole can be covered with damp tissue or even a tiny piece of Micropore tape (remove some of the stickiness by placing on the back of
the hand several times).
Once the chick has hatched the navel should be swabbed with an iodine based disinfectant. Never spray the embryo with a propelled spray, always
administer it with a cotton bud or clean tissue.
The hatched chick can be left in the hatcher until dry or moved to a brooder straight away. A newly hatched chick has an oddly shaped head, a
bulbous neck and very protruding eyes, all this will settle down within 24 - 48 hours. Some chicks may look very distended due to insufficient water
loss, but this will dissipate if the chick survives.
Problem Hatching
Some eggs will prove more difficult than others. However only experience of the technician will be able to judge really well when to assist hatching
embryos and when to leave well alone. Assisted chicks are usually weaker in the first few days of rearing, may need extra care and even a course of
antibiotics.
The general rule of thumb for the inexperienced is leave the egg pipping for sixty hours before attempting to help the embryo to hatch. However as
experience is gained assistance can be given earlier if required. If the egg experiencing problems is candled and the air sac marked on the shell with
a felt tip pen, small parts of the shell can be removed with forceps. Be careful not to pull off any shell touching the membrane.
Once the membrane is exposed, if it is touched with a wet, sterile paint bush full of sterile, warm water the blood vessels will be exposed. Then the
technician can see if the blood supply is still flowing or has closed down. By gently touching the most obvious vein with the tip of the paint brush
and then removing, this will become very obvious. Completely closed down vessels contain no blood, Once that happens it is usually safe to
carefully remove the embryo.
If the blood is still flowing, cover the hole with the exposed membrane with damp tissue and place in a still air incubator, not a forced air as this
will dry out the embryo too quickly. Keep checking until the blood flow has ceased. If helping out a chick, don’t remove straight away from the
lower part of the shell. Ease the chick to one side and see if the yolk sac has been retracted, if not - leave the embryo in the lower half of the shell
until it has - this could take another twelve hours. To keep the embryo from sticking, or getting infection the lower half of the shell can be gently
damped with a mild disinfectant The chick will be prone to getting cold at this stage so deal with it either in a very warm room or on a water
proof heated pad, and keep the temperature of the still air incubator at 99.5 f. until the chick is safely out and dry and warm.
All problem chicks will need extra care and probably extra fluid.
2.4.4 Development and Care of Young

Brooding
19
Newly hatched chicks should be placed in a still air incubator or brooder running at 95.0 f. This temperature can be reduced by 1 degree a day
until the secondary down comes through and young birds are able to thermo-regulate, or are returned to parents or foster parents.
It should be stated here that the Falconiformes TAG strongly recommends that all young birds should be reared by parent or foster parent birds. Total hand
rearing should be avoided at all costs. Unless bred specifically for demonstration work, or artificial insemination, hand reared individuals are unlikely to be
potential breeders, can be very aggressive an d take up valuable space. This does vary between species and some of the vultures will breed if hand reared as long
as they are subjected to visual or physical stimulation of their own kind as soon as possible.
Newly hatched birds should be put in containers that are designed to hold legs neatly tucked under the birds. Splayed legs can happen in a matter
of one hour if birds are kept on the wrong surface. A plastic 1/2 gallon ice-cream or margarine container, with at least two inches of sand
formed into a hollow with a fist and covered in two pieces of kitchen towel is ideal. This should be placed in the brooder at least 24 hours before
needed will provide a warm and stable nest cup for young birds. The kitchen towel can be replaced after each feed and the cup can be reformed.
If rearing a number of clutches of young raptors, it is probably easier to have several brooders at constant known temperatures and move the
growing young rather than altering the temperature of one brooder. Overheating can kill very quickly, a good, tested thermometer should be
reading the temperature close to the young at all times. A steady temperature in the brooder room makes the rearing of young much easier. It is
not advisable to have young in the same room as incubating eggs as young birds are considerably less clean than eggs and cross infection could
occur.
Various brooding methods have been tried, still air incubators - although these are excellent they are only suitable for the first few days of life with
all but the tiny species, or problem young. A disposable card-board box with heat lamp, washable plastic containers such as water tanks with the
bottoms cut off and either overhead heat lamps or low heat plastic veterinary recovery pads underneath containers. Heated water pads (“K-Pad” -
available in USA) that young can move up to or away from, all have their merits and breeders should find out which is most suited to their needs
and budgets.
As long as care is taken to keep young clean, warm, well fed and on surfaces that will allow the correct growth, that is all that is needed.
Young that are too cold will huddle together and cry. Young that are too hot will pant, spread out away from one another and also cry, but it is
different noise. Experience will soon tell the technician what is needed. Over heating is more likely to lead to weak and ill young.
With all but the smallest of species supplemental heating should not be required after 10 days if the brooder room is at 70.F (21.C) and no lower.
Containers should be washed daily to remove build up of faeces.
Feeding
More young raptors are killed by overfeeding than any other cause.. Unless dealing with tiny young, such as Pygmy Falcons or other young
weighing less than 10 grams at hatch, it is best to leave the first feed for at least twelve hours and sometimes longer if the chick is showing no
signs of hunger. Newly hatched chicks that look distended with fluid should be left without food until the stomach is flaccid and soft to the touch.
A mixed diet of finely minced or chopped meat is suitable for most species. Quail, skinned, gutted with the gizzard, feet, wings and head removed,
rabbit skinned, gutted, feet and head removed, rats treated the same way, plus chop off the tail, day old chicks, skinned, yolk sac, gizzard, head
and feet removed, mice skinned: when put through a commercial mincer these make excellent food for young raptors. The bones will be
utilised by all but the youngest of chicks and these can be pushed to one side when feeding for the first couple of days. A probiotic supplement
giving the beneficial bacteria and microbes should be added to the feeds for several days for young chicks. ‘Avipro Paediatric’ made by Vetark is
specially designed for this purpose and contains a starter kit for newly hatched birds at their first feed.
Using forceps tiny pieces of minced food can be offered to the chick which should raise its head to accept feeding. Falcons need food to be placed
in the beak, often with the upper palate being touched by the food before they will close their beaks and swallow. The rest of the raptors, with the
exception of the New World vultures will respond to the food being brought in slowly towards the beak at about their eye level and will then
attempt to snatch the food from the forceps. Young chicks are pretty inept to start with, missing the food, or falling over, however they soon get
strong enough to take food more easily. The New World vultures naturally feed by putting their beaks inside the parents beak and receiving
regurgitated food. By gently encircling the beak with finger and thumb the adults beak can be represented and then the young bird will take food
from forceps touching the side of the beak.
Vultures seem to do better if a digestive enzyme is added to the food as well as a paediatric probiotic. Damping the food for all young raptors
makes feeding a little easier and keeps young birds from getting dehydrated. Apart from the smallest of young (the under 10gms hatch weight)
four feeds per day is sufficient to give good weight gain and growth rate. To keep a check on the health and growth of young birds they can be
weighed regularly. Weighing before and after every feed gives a good idea of food intake and growth.
Rings
Once young birds have reached 10 to 14 days old, most of them can be ringed. Although there is no legal requirement for most species, it is
advisable to ring all but the New World vultures, as this gives an external way of marking and keeping track of captive birds. Closed rings can be
obtained from good commercial producers and they know most of the correct sizes required. It is a legal requirement to ring some species and the
rings for these are obtained from the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. See Legislation 2 . 7.
Casting Materials
Casting materials to allow the young bird to form pellets for regurgitation can be introduced to the food at about 10 days to 2 weeks, for small to
medium sized birds and up to one month for larger ones. Just stop skinning the day old chicks and that will give sufficient. Casting material is
not vital in the early stages, in fact the birds could probably do without it until feathering up. The adult birds very carefully select the pieces of
food they think the young can manage and usually fur or feather is thrown aside or eaten by the parent. It is vital to feed the bones and minerals
that come with mincing whole, yet gutted and skinned, animals. Small birds such as merlins do better without casting material until they are
feathering up.
Supplements
Added vitamins and calcium can be very useful. Many collections may have to use frozen food items and some of the goodness is lost in this
process. A good multi vitamin supplement should be added in powder form on the food - do not exceed recommend doses. Calcium has to be
used carefully, sterilised bone flour can cause imbalances in phosphates. The most highly recommended is Nutrabal which seems to work well in
raptors without causing any problems if used as directed.
Water
Young raptors do not drink until they have left the nest and can reach water for themselves, however they not only obtain water from the meat
they eat, but the parents drip an oral secretion onto the food while feeding the young. As stated earlier, by damping or dunking the food prior to
feeding the chicks, with either water or a ringer’s solution will stop dehydration and assist growth of young.
Age of returning young
20
Once young birds have reached 10 to 12 days, are looking healthy, eating well and have been ringed, they should wherever possible be returned to
parents or foster parents.
If this is not possible then all through the rearing the young should have as little in the way of contact and handling from the humans caring for
them. Puppets shaped to the colour and build of the adult can be used to assist in avoiding any severe imprinting on keepers. Most species will
learn to pick up food for themselves at about 10 days old. Encourage any young that are having to be totally hand reared to learn to feed
themselves as quickly as possible and spend as little time as possible exposing them to human interference.
If the young are going to be put back not so much care is required to avoid human contact as it will soon be forgotten once the birds are being
reared by their parents. If returning the young is left much longer than 14 days they will be mobile enough to try to get out of the nest in fear
when they first come face to face with their parents.
First time parents are an unknown quantity and keepers should always make sure that they have plenty of time set aside on the day chosen to
return young. Birds will have to be watched for several hours, possibly for one or two days to check that all is well. Some birds are really difficult
to monitor as they will not do anything while under observation, these birds can may to be watched from a distance with binoculars.
Two keepers, both wearing a falconry gloves should be available to return the young. The young ready to be returned should be placed in a bowl
for ease of carrying to the aviary. Returning the young is much the same as taking eggs. One person fends off the female with the net while the
other removes the eggs and replaces them with the young. If the parent birds have been sitting on dummy eggs, these need not be handled
carefully, however if the birds have recycled and are sitting on fertile second clutches, great care must be taken in removing the eggs. A moment
still by the nest ledge to watch the first reaction of the parent birds is advisable. If you are really lucky, the female will immediately come up to the
nest - watch for her ‘balling’ her feet - and may even cover the young straight away. The enclosure should still be observed as the reaction of the
male has to be assessed before keepers can relax. If the female takes to the young it is rare for the male to cause problems, however it can
happen and should a young bird be picked up or grabbed by either of the adults action must be taken. Keepers should run towards the enclosure
and bang loudly on the side while someone goes in to rescue the youngster..
What more often happens is that the two adults will sit away from the nest watching the new young and probably wondering what has happened
to their eggs. The keeper can only watch and wait to see if either parent will go down to the young. It can be a good idea to leave fresh food on
the side of the nest to encourage feeding.
Eventually most birds will show some sign of reaction. It is very rare for birds to completely ignore the young and refuse to sit, or feed the young.
If that does happen a decision has to be taken whether or not to leave the young in the nest over night. That will probably depend on the weather
conditions, if it is very warm and the keeper can be around at first light to monitor the enclosure then the young can be left. One day without food
will not harm them at this stage and sometimes the calling done if they get a little cold or hungry will bring a favourable response from the
parents. More than two days probably means that a different approach will be needed the following season and young will have to be removed
and placed elsewhere.
A bad reaction from a parent does not necessarily mean that they will never be a good parent - it just takes more time and management to get
things right for that individual pair. Once a pair has made it as successful parents it makes things much easier so that the effort put into
achieving results is well worth it.
Don’t forget that if the eggs removed are the second clutch they should be swiftly and carefully taken to the incubators and placed there safely
while others watch and safeguard the returning of the young.
Foster Parents
Most Buteos will rear any other species of buzzard, hawk, eagle. or other similar species. Most falcons will rear any falcon, although species size
should be taken into consideration. It is unwise to ask very large species to rear the young of very small, even though related species. If keepers
stick to using falcons for
falcons and mixing buteos, accipiters, and the eagles, for rearing any of those families it has been proved to work. Don’t forget that some young
from eagles will indulge in cainism if not treated in the correct manner.
Some species really need their own kind as parents or fosters. Common Caracaras have a fairly bare face and once full, a very bare crop, this is a
little too different for only distantly related fosters. It also means that what might be termed ‘odd’ species may not be able to be mixed with the
young of the more ordinary species for the same reasons.
Monitoring
Once young are successfully accepted by parents or fosters they should be monitored to check there are no problems. On rare occasions chicks in
stick nests have got a twig caught under the ID ring - this does not normally cause problems if seen early but can damage a bird permanently if
left unnoticed. In clutches of two or more, one young may just not be doing as well, removing either chick and hand feeding it for a few days
should solve the problem, the chick can then be returned to the nest.
Great care should be taken entering aviaries or nest areas once the chicks are close to flying. Young birds bailing out of the nest too soon can
injure themselves.
2.5 Population Management
2.5.1 Population Status
As we are dealing with all the falconiformes here population status is a little hard to estimate. Although some zoos use ISIS, the majority,
particularly those smaller and more specialist collections do not. ISIS is expensive and much of the useful information apart from just numerical
data, is not stored by ISIS or able to be passed on other than in hard copy form. In some taxa, such as the Ratites, independent research
suggest that ISIS figures normally represent 50% of the total captive population. In terms of raptors ISIS figures would not form any such basis.
There are literally thousands of some species in captivity, particularly when private owners are included. Whereas some species have no
representation whatsoever. The draft form of the falconiformes CAMP may, once completed be able to shed a clearer light on captive population
status at least in the first world.
2.5.2 Species Management Programmes
At the time of writing there are no international stud books available for raptors.
White-tailed Sea-eagle Haliaeetus albicilla EEP (Amsterdam Netherlands)
European Black Vulture Aegypius monachus, EEP (Amsterdam Netherlands)
Steller’s Sea -eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus ESB (Moscow Russia)
King Vulture Sarcorhamphus papa, ESB (Arnhem Netherlands)
In the USA there is a Studbook for The King Vulture Sarcorhamphus papa
and a studbook for the Californian Condor Gymnogyps californianus
21
2.5.3 Individual Identification and Sexing
Some species are much easier to sex than others. Unless technicians are very experienced, sexing will not be possible until the young are well
feathered in the case of colour dimorphic species, e.g. Falco sparverius or full grown in the case of species that are exceptionally size dimorphic e.g.
Accipiter nisus, & Falco mexicanus. In general the females in falconif ormes are larger than the males, but in some groups the reverse can be true
e.g. some of the vultures, and in many species the difference is not great e.g. Buteo buteo, so weighing and measuring is not a fool proof method
of sexing. If the parent and the young birds are wellknown to the keepers, then sexing by size can be easier through experience. But otherwise the
only accurate way of knowing is by surgical sexing.
Scientific sexing of birds is improving rapidly and soon it may be possibly to sex young birds by removing a small body feather still in the blood
and testing it - karyotyping. At the time of writing most breeders use an experienced vet to laproscope the birds to determine sex. In important
breeding projects it is vital to have the sex of the birds confirmed or valuable years can be wasted.
To comply with British Law all Schedule Four species must be marked with a government ring. This is a seamless band with a unique number and
size, provided by the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. This band must be fitted at 10 - 14 days old for the smaller
species to 2 - 3 weeks old for the largest. It is also a requirement for all other falconiformes apart from the vultures and Secretary Birds to be
ringed, should they be traded. This TAG advises that all birds bred in captive collections should be marked regardless of possible trade. This is best
done with a closed ring as it gives an easily visible marker. The only exceptions are the New World vultures who by their habit of urinating on their
legs make the use of rings dangerous to their health. Rings are easily available commercially and can be marked with the initials of the zoo, a
number and the year. It is suggested that bright reds are not used for obvious reasons.
To add to this, as rings can become illegible or may have to be removed in case of injury, an implanted transponder will make the bird easily
identifiable to those with a reader. The transponders in falconiformes are usually placed under the skin of the pectoral muscles. It is advised that
birds being used for demonstration are not flown for three days after the transponder is implanted.
At the time of writing many schedule four birds are having blood taken for DNA genetic fingerprinting by the DETR. This is the most conclusive
way for both breeders and law enforcers to prove parentage of birds.
This TAG recommends that if zoos are co -operating with this effort, not only should the birds be caught up at the appropriate time to give the
minimum risk of injury or death, but the zoo should keep its own blood samples, which will be made available to them at the time of taking.
These should be stored correctly in case verification is necessary in the future. Please note - Blood should only be taken by people qualified to do
so.
2.6 Handling
2.6.1 General Handling
Most falconiformes are nervous when their enclosures are entered, so enclosures should only be entered when absolutely necessary. If birds are to
be caught up this should be done as quickly as possible. The keeper will soon learn which of a pair is more nervous and that bird should be
caught up first to avoid it damaging itself. Keepers should wear tough coats and a good quality falconry glove when entering enclosure, hard hats
could be used for individuals known to be exceptionally difficult. As stated before all birds should be caught up using a net. The net should be of a
soft small mesh material and quite deep. If the net is too shallow the birds will bounce out of it. Where enclosures are very high a long handle
should be fitted to the net. Collections should have a couple of nets in stock at all times for catching up. Most of the medium to small birds can
be caught using one person only, although two (with a net each) will make the job quicker if more than one bird is to be caught up. The large
eagles and the vultures should always have two people per bird.
2.6.2 Catching / Restraining
Apart from handling the vultures, most of the other species of falconiformes are unlikely to inflict major damage if handled correctly. The danger
is probably greater to the bird through injury or stress during the catching and restraining process. The vultures both large and small are the
most difficult to handle. When upset they will vomit up the contents of their stomach with unerring accuracy so they should not be fed on the day
of catching up. They can inflict very nasty bites, so their heads should be restrained in the net first by one person, while the other tucks the wings
into the birds body and, holding the wings and body with one hand and the feet with the other. The head should be held carefully so as not to
throttle the bird or inhibit its breathing, if a vulture shows signs of wanting to vomit while being held care should be taken that it does not choke.
Should the keeper holding the head release it for any reason, the other handler should immediately release the bird as his/her face may be in
danger.
Whenever holding the feet of any bird, one finger of the hand should always be put between the legs so that any pressure can be felt on the finger
and thus avoid too much pressure accidentally breaking a birds leg.
Birds should be held either upright or on their fronts, or sides as a third option, they should not be held on their backs unless being examined by
an experienced Vet. Birds with respiratory problems should not be held or placed on their backs unless absolutely necessary and then only for the
shortest times and while being monitored.
With all the species apart from the vultures, the feet should be restrained first, as it is the feet that are most potentially dangerous, then the
wings, body and tail. The larger eagles can inflict a good bite, but nothing to the standard of a vulture. The fish eating eagles (all the Haliaeetus
family) are not only more inclined to bite, but will strike out at the handler with their wings which can be very painful.
Keepers will soon get to know which birds are liable to become defensive during the breeding season and extra care should be taken at that time.
Raptors are less likely to be dangerously protective than are the Owls.
Using a well fitting falconry hood can calm most birds down and stop them trying to bite. The occasional bird will be more upset by the hood,
but this will only become apparent with experience and understanding of the individual bird.
Great care should be taken when catching up female birds prior to or during the egg laying period, as poor handling can cause severe damage to
the bird.
2.6.3 Transportation
All birds of prey travel better in completely dark boxes. Purpose built boxes are best as none of the commercial ones are satisfactory. Boxes should
slightly longer than the head to tail length of the bird intended to travel, and wide and high enough for the bird to be able to stand and lie down
in comfort without banging its shoulders or head, but not sufficient to turn round.
A well made wooden box with no perches, carpet or some other non slip surface fixed on the floor and ceiling, and air-holes on either side is the
best option. The easiest type of door to use with untrained birds is an upwards sliding door at one end. The door can then be slid up a small
amount, the bird seen before being grasped by the legs, carefully, through the small opening before sliding the door fully open for removal.
Skykennels unless suitably modified, are not well designed for birds of prey (they are designed for dogs) they allow too much light, have exposed
areas of wire and the door opening is very poorly designed for removing nervous birds.
22
A handle fixed to the top of the box makes carrying easier and 1 inch square wooden slats along the outside of each side will stop boxes being
pushed close together and air-holes being blocked.
Birds are very susceptible to heat stress and so boxes should never be placed in full sun. Travelling birds during excessively hot spells should be
avoided or achieved early morning or late evening.
Falconiformes should be travelled singly.
Birds should be removed from boxes in secure areas where accidental escape is not possible and away from exposed areas of glass, such as
windows.
All collections should have a number of boxes in store to use at short notice.
Trained birds can be travelled hooded; but never left in view of the public; or left within one and a half times their wingspan distance of another
bird; never left unsupervised; and never travelled hooded after being fed.
2.6.4 Safety
As a rule most birds of prey will endeavour to get away from humans rather than attack them. Imprinted (Hand-reared birds fixated onto
humans) birds can be extremely dangerous to both keepers and the public, if imprinted in the wrong way. Great care should be taken to ensure
that these birds are not within reach of
the public unless under control by a trained keeper. With mentally stable birds it is usually only during the breeding season when birds of prey can
be potentially aggressive towards their keepers.
When handling falconiformes regularly, particularly the larger species, bites and scratches are inevitable. Keepers should make sure that they are
up to date with any inoculations such as Tetanus and that any cuts are properly cleaned and covered as soon as possible. Should a keeper be
particularly prone to continuing infection from such wounds it is suggested that another occupation be pursued.
2.7 Legislation
To comply with the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, all Schedule Four species must be marked with a
government ring. This is a seamless band with a unique number and size, provided by the Department of
the Environment, Transport and the Regions. This band must be fitted at 10 - 14 days old for the smaller
species to 2 and a half weeks old for the largest. This TAG advises that all raptor bred in captive
collections should be marked regardless of possible trade. This is best done with a closed ring as it gives
an easily visible marker. The legal requirements for the ringing of raptors in the UK is complex so the
habit of ringing all captive bred raptors helps to provide some safeguard..
Rings can become illegible or may have to be removed in case of injury, an implanted transponder will
make the bird easily identifiable to those with a reader. The transponders in Raptors are usually placed
under the skin of the pectoral muscles, or in the muscle if the bird is a reasonable size. It is advised that
birds being used for demonstration are not flown for three days after the transponder is implanted.
2.7.1 Conservation
CITES - European Community (EC) Regulations 3626/82 and 3418/83 (as amended by subsequent
Regulations) referred to hereafter as CITES Specimens and the Endangered Species (Import and
Export) Act 1976.
CITES - European Community (EC) Regulations 3626/82 and 3418/83 (as amended by subsequent Regulations) referred to hereafter as CITES Specimens and
the Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act 1976.
All falconiformes require a CITES Permit - form DOE 14108 for importing into and out of the UK from outside the EU.
Within the EU all Annex A birds that are being used for a commercial purpose require an Article 10 CITES certificate. This covers sale, display,
filming and all other purposes that might be termed commercial. Annex B birds require no documentation within the EU. Annex A birds that are
not being used for a commercial purpose do not require an Article 10 certificate. The Article 10 certificates should facilitate free movement within
the EC (allowing for the restrictions imposed by MAFF).and is required for movement into and out of the EC. Zoological collections can apply for an
Article 30 CITES certificate which will cover all of their Annex A species. It is required that you have documentation to prove that birds are indeed
captive bred, therefore it is wise to obtain a certificate of captive breeding for any newly acquired birds.
As documentation requirements can and do change regularly, it is best to find out the requirements - in writing - from the Government
Department dealing with the particular legislation or permit. CITES is dealt with by the DETR as is the Wildlife and Countryside Act. They both
come under the Global Wildlife Division.
23
Within the EC, wildlife legislation is changing very rapidly and it is impossible to give adequate and up to date information in Guidelines such as
these. Always check with the relevant authorities before considering movement of birds. It is also advisable to check with experienced, reputable
importers, preferably zoos or
collections similar to your own, who may be able to assist. This will ease what can be an extremely traumatic experience both for the birds and the
staff dealing with the movement.
Forms and information are available from:
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions

Wildlife Trade Licensing Branch
Tollgate House
Houlton St
Bristol BS2 9DJ
Tel. 01179 878202

Fax. 01179 878206
2.7.2 Health and Welfare
New Arrivals and Quarantine
It is advisable that all new birds entering the collection, from whatever source, should be maintained in
isolation for a minimum of 30 days. During this period the bird should be screened for parasites and other
pathogens, such as M. avium (tuberculosis) in order that it will not infect already resident birds or
contaminate their environment.
Importation of Birds Poultry and Hatching Eggs Order 1979

Council Directive 92/65/EEC (BALAI Directive)
MAFF is nominally responsible for health matters of birds subject to movements. However, at the time of
writing MAFF in enforced to change the rules, under instruction from the EC Commission and often
without discussion with those who are trying to work within the system. MAFF regulations are in a state
of flux and it will be some time before the requirements become fixed with all EC Countries. Information as
to what is required at the time of movement should always be asked for and received in writing.
Telephone instructions can differ according to whom one speaks. Birds coming from outside the EU all
have to undergo official quarantine and require veterinary permits supplied by MAFF to enter the UK.
The same applies for most countries within the EU, however a few countries have computer integration
and with a specific permit also issued by MAFF, birds are allowed to come into the UK without the
normal 35 days of quarantine.
It is a very complicated issue and often conflicting advice can be given. Always check first before
moving birds.
Forms and information are available from:
In England and Wales:

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
Import / Export Section (Birds)
Hook Rise South
Tolworth
Surbiton
Surrey KT6 7NF
Tel. 020 8330 4411
In Scotland:
Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland
Pentland House
47 Robbs Loan
Edinburgh EH14 1TW
Tel. 0131 244 6354
24
Air Travel
Regulations pertaining to the air transport of all livestock is dealt with by IATA. A working group from
The Hawk Board is looking at IATA regulations regarding the transport of Falconiformes and Raptors,
as they are considered less than acceptable for falconiformes at this present time. It is interesting to note
that only the British authorities follow IATA’s suggested travelling to the absolute letter. Every other
country, follows the spirit rather than the letter of the document. Others just blatantly ignore it. It is
advisable to get hold of the latest copy of IATA rules pertaining to the species being moved, and not
only checking on the crate requirements, but also food and water requirements. It is good practice to take
a copy of the information with you, so that should staff at the airport not agree with your interpretation
of the rules, you have them available to show them. The Federation Offices have up to date copies of the
IATA rule book, which changes regularly.
For information from IATA:

Americas, Asia, Australasia & Pacific Regions.
International Air Transport Association
2000 Peel St
Montreal
Canada H3A 2R4
Europe, Africa & Middle East Regions

International Air Transport Association
IATA Centre
Route de l’Aeroport 33
P.O. Box 627
CH-1215 Geneva 15 Airport
Switzerland.
Road Transport
The transportation of Animals Act and many other Acts covering the movement of domestic and farm
animals can apply to the movement of falconiformes. These should all be read and understood by
anyone wishing to transport raptors.
There are new Orders and Acts going through both European parliament and the UK Parliament as an ongoing process. Those wishing to
transport birds should attempt to keep up with the new regulations as they appear. MAFF should know most of them however the complexity
of the legislation is such that implementation and compliance is very difficult.
2.7.3 General
Wildlife an d Countryside Act 1981
All Schedule four birds are listed in the Wildlife and Countryside Act. Some of the falconiformes are listed. As discussed earlier, those listed require
government rings and registration with the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. They may be subject to inspection by the
DETR voluntary panel.
For further up to date information;

Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions
Bird Registration Section
Room 809
Houlton St
Bristol BS2 9DJ
Tel. 01179 878202

Fax. 01179 878206
2.8 Specific Problems
Considerations for Health and Welfare
As a general rule raptors are resilient. If kept in enclosures that are warm, dry, well ventilated, species suitable and fed on a good quality mixed
diet, they will give very few problems in terms of health.
Probably the commonest physical problem in captive birds is Bumble Foot, defined as a vascular necrosis of ventral feet tissue. This dead and
devitalised tissue may be contaminated with infectious organisms e.g. bacteria, which compounds treatment. For those less familiar with
veterinary terms, this is an infection of the foot, usually under the centre pad, but sometimes on a toe. In the majority of cases it is caused by
25
incorrect perching. It is difficult to treat once it takes hold and can reoccur. Birds should be removed from the enclosure, a sample of the material
in the swelling should be taken and checked to see which drug is the best to use. The bird will need antibiotics, dressings and fairly intensive
treatment quickly if the disease is to be controlled. Non responsive lesions will require surgery under general anaesthesia.
Salmonella does occasionally kill raptors, they can pick it up through the food chain and may be difficult to catch in time. It is very difficult to
avoid unless a radical change to a non-avian diet can be found for captive raptors. It is a significant but not a great problem, largely controlled
by acquisition of quality food, correct storage and good hygiene.
Adeno virus is lethal to Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus As far as we know, it is introduced through feeding avian food and once in an environment
is almost impossible to get rid of. Although individual cases occur in other species it is not necessarily lethal. But taking into account that
Mauritius Kestrels are a remnant island population, similar island species may be just as vulnerable.
Other viral diseases which effect captive raptor populations include Herpes virus, and Avian Leukosis Sarcoma Virus.
Aspergillosis, a fungal infection affecting the respiratory tract of raptors is a common illness in certain species but particularly Black Sparrowhawk
Accipiter melanoleucus, Goshawk Accipiter gentilis, Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos , Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus , and Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca. Poor
ventilation and large numbers of fungal spores released into the environment from moist rotting or decomposing vegetation - e.g. Compost
heaps, wood chip bark, hay or straw. These or similar materials, thick with Aspergillus fungal growth will exaggerate a disease outbreak. This
disease is not contagious.
Physical injuries may occur in captive birds, usually caused by a bird being upset, e.g. being caught up for some reason, or pair aggression in the
enclosure, or badly designed enclosures. It is very difficult to avoid
birds hitting wire occasionally and injury to beaks and cere can occur. These should be treated immediately and severe injuries will mean the bird
going into a hospital situation. In cases where the problem is recurrent the design, and perhaps the wire of the enclosure should be made safer,
using such materials as Netlon windbreak. It may be that a particular bird is not suitable for public display.
Any bird that is sick or ill should be blood tested as a routine procedure. This can save time in finding the root of the problem and often the birds
life.
Falconiformes should be caught up and given a physical check over once a year. Autumn or winter is the best time - prior to the breeding season.
At this time worming as a preven tive measure is advisable.
2.9 Additional Research
There is surprisingly little known about raptors, when one considers the numbers kept in captivity, how
successful captive breeding is and how much field research is being carried out.
In the breeding biology of raptors, very little is written down on accurate incubation periods, clutch
sizes, laying dates and so on. In some species, such as those from primary rain forest, almost nothing is
known of their feeding and nesting habits, growth rates etc. Although research in the captive situation is
necessarily limited, there is good information to be gained and it is much needed.
Weighing and measuring of eggs is a vital task that owners of captive collections can easily achieve,
plus correctly monitored pip and hatch periods.
Captive birds are also very useful in assessing susceptibility to illnesses and in the development of
effective treatments.
Zoological collections are a valuable resource for research. However the research should always be of
potential benefit to either the captive or the wild populations and should not cause harm to the individual
birds being used. It must always be remembered that there are stringent legal requirements constraining the
use of living creatures in scientific research.
Section 3: References
Brown, L. & Amadon, D. (1968) Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. Hamblyn Publishers.
del Hoyo, J. & Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (Eds). (1994) Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl. BirdLife
International Lynx Edicions.
Freethy, R. (1982) How Birds Work. A guide to Bird Biology. Blandford Press.
Parry-Jones, J. (1987) Falconry, Care, Captive Breeding and Conservation. David and Charles.
Parry-Jones, J. (1992) Training Birds of Prey. David and Charles.
Steyn, P. (1982) Birds of Prey of Southern Africa. David Phillips.
Weaver, J.D. & Cade T.J. (Eds). (1983, 1985, 1991) Falcon Propagation. The Peregrine Fund Inc.
26
27

Falconiformes (Aves) Husbandry Manual (FZG)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Falconiformes (Aves) Husbandry Manual (FZG)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Federation of Zoological Gardens of

Great Britain and Ireland

Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo

Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo Animals - Falconiformes

First published 2000

The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland

Section 1: Biology and field data 1

Section 1: Biology and Field Data

Cathartae Accipitres Sagittarii Falcones

Cathartidae Pandionidae Accipitridae Sagittariidae Falconidae

Taxonomic data for all the families can be found in table 1.

• North and South America

• More closely related to storks than other diurnal birds of prey

1.1 Morphology / Description

1.2 Distribution / Habitat

Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura Black Vulture Coragyps atratus

King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa

California Condor Gymnogyps californianus

Andean Condor Vultur gryphus

1.3 General Behaviour

Activity/ locomotion/ migration

1.4 Diet and Feeding behaviour

1.7 Conservation status

1.1 Morphology / description

Length 55-58cm. Weight 1600gms

1.2 Distribution / Habitat

1.3 General Behaviour

1.4 Diet and Feeding behaviour

1.7 Conservation Status

1.1 Morphology / Description

1.2 Distribution / habitat

The Accipitridae are distributed worldwide.

1.3 General Behaviour

1.4 Diet and feeding behaviour

1.7 Cons ervation status

All the Accipitridae have CITES status II or I.

• Africa - south of tropic of Cancer

• Grassland, savannah, desert steppes

1.1 Morphology /Description

Length 125-150cm. Wingspan 212cm. Weight 2300-4270gms.

1.2 Distribution /Habitat

1.3 General Behaviour

1.4 Diet and Feeding behaviour

1.7 Conservation Status

• Tiny to medium sized birds

1.1 Morphology / Description

1.2 Distribution / Habitat

1.3 General Behaviour

1.4 Diet and Feeding behaviour

1.7 Conservation Status

Section 2: Management in Captivity

2.1.1 Boundary (walls/roof/doors etc.)

2.1.3 Furnishings and Maintenance

The following are the sizes at NBPC:

Eagles and Large Vultures - Wingspan 1:25m – 3m

Buzzards, Kites, Large Falcons, Small Eagles. – wingspan 1m – 1:75m.

Small Falcons, Small Buzzards, Small Kites. - wingspan 500mm – 950mm

2.2.1 Basic Diet

2.2.2 Special Dietary Requirements

Sick birds should always be seen by an experienced veterinary surgeon.

2.2.3 Method of Feeding

2.3 Social Structure

2.3.1 Basic Social Structure