SATELLITE

COMMUNICATIONS

Topic 3
 Link performance criteria
 Basic transmission theory
– EIRP
– Antennas/gain
– Link budget equation
 System Noise
 Link budgets
 Analog systems
 Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)

 Digital systems
 Bit error rate (BER)/Probability of error

 S/N or BER specified at baseband

 S/N = 40 dB in television
 S/N = 30 dB in speech channels
 BER < 10-6 in data links
 S/N or BER is specified
 Measured at demodulator output
 At baseband

 Sets requirement on C/N at demodulator input

 At IF section of receiver
 S/N = 36 - 40 dB => C/N = 8 – 12 dB (television)
 BER = 10-6 => C/N = 12 dB (QPSK modulation
 Isotropic Area A (m2)
Source
Pt
Distance R (m) Flux density F
(W/ m2)
Consider an isotropic source radiating Pt [Watts] of power uniformly into free
space.

At distance R from the source, the area of the spherical shell with center at
the source is 4πR2
Power flux density (power per unit area or F) at distance R is given by

F = Pt/ (4πR2) W/m2

 Directive antennas increase power of isotropic radiator in specific
direction
 • The gain of an antenna is the power increase in a particular direction
relative to an isotropic antenna (no gain)
G(θ) = P(θ)/ (P0/4π)

 G(θ) = the ratio of power per unit solid angle radiated in a direction θ to
the average power radiated per unit solid angle.

- G(θ) is gain at the direction θ

– P(θ) is power transmitted at the direction θ
– P0 is total power transmitted
– Sphere = 4π solid radians
 Antennas have gain in every direction

 Gain is a ratio, usually expressed in decibels (dB)

G [dB] = 10 log10 G [ratio]

 Gain is a function of angle and is often used loosely

 Usually “gain” denotes maximum gain of the antenna

 The direction of maximum gain is called boresight

An isotropic radiator radiates in all directions equally

Antenna gain is relative to this standard

Antennas are fundamentally passive

– No additional power is generated
– Gain is realized by focusing power

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

is the amount of power the transmitter would have to produce if it was
radiating equally to all directions, in order to provide equivalent F at a
given direction.

EIRP may vary as a function of direction because of changes in the

antenna gain vs. angle
 The output power of a transmitter HPA is Pout [W]
 • Some power is lost before reaching the antenna
 Pt = Pout /Lt [W] (the power into the antenna)

 • The antenna has a gain Gt relative to an isotropic radiator

 • This gives an effective isotropic radiated power;
EIRP = PtGt watts relative to a 1 Watt isotropic radiator
EIRP
Gt
Pt

Pout Lt

HPA
 Aperture antennas (horns and reflectors) have a physical
(Ar) collecting area that can be calculated from their
dimensions

A r = πr 2
A r = πD 2 /4 m2 ( D= diameter = 2r)

 Real antennas have effective flux collecting areas less than

physical aperture area
 Antenna with physical aperture area of Ar m2

 The energy incident on aperture is reflected away from the

antenna and some is absorbed by lossy components

 This reduction in efficiency is describe as an effective

aperture Ae
Ae = η Ar m 2

η = aperture efficiency

-all losses between the incident wavefronts and the antenna output port.
(diffraction effect,feeder loss, blockage)
75% is very good ; typically 55% - 60%
 All antennas have (maximum) gain related
to effective aperture area, Ae, by:
G = 4π Ae /λ2 , Ae= η πD 2 /4

 Therefore, for aperture antennas:

G = η(π D /λ)2
Consider the transmit antenna gain , Gt
F = Pt Gt / (4πR2)
The total power available to a receive antenna of
physical area Ar [m2] is
Pr = F Ar
Pr = Pt Gt Ar / (4πR2)
But, using effective aperture size
Pr = Pt Gt Ae / (4πR2), Ae = η Ar
For receiver antenna gain , Gr;
Gr = (4 π Ae)/ λ2 ,λ is the wavelength
Then
Ae = Gr λ2 / 4 π

So, the received power can be written as

Pr = (Pt Gt Gr )/ (4πR/ λ)2
Pr = Pt Gt Gr (λ / 4πR )2
= (EIRP )G (λ / 4πR )2
r

Friis transmission formula

 Lp = (4πR/ λ)2 is called path loss or free space loss
Accounts for spherical spreading of wave

 So, received power is

 Pr = (Pt Gt Gr )/ Lp

= (EIRP )Gr / Lp
Pr = EIRP + Gr – Lp dBW (in dB notation)

Basic link budget equation

 The basic link budget equation is typically too
simplistic.
Demonstrated formula assumes idealized case.

 Free Space Loss (Lp) represents spherical

spreading only.(FSL)

 In reality, there are several additional losses in the

link
 La = Due to atmospheric attenuation

 Lta = Associated with transmitting antenna (transmitter feeder loss - TFL)



 Lra = Associated with receiving antenna (receiver feeder loss - RFL)



 Lpol = Due to polarization mismatch

 Lpointing = Due to antenna pointing mismatch

 Lother = Any other known loss

 The “complete” link budget equation is
 Pr = (Pt + Gt + Gr ) – (Lp+ Lta+ Lra+ La+ Lpol+ Lpointing +
Lother )
 Pr = [EIRP] + [Gr ] – [All Losses]

 Propagation loss = La+ Lpol+ Lpointing + Lother

 The received power, Pr is commonly referred to as

“carrier power”, C
 – This is the input to the receiver LNA
 – First step in determining C/N
 – Signal has not yet been demodulated (=> S/N)
 EIRP

Tx
 Transmission:
 + HPA Power
 - Transmission Losses
 (cables & connectors)
 + Antenna Gain

 - Antenna Pointing Loss

 - Free Space Loss
 - Atmospheric Loss
 (gaseous, clouds, rain)
 - Rx Antenna Pointing

 Pr
 Reception:
 Rx + Antenna gain
 - Reception Losses
 (cables & connectors)
 - Noise Temperature
 contribution

  A satellite at a distance of 40000 km from a point on the earth’s
surface radiates a power of 2 W from an antenna with a gain of 17
dB in the direction of the observer.
Find the flux density at the receiving point and the power
received by an antenna at this point with an effective area of 10 m2.
What is the received power when ES antenna has gain of 52.3 dB
at 11 GHz?

Solution
a) Flux density on earth’s surface
F = PtGt/ (4πR2)
= [2 x 101.7 ] / [4π (4x107 )2 ]
= 4.97 x 10-15 W/m2
b) Power received by antenna with effective aperture 10 m2
Pr = F Ar
= 4.97 x 10-15 W/m2 x10 m2
= 4.97 x 10-14 W
c) Received power when ES antenna has gain of 52.3 dB at 11 GHz
Pr = EIRP + Gr – Lp
Lp = (4πR/ λ)2

λ = c/f = (3x108 )/11 x 109 = 0.02727 m

Lp = 10log10 [4π (4x107 )/0.02727 ]2

= 205.31 dB

Pr = EIRP + Gr – Lp
= 10log (2 x 101.7 ) + 52.3 – 205.31
= −133.01dBW
 A geostationary satellite at a distance of 37000 km
operates at a frequency of 14 GHz. It radiates power
from an antenna with a gain of 16 dB. The flux density at
receiving point is 2.86 x 10-14 W/m2 in the direction of
boresight. The receiving antenna has a physical aperture
of 40 m2 with efficiency of 55%.

Calculate:

i) the power transmit by the transmitter from the

satellite to the e/s in dB.
ii) the EIRP of the sat in dB
iii)the received gain by e/s in dB
iv)the path loss during transmission in dB
v) the received power at e/s in dB
 Satellite has limited electrical power
 1 to 200 Watts

 Antenna on satellite has limited dimensions

 Fixed < 3 m
 “Unfurled” < 10 m

 Received Flux density (F) must be small

 –Typically < -100 dBW/m2 (10-10 W/m2)
 6/4 GHz (C band); 500 – 1000 MHz BW

 14/11 GHz (Ku band); 1000 – 1500 MHz BW

 30/20 GHz (Ka band); 3000 MHz BW

 1600/1500 MHz band (L band); 30 MHz BW

– Maritime/aeronautical mobile services

 8/7 GHz, 44/22 GHz

 – Military satellites

 137 MHz, 1700 MHz

– Weather satellites
 Antenna dimensions: Gain α (frequency)2

 Propagation factors: Rain causes significant

attenuation above 10 GHz

 Availability/allocation of slot

 Equipment availability

 Cost
 i)Sketch the link path

 ii)Think carefully about the system of interest

 – Include all significant effects in the link power budget
 – Note and justify which common effects are insignificant

 iii)Roll-up large sections of the link power budget

 – i.e., transmitted power, transmit antenna gain, path loss, receiver
 antenna gain, receiver losses
 – Show all components for these calculations in detailed budget
 – Use the rolled-up results and build a link overview

 iv)Comment the link budget

 – ALWAYS include units on parameters (dBW, W, Hz, ...)
 – Describe any unusual elements
 System performance tied to operation thresholds

 • Cmin is the minimum power that should be received at the

demodulator input in order for communications to work properly
 – Typical (C/N)min = 10 dB

 • Operation thresholds depend on:

 – Modulation scheme
 – Desired communication quality
 – Coding gain
 – Channel bandwidth
 – Thermal noise power

 • Often times a specified design requirement

 We need to calculate the link budget in order to verify that we are
“closing the link”
 Pr ≥ Cmin  Link closed
 Pr < Cmin Link not closed

 • Usually, we obtain some “link margin”, which tells how tight we

are in closing the link
 Margin = Pr – Cmin

 • Equivalently:
 Margin ≥ 0  Link closed
 Margin < 0  Link not closed
 Typically, margin should be around 3 dB, but not too high or too
low - Why?

 • Some margin, e.g. 1 to 3 dB, should be allowed

 => unpredictable (or “other”) effects

 • If margin is too high, then system is overdesigned

 => unnecessary high cost, bad design, customer unhappy

 • A negative margin means system will not meet Cmin

 => communications will suffer, bad design, customer unhappy
 C/N: carrier/noise power

 • Allows simple calculation of margin

– Receiver bandwidth is known
– Required C/N is known for desired signal type

 • Pr is often called carrier power, C, because with FM

and PSK, RF power is independent of modulation

 – Why? Modulation only changes the signal’s

frequency
 Noise - random thermal motion of electrons in
resistive and active devices in the receiver.
 Also generated in the lossy components of
antenna, and thermal like noise picked-up by
antenna
 Noise power from a thermal noise source :

Pn = kT nB n
 Where:
 Tn = equivalent noise temperature
 B n= equivalent noise bandwidth
 k= 1.38 x 10-23 J/K = Boltzmann constant
(-228.6 dBW/HzK),
System Noise
Noise Power Spectral Density

 Noise power spectral density, N0 - the noise

power per unit bandwidth.

N0 = Pn/ B = kTn J

 Tn is directly related to the physical temperature

of the noise source but is not always equal to it.
 Tn of various sources which are connected
together can be added directly to give total
noise.
 N0 is constant up to 300 GHz
 Antenna operating in the receiving mode introduce
noise into satellite circuit.
 Two groups of antenna noise :
 Sky noise
 Microwave radiation which is present throughout the
universe.
 Originate from matter in any form at finite temperature.
 Rainfall introduce attenuation, therefore it degrades
transmission.
 Antenna loss
 Add to the noise received as radiation
.
 The total antenna noise temp Tant , is in the sum of
equivalent noise temperature of all these sources
 Tant Amplifier
N0, out
G
N0, in

Figure 1
 The input noise energy (noise power density) coming from the
antenna;
N0,ant = kTant
 The output noise energy: (GN0,ant + noise of amplifier)
 Amplifier noise referred to the input = equivalent input noise
temperature for amplifier, Te
N0,out = G k (Tant + Te)

 The total noise referred to the i/p is simply:= N0,out / G ,or

 N0,in = k (Tant + Te)
Amplifiers in cascade

Tant Amp 1 Amp 2

G1, Te1 G2, Te2

N0, 1 N0, 2 N0, out

Figure 2
 The noise energy of amplifier 2 referred to its own i/p is kTe2
 The noise i/p to amp 2 from the preceding stages is G1 k (Tant +
Te1))

 Total noise energy referred to amp2 i/p:

N0,2 = G1 k (Tant + Te1) + kTe2
Amplifiers in cascade
 Total noise referred to the amp 1 i/p :
N0,1 = N0,2/ G1
= k [Tant + Te1 + (Te2/G1)]

 System noise temp may defined as Ts ;

N0,1 = kTs

 and given by;

Ts = [Tant + T1 + (T2/G1)]

 In general;
Ts = [Tant + Te1 + (Te2/G1)+ (Te3 /G1G2) + ……….]
Tant Amp 1 Amp 2
G1, Te1 G2, Te2
N0, 1 N0, 2 N0, out

Tant
Amp
G, Ts N0, out
N0, in

N0,in = kTs

N0,out = GkTs
 Suppose we have 4 GHz receiver with the following
gains and noise temp:

Antenna; Tant = 25 K
RF amp; GRF = 23 dB , TRF = 50 K
Mixer; Tm = 500 K
IF amp; GIF = 30 dB , TIF = 1000 K

i) Calculate the system noise temperature assuming that

the mixer has a gain Gm = 0 dB
ii) Recalculate the system noise temperature when the
mixer has a 10 dB loss
iii) How can the noise of temp of the receiver be
minimized when the mixer has a loss of 10 dB?
 Since C (received power, Pr) is invariably small, N
(noise power, Pn) must be minimized in order to
achieve a given C/N threshold.

 • How can we make N as small as possible?

N = kTs B (dBW)
 Minimize Ts and/or B
 1) Make B as small as possible
 – Just enough to accept signal power (C)

 2) Make Ts as small as possible

 Ts = [Tant + TRF + (Tm/GRF)+ (TIF/GRFGm) ]

 – Lowest TRF possible

 – Lowest Tant possible
 – Highest GRF possible
 • If TRF is low (good LNA) and GRF is high, Ts can be minimized
=>
Ts ≅ TRF + Tant
 In defining the noise factor of an amplifier, the source is taken to be room
temperature, denoted by T0 (290 K).

 The i/p noise from such a source is kT0.

 The o/p from the amp is:

N0, out = FGkT0

Noise Factor
 Relationship between noise temp and noise factor:
 Te = noise temperature of the amplifier
 Tant = T0 = the source at room temp
 Thus:
Gk (T0 + Te) = FGkT0
Te = (F -1)T0

 The noise figure (f) is simply noise factor (F) expressed in

dB.
f = 10 log F

F 2 1 F 3 1 FN  1
F  F1    .. 
G1 G1G 2 G1G 2...GN  1
Exercise 3
i) Calculate the equivalent noise temperature for
a noise figure of 5 dB and 5.6 dB. Assume the
environmental temperature is 300 K.

ii) For equivalent noise bandwidth of 15 MHz

and total noise power of 0.0357 pW, determine
the noise density and equivalent noise temp.
 LNA Cable Receiver
Tant
G1, Te1 Loss L:1 F

Figure a ; the cable is after the LNA

 Figure above shows a typical receiving antenna system.

 Applying the previous sections yields for the system
noise temperature referred to the i/p:
( L  1)T 0 L( F  1)T 0
Ts  Tant  Te1  
G1 G1
Overall System Noise Temperature

Cable LNA Receiver

Tant
Loss L:1 G1, T1 F

Figure b; the cable is before the LNA

 Thus the equation:

L( F  1)T 0
Ts  Tant  ( L  1)T 0  LT 1 
G1
i) For the system shown in fig a the receiver
noise figure is 12 dB, the cable loss is 5 dB, the
LNA gain is 50 dB and its noise temp is 150k.
The antenna noise temp is 35 k. Calculate the
noise temp referred to the input.

ii) Repeat the calculation when the system of fig a

is arranged as shown in fig b.
 A receiving syst consists of an antenna having
a noise temperature of 60 K, feeding directly
into LNA. The amplifier has a noise
temperature of 120K and gain of 45 dB. The
coaxial feeder between the LNA and the main
receiver has a loss of 2 dB and the main
receiver has a noise figure of 9 dB. Calculate
the syst noise temp referred to input.
 Performance of system is determined by
C/N ratio (at demodulator input) ( PR/Pn.)

 • Most systems require C/N > 10

 (Remember [in dB]: C - N > 10 dB)

 • Hence, C (=Pr) > N + 10 dB

C/N = PR - Pn (in dB)

But,

Pr = [EIRP] + [Gr ] – [Losses]

Pn = [k] +[Ts ] + [Bn]

Therefore;

[C/N] = [EIRP] + [Gr ] – [Losses] - [k] - [Ts ] - [Bn]

 In a link calculation of 2 GHz, the free space
loss is 206 dB, the antenna pointing loss is 1 dB
and the atmosphere absorption is 2 dB. The
receiver G/T ratio is 19.5 dB/K and the
receiver feeder losses are 1 dB. The EIRP is 48
dBW. Calculate the carrier to noise spectral
density ratio.
 Transmitters characterized by EIRP

 Receivers characterized by G/T

 The Gain of the antenna divided by the noise
temperature of the receiver
[G/T] = Gr –Ts

 Gives feel for C/N of the receive system

 Usually given in dB/K or dBK-1
 Carrier To Noise Ratio;
 [C/N] = [EIRP] + [Gr /Ts] – [Losses] - [k] - [Bn]

 Carrier power to noise density;

 [C/N0] = [C/N] + [Bn]

 [C/N0] = [EIRP] + [Gr /Ts] – [Losses] - [k]

 The uplink of sat circuit is the one in
which the e/s is transmitting the signal
and the satellite is receiving it.

where: Carrier To Noise Ratio;

[C/N] = [EIRP] + [Gr /Ts] – [Losses] - [k] - [Bn]
 Flux density required at receiving antenna to
produce saturation of TWTA
 A specified quantity in link budget calculations,
knowning it, the required EIRP at the E/S can be
calculated
 F = Ψ m = EIRP / (4πR2)
 In dB;
 [Ψ m ] = [ EIRP ] + 10log (1/4πR2)

 But - L p = 10 log ( λ2/ 4π) + 10log (1/4πR2)

 Therefore
 [Ψ m ] = [ EIRP ] - [L p ] - 10 log ( λ2/ 4π) ---------------(i)

 10 log ( λ2/ 4π) is known as effective area of isotropic antenna,

A0.
[A0 ]= 10 log ( λ2/ 4π)

 Hence from (i)

 [ EIRP] = [Ψ m ] + [A0 ] + [L p ]

 Considering other propagation losses;

 [ EIRP] = [Ψ m ] + [A0 ] + [Propagation Losses ]
 [ EIRP] = [Ψ m ] + [A0 ] + [Total Losses ] – [RFL]
 min EIRP for clear sky conditions

 Uplink EIRP for saturation condition;

 [ EIRPs]u = [Ψ s] + [A0 ] + [Losses ] u - [RFL]
 An uplink operates at 14 GHz and the flux
density required to saturate the transponder is
-120 dB (W/M2). The free space loss is 207 dB
and the other propagation losses amount to 2
dB. Calculate the e/s EIRP required for
saturation assuming clear sky conditions.
Assume RFL is negligible.
 When a number of carriers increased in TWTA,
the operating point must be backoff to a linear
region of the transfer characteristic to reduce
the effects of IM distortion.

 Suppose the saturation flux density for a single

carrier operation is known. Input backoff will
be specified for multiple carrier operation
referred to the single carrier saturation level.
 The e/s EIRP will have to be reduced by the
specified backoff (BO).

 [ EIRP]u = [ EIRPs]u - [BO ] i

 [C/N0]u = [Ψ s ]+ [Ao] -[BO ]i + [G/T]u – [k ]– [RFL]

 An uplink at 14GHz requires a saturation flux
density of -91.4 dBW/M2 and an input backoff
of 11 dB. The sat G/T is -6.7 dB/K and receiver
feeder loss amount to 0.6 dB. Calculate the
carrier to noise density ratio.
 The downlink of sat cct is the one in
which the satellite is transmitting the
signal and the earth station is receiving it.

 [C/N0]d = [EIRP]d + [G/T]d – [losses]d – [k]

 [C/N]d = [EIRP]d + [G/T]d – [losses]d – [k] – [B]

 When i/p BO is employed, a corresponding o/p BO
must be allowed in the downlink transmission.
 The relationship between BOi and BOo in decibels is:
 [BO]o = [BO]i – 5 dB
 If satellite EIRP for saturation is [EIRPs]d
 Then
 [EIRP]d = [EIRPs]d - [BO]o
and

 [C/N0]d = [EIRPs]d - [BO]o + [G/T]d – [losses]d – [k]

 Total C/N is given by

(C/N) = { (C/N)u-1 + (C/N )d-1} -1

These are ratios not dB

 A satellite tv signal occupies the full
transponder bandwidth of 36 MHz and it must
provide a C/N ratio at the destination e/s of 22
dB. Given that the total transmission losses are
200 db and te destination e/s (G/T) ratio is 31
dB/K. calculate the satellite EIRP required.
 The specified parameter for a downlink are
satellite saturation value of EIRP 25 dBW;
BO0 is 6 dB; L p is 196 dB; other losses 1.5 dB
and e/s (G/T) 41 dB/K.
Calculate the C/N0 at the e/s.
 A multiple carrier circuit operates in the 6/4 GHz band
with the following characteristic.
 Uplink
 Saturation flux density -67.5
 A0 -37
 BOi 11 dB
 G/T -11.6 dB/K
 Downlink
 Satellite EIRP 26.6 dBW
 BO0 6 dB
 Lp 196.7 dB
 G/T 40.7 dB/K
 k -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
 Calculate C/N0 for both links and the total C/N0 for
the transmission.