Chapter 1

First-Order Circuits

1
A first-order circuit can only contain one energy
storage element (a capacitor or an inductor). The
circuit will also contain resistance. So there are two
types of first- order circuits:

RC circuit RL circuit 2
 The Source-Free RC Circuit
The Source-Free RL Circuit

Step Response of an RC Circuit

Step Response of an RL Circuit

3
 The Source-Free RC Circuit
The Source-Free RL Circuit

A source-free circuit is one

where all independent sources
have been disconnected from the
circuit after some switch action

4
 Step Response of an RC Circuit
Step Response of an RL Circuit

Circuits that having DC forcing

functions for t > 0 (i.e., circuits
that do have independent DC
sources for t > 0)

5
 A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order
differential equation. A first-order RC circuit consists
of a capacitor C and a resistor R
Apply Kirchhoffs laws to purely resistive
Power supply is
disconnected from the circuit results in algebraic equations.
RC circuit at t=0
()
+ = 0 + =0

iR iC By KCL
t=0 +
VX R C v (t) Ohms law Capacitor law
_ Apply the laws to RC produces differential
equations. Solve the differential equation, we
have
1
+ = 0, 0


= 0 , =
6
= =
 + = 0

()
+ =0

1
+ =0 1 1
=
()
1 1
= () ln =

1

= = .
()
0 = . 0 0 =
1 1
=
() = 0 .
7
The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of
voltages and currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources
of excitation.

= (0)

Time constant RC
(0) ( )

( )

The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the

response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
v decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
8
The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is finding:

1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the

capacitor.
2. The time constant = RC.

= 0 Where =

9
Example 1
Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, vx, and io for t 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

10
SOLUTION Example 1
V C:
Resistor 12 and 6 are in
parallel. The equivalent resistance
Req is
= 12||6 + 8 = 12
1 i o:
= = 12 = 4
3
. .
= =
= / = . V 8 8

Vx: = . . A

We can use voltage division to

get vx;

= + = . V

11
Example 2
The switch in circuit below is opened at t = 0, find v(t)
for t 0.

12
SOLUTION Example 2

For t<0, the switch is closed. Using For t>0, the switch is opened. The
voltage divider, vc Req from the RC circuit is;

3
= 24 = 8 , <0
6+3
1
Since the voltage across the = = 3 = 0.5
capacitor cannot change 6
instantaneously, the voltage the Therefore, the voltage across the
capacitor at t=0- is the same at capacitor for 0 is
t=0, or;
= 8 /0.5 = 8 2
0 = 0 = 8
12||4 = 3 13
 A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor L (or its
equivalent) and a resistor (or its equivalent)
Apply Kirchhoffs laws to purely resistive
Power supply is
disconnected from the circuit results in algebraic equations.
RL circuit at t=0

+ = 0 + = 0

By KVL

Inductor law Ohm law

Apply the laws to RL circuits produces
differential equations. Solve the differential
equation, we have
1
+ = 0, 0


= , = /
14
= =

=
0 0

0 =


=
+ = 0 0


0
+ = 0 =



=
0
=




= 0

=
0 0

15
 A general form representing a RL

= 0

Where,

=

The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
i(t) decays faster for small and slower for large .
The general form is very similar to a RC source-free circuit. 16
The key to working with a source-free RL circuit is finding:

1. The initial current i(0) = I0 across

the capacitor.
2. The time constant = L/R.

= 0 Where = /

17
Example 3
Find i and vx in the circuit.

Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

18
SOLUTION Example 3

There are 2 methods to solve

it, 1) Thevenin 2) KVL law
2:
2 2 52 + 1 = 0
Method 1 61 62 + 1 = 0
Find Rth at the inductor terminal by 71 62 = 0
inserting voltage source
1 = 6 7 2 (2)
2 1 ;
6
10 2 = 1
7 2
60
2 = 1
1: 7 2
1 31 1 + 2 2 = 0 53
=1
1 41 + 2 2 = 0 7 2
41 2 + 2 = 1 7
2 =
41 2 + 2 31 = 1, = 3 53
6 7 6
41 2 + 61 = 1 1 = =
101 2 = 1 (1) 7 53 53 19
SOLUTION Example 3

Rth at the inductor terminal :

1 53
= = = Rth
6 6
53

1
= = 6 = 1
53 53
6

;


= = =

= =
20
 A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

= 0 where = = 0 where =

21
Example 4

For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i(t) = 2e2t A

22
 The analysis is applicable to any circuit that can be simplified to an
equivalent circuit comprising a resistor and a single energy-storage
element (capacitor or inductor).
When analyze RC and RL, bare in mind that capacitor is an open circuit at
steady-state dc condition while inductor is a short-circuit.
The general form of the natural response:

= (0)

The time constant is the time required for a response to decay to 1/e of
its initial value. For RC circuit =RC and for RL circuit, =L/R.

23
 The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t
and 1 for positive values of t.

0, t0
u(t )
1, t0

u(t) is
0, t to delayed
u (t t o ) by t0
1, t to seconds

u(t) is
0, t to advanced
u (t to ) by t0
1, t to seconds
24
 Lets assume

0, t to
u (t to )
V0 , t to

Therefore, it may be expressed as

v(t ) V0u(t to )

25
Represent an abrupt change for:

1. voltage source.

2. for current source:

26
 The step response of a circuit , =
is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, = , =

which may be a voltage or a
current source. =

1
C =
i + vR -
R +

VS + = Non-Homogenous ODE
C v (t)
vo vs
_

From the source- To solve the equation,

free(natural) response superposition strategy will be
used
= 0

27
Superposition strategy:

Natural response + Forced response = total response

Initial condition Input

Nat. Response q, Vo 0
+ Forced response 0 vs
Total response q, Vo vs

The method for solving a circuit driven by an external source is:

Set the initial conditions to 0 and solve the forced response.
Set the input to 0 , and solve the natural response.
Add the forced response to the natural response to get the total
response.
Use the initial conditions to resolve any constants
28
 Natural response

+ vR -
i i+ vR -
R + +
R
VS C vn (t) Suppress (turn off, set to
C vn (t)
zero) the voltage source
_ _

Therefore, the circuit turning to Plug (2) to the homogenous ODE (1), yields:
homogenous ODE and become;

+ = 0, (3)
+ = 0, (1)

Factorize (3) yields:
Solving the ODE, we get
1
= , (2) + = 0, (4)



29
 Natural response (CONT.)

+ vR -
i i+ vR -
R + +
R
VS C vn (t) Suppress (turn off, set to
C vn (t)
zero) the voltage source
_ _

From (4), to have logical solution, lets

+1 = 0,

1
s=

This gives the natural response;
1

= , (5)

30
 Forced response Plug (2) into (1)

t=0 + = , (3)

R +
The derivative of constant is 0, thus,
+
VS C vf (t)
_
_
=

The forced differential equation is true if:
For t<0, the forced response is zero
since voltage source is disconnected = =
form the capacitor and resistor

For t>0, the equation is;

+ = , (1)

Since the input is constant for t>0, let

= , (2) 31
Total response
Total response = forced + natural response
The forced response took into account the input signal.
The natural response took into account the internal initial
conditions.
= + Therefore,

= +
, (1) 0 = + = 0 , (2)

Put (2) into (1) yields

We use initial condition (at

t=0 vt =V0) to find out = + (0 )
Kn.
0

0 = +

Obviously, the exponential

term become 1

32
 0 , <0
=
+ 0 , >0

Final value Initial value Source-free

at t -> at t = 0 Response

33
 If we assume capacitor is uncharged initially:

0 t0
v(t ) t /
s
V (1 e ) t0

v(t ) Vs (1 e t / ) u (t )

The current trough capacitor:

dv C
i (t ) C Vs e t / RC
dt
Vs
i (t ) e t / u (t )
R
Three steps to find out the step response of an
RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage (0).
2. The final capacitor voltage () DC
voltage across C.
3. The time constant

t /
v (t ) v () [v (0) v ()] e

35
Example 5
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below. Assume the
switch has been open for a long time and is closed at
t = 0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

36
SOLUTION Example 3

STEP #1 t<0:

0 = 0 = 0+ = 10

37
SOLUTION Example 3

STEP #2 t>0:

50
5 = +
6 6 2
+
_ v 30 50 3
= +
6 6 6
20 4
=
6 6

10 + 50 v = = 5
=
2 6
50
5 = +
2 6 6

38
SOLUTION Example 3

STEP #3 - find :

26 3
= =
2+6 2
3 1 1
= = =
2 3 2

39
SOLUTION Example 3

STEP #4 - insert to step response equation:

= + [ 0 ]

Previously, we have:
0 = 10
= 5
= 1 2s

1
= 5 + 10 5 2
= +

At t=0.5;
0.5 = + . = .
40
Example 6
The switch is closed at t=0. find i(t) and v(t) for all
time. Note that u(-t)=1 for t<0 and 0 for t>0.

0 t0 20V t0
i (t ) 1.5t
v 1.5t
Answer: 2(1 e ) A t 0 10 (1 e ) V t 0
41
 The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation
is the step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.

= =
i + vR -
R + + =
VS L vL
vo vs _ + =


=0
From the source-
free(natural) response To solve the equation,

superposition strategy will be
= 0 used

42
 Superposition strategy:

Natural response + Forced response = total response

Natural response
+ vR - i + vR -
i

R + R +
VS L vL Suppress (turn off, set to L vL
zero) the voltage source
_ _

+ = 0 =
0 0

= = 0

43
 Force response
=

t=0


R + =
0 0
+
VS _ L vf (t)

_
= (1)
0
For t<0, the forced response is zero
since voltage source is disconnected To solve it, we use integration by
form the inductor and resistor substitution

For t>0, the equation is; Let,

= (2)
= 0
= (3)


=

44
Force response (CONT)
= ln ln
t=0

R + = ln
+

VS L vf (t)
_
ln
=
_


=
2 3 (1)



1 =

=

0 =


= =
0
= ln

= ln 0 = ()

45
Total response
Total response = forced + natural response
The forced response took into account the input signal.
The natural response took into account the internal initial
conditions.

= +

= 0 + ()

= 0 + ()


= + 0 ()

= + (0 )
46
 Total response of
the RL circuit with
initial inductor
current I0

i (t ) i () [i (0) i ()] e t /

Final value Initial value Source-free

at t -> at t = 0 Response 47
Three steps to find out the step response of an
RL circuit:

1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.

2. The final inductor current i().
3. The time constant

t /
i (t ) i () [i (0) i ()] e

48
 If we assume inductor is uncharged initially:

0 t0

i (t ) Vs t /
R (1 e ) t 0

Vs
i (t ) (1 e t / ) u (t )
R

The voltage trough inductor:

di L
v(t ) L Vs e t / L R
dt R
v(t ) Vs e t / u (t )
Example 7
The switch in the circuit shown below has been
closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i(t ) 2 e 10t A

50
Solution Example 7
STEP #1 t<0:

0 = 0+ = 0 = 3

51
Solution Example 7
STEP #1 t>0:

10
= 3 = 2
10 + 5

52
Solution Example 7

STEP #3 : find

= 10 + 5 = 15

1.5
= = = 0.1
15

53
Solution Example 7

STEP #4 - insert to step response equation:

() = + (0 )

Previously, we have:
0 = 3
= 2
= 0.1s


() = 2 + 3 2
= 2 + 10

54
Example 8
The switch in the circuit shown below has been
opened for a long time. It closes at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i(t ) 5e 0.5t A

55
Find v(t) for t>0

56
Automobile ignition circuit.
R=4, L=6mH, Vs=12V and switch takes 1us to open. Find:
i. Final current through the solenoid when the switch is
closed.
ii. The energy stored in the coil
iii. Voltage across the air gap.
Assuming that the switch takes 1 us to open.

57
End of Chapter #1

58