Antennas and Propagation

Chapter 5

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 Introduction
n An antenna is an electrical conductor or
system of conductors
n Transmission - radiates electromagnetic
energy into space
n Reception - collects electromagnetic energy
from space
n In two-way communication, the same
antenna can be used for transmission
and reception
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 Radiation Patterns
n Radiation pattern
n Graphical representation of radiation properties of
an antenna
n Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
n Beam width (or half-power beam width)
n Measure of directivity of antenna
n Reception pattern
n Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern

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 Types of Antennas
n Isotropic antenna (idealized)
n Radiates power equally in all directions
n Dipole antennas
n Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz
antenna)
n Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi
antenna)
n Parabolic Reflective Antenna

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 Antenna Gain
n Antenna gain
n Power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction
by a perfect omnidirectional antenna
(isotropic antenna)
n Effective area
n Related to physical size and shape of
antenna

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 Antenna Gain
n Relationship between antenna gain and
effective area
4pAe 4pf 2 Ae
G= =
l 2
c 2

n G = antenna gain
n Ae = effective area
n f = carrier frequency
n c = speed of light (» 3 ´ 108 m/s)
n l = carrier wavelength

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 Propagation Modes
n Ground-wave propagation
n Sky-wave propagation
n Line-of-sight propagation

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 Ground Wave Propagation

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 Ground Wave Propagation
n Follows contour of the earth
n Can Propagate considerable distances
n Frequencies up to 2 MHz
n Example
n AM radio

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 Sky Wave Propagation

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 Sky Wave Propagation
n Signal reflected from ionized layer of
atmosphere back down to earth
n Signal can travel a number of hops, back and
forth between ionosphere and earth’s surface
n Reflection effect caused by refraction
n Examples
n Amateur radio(Ham Radio)
n CB radio

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 Line-of-Sight Propagation

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 Line-of-Sight Propagation
n Transmitting and receiving antennas must be
within line of sight
n Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz
not reflected by ionosphere
n Ground communication – antennas within effective
line of site due to refraction
n Refraction – bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
n Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of
the density of the medium
n When wave changes medium, speed changes
18/08/18 n Wave bends at the boundary
DIPESH JOSHI between mediums13
 Line-of-Sight Equations
n Optical line of sight
d = 3.57 h
n Effective, or radio, line of sight
d = 3.57 Kh
n d = distance between antenna and horizon
(km)
n h = antenna height (m)
n K = adjustment factor to account for
refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3

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 Line-of-Sight Equations
n Maximum distance between two
antennas for LOS propagation:

(
3.57 Kh1 + Kh2 )
n h1 = height of antenna one
n h2 = height of antenna two

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 LOS Wireless Transmission
Impairments
n Attenuation and attenuation distortion
n Free space loss
n Noise
n Atmospheric absorption
n Multipath
n Refraction
n Thermal noise
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 Attenuation
n Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
n Attenuation factors for unguided media:
n Received signal must have sufficient strength so
that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the
signal
n Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher
than noise to be received without error
n Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies,
causing distortion

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 Free Space Loss
n Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna
Pt (4pd ) (4pfd )
2 2
= =
Pr l2
c 2

n Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna

n Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
n l = carrier wavelength
n d = propagation distance between antennas

n c = speed of light (» 3 ´ 10 8 m/s)

where d and l are in the same units (e.g., meters)

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 Free Space Loss
n Free space loss equation can be recast:

Pt æ 4pd ö
LdB = 10 log = 20 logç ÷
Pr è l ø

= -20 log(l ) + 20 log(d ) + 21.98 dB

æ 4pfd ö
= 20 logç ÷ = 20 log( f ) + 20 log(d ) - 147.56 dB
è c ø

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 Free Space Loss
n Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas
Pt (4p ) (d ) (ld ) (cd )
2 2 2 2
= = = 2
Pr Gr Gt l2
Ar At f Ar At
n Gt = gain of transmitting antenna
n Gr = gain of receiving antenna
n At = effective area of transmitting antenna
n Ar = effective area of receiving antenna

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 Free Space Loss
n Free space loss accounting for gain of
other antennas can be recast as
LdB = 20 log(l ) + 20 log(d ) - 10 log( At Ar )

= -20 log( f ) + 20 log(d ) - 10 log( At Ar ) + 169.54dB

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 Categories of Noise
n Thermal Noise
n Intermodulation noise
n Crosstalk
n Impulse Noise

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 Thermal Noise
n Thermal noise due to agitation of
electrons
n Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media
n Cannot be eliminated
n Function of temperature
n Particularly significant for satellite
communication

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 Thermal Noise
n Amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor
is:
N 0 = kT (W/Hz )
n N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
n k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 ´ 10-23 J/K
n T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)

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 Thermal Noise
n Noise is assumed to be independent of
frequency
n Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B
Hertz (in watts):
N = kTB
or, in decibel-watts
N = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B
= -228.6 dBW + 10 log T + 10 log B
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 Noise Terminology
n Intermodulation noise – occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
n Interference caused by a signal produced at a
frequency that is the sum or difference of original
frequencies
n Crosstalk – unwanted coupling between
signal paths
n Impulse noise – irregular pulses or noise
spikes
n Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
n Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances,
or faults and flaws in the communications system
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 Other Impairments
n Atmospheric absorption – water vapor
and oxygen contribute to attenuation
n Multipath – obstacles reflect signals so
that multiple copies with varying delays
are received
n Refraction – bending of radio waves as
they propagate through the atmosphere

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 Multipath Propagation

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 Multipath Propagation
n Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the
wavelength of the signal
n Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an
impenetrable body that is large compared to
wavelength of radio wave
n Scattering – occurs when incoming signal hits
an object whose size in the order of the
wavelength of the signal or less
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 The Effects of Multipath
Propagation
n Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at
different phases
n If phases add destructively, the signal level
relative to noise declines, making detection
more difficult
n Intersymbol interference (ISI)
n One or more delayed copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as the primary
pulse for a subsequent bit

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