243

Fire Resistance of Connections

Using Steel Plates and Mechanical
Fasteners in Timber Structures
P. J. Moss1, A. H. Buchanan2, T. M. Nilsen3 and M. Fragiacomo4
1Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury,
Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand,
email: peter.moss@canterbury.ac.nz
2Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury,

Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand,

email: andy.buchanan@canterbury.ac.nz
3Multiconsult AS, Box 265, Skoeyen, N-0213, Oslo, Norway,

email: trygve.moe.nilsen@multiconsult.no
4Department of Architecture, Design and Urban Planning, University of Sassari,

Palazzo del Pou Salit, Piazza Duomo 6, 07041 Alghero, Italy,

email: fragiacomo@uniss.it

ABSTRACT
This paper describes a series of experiments to obtain the embedment strength of wood
at elevated temperatures. The results will be used in Johansen’s yield equations to predict
the fire resistance of nailed, screwed, and bolted timber connections. To date, Johansen’s
yield equations have only been used at ambient temperatures. Embedment strength varies
with temperature. Recent studies have proposed a tri-linear relationship for bolted
connections in LVL and this research extends the investigation to determine if the model
is accurate for other types of connections. Bolts, nails and screws were tested by loading
in shear through exposed steel side plates. Two different heating regimes were used. The
results from short-term heating tests (Part 1) and longer-term heating tests (Part 2) show
very different answers. The two hour heating tests (Part 1) showed a tri-linear decline of
the embedment strength, as found by earlier experiments, while the longer-term oven
tests (Part 2) shows a more linear decline. The difference is attributed to different
moisture profiles in the wood. A fire test (Part 3) was carried out on a screwed connection
and the results compared with predictions using the experimentally determined
embedment strengths in Johansen’s equations. The paper shows how this information can
be used in design of timber fasteners for fire resistance. A proposal for the degradation
of the embedment strength of bolted, screwed and nailed connections is made based on
the results of the longer-term oven tests. Such proposal could be included in current
codes of practice such as the Eurocode 5 Part 1–2 which do not explicitly provide any
relationship for the embedment strength under fire conditions.

Keywords: connections, experimental testing, fire resistance, LVL, thermal properties,

timber

1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a number of papers have been published on the performance of joints in timber
members when subjected to fire temperatures [1–8].
Over the last five years, research at the University of Canterbury has investigated the fire
performance of a range of connections. This research focused initially on the fire resistance of nailed,

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244 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

screwed, bolted and self-drilling doweled connections in laminated veneer lumber (LVL) members.
This was later extended to research the embedment strength of LVL timber products exposed to
elevated temperatures up to 250°C, using bolted connections. More recently, a range of tests have been
carried out on bolted Wood-Steel-Wood (WSW) connections and limited number of tests on screwed
Steel-Wood-Steel (SWS) connections. A summary of the research on the fire performance of
connections in LVL can be found in a number of papers [9–13].
Looking at this previous research it becomes clear that little research has been carried out into the
performance of screwed connections loaded parallel to grain in heated and fire conditions. Screws
could show unexpected performance due to the increase in shear capacity caused by the withdrawal
strength of the threaded part. There is also a need for testing of all types of connections loaded in
compression perpendicular to the grain in heated and fire conditions. This paper looks at the
embedment strength of nailed, screwed, and bolted connections in 36 and/or 63 mm thick laminated
veneer lumber (LVL) made of New Zealand radiata pine both parallel and perpendicular to the grain,
as well as the fire performance of screwed connections.

2. TEST PROGRAMME
All connection specimens had steel side plates to connect the LVL members. The LVL used was
produced by Nelson Pine Industries [14]. The programme was carried out in three parts [15].

• In Part 1, screwed connections were tested in tension parallel to the grain after being heated in a
constant temperature furnace for two hours.
• In Part 2, compression tests were performed on nailed, screwed, and bolted connections both
parallel and perpendicular to the grain, after several hours of heating in an oven to obtain a
constant temperature throughout the wood.
• Part 3 comprised a fire test on a screwed connection loaded in tension.

2.1. Part 1 – Two Hour Heated Tests on Screwed Connections with a

Temperature Gradient
The connection tested is shown in Figure 1 with three type 17 TEK self-drilling screws per side in a
triangular pattern. The LVL was 63 mm thick and 150 mm wide. The screws were 4.4 mm diameter and
65 mm long. The steel side plates were 6 mm thick. Thermocouples were inserted into the centre of
each LVL member and also between the steel side plate and the LVL member. Tests were carried out in
a custom-made furnace with loading rig after two hours heating at constant temperatures ranging from
ambient to 280°C with loading carried out as set out in ISO 10984-2 [16].

2.2. Part 2 – Long Duration Heated Tests on Nails, Screws, and Bolts with
Uniform Temperature
The connections used nails, screws, or bolts, to connect a 75 mm wide, 250 mm length of LVL to two
6 mm thick steel side plates. The tests were carried out using 63 mm thick LVL and the bolted tests
were later repeated using 36 mm thick LVL to ensure that the bolts remained straight during the tests.
The connections were preheated in an oven for between three and sixteen hours at constant
temperatures ranging from ambient to 250°C so that all of the wood was at uniform temperature and
all the wood was dry. A test specimen with a thermocouple embedded at its centre was heated in the
oven at the same time as a check on when the required temperature was reached.
The bolted connection used a single 20 mm diameter bolt as shown in Figure 2(a).
For the nailed connections, two 60 mm long nails, one from each side with a spacing of 20 mm, with
a diameter of 4.2 mm were used, as shown in Figure 2(b). The nail holes were predrilled to prevent
splitting of the wood.
In the case of the screwed connections, two type 17 TEK self-drilling screws, one from each side
with a spacing of 20 mm, with a diameter of 4.4 mm were used, in the same arrangement as for the
nailed connection (Figure 2(b)).

Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 245

(a) (b) 6 mm steel plate

380 × 130 63 mm LVL member
Screws φ4.4, 65 mm 450 mm × 150 mm

Side view

25 60 105

150 25

Top view
380

150 130

450
Bottom view

Figure 1. 3D view of screwed LVL connection specimens for tension tests (a, top),
photo of the screws after the test (a, bottom), and dimensions (mm) for the heated
tests (b).

(a) 200 (b) 200

32.5 32.5
75 75
32.5 32.5

50 70 40 50 70 20 20

Figure 2. Dimensions (mm) of bolted connections with LVL loaded perpendicular to

grain (a) and of nailed and screwed connections with LVL loaded perpendicular to
grain (b).

2.3. Part 3 – Furnace Fire Tests

These were carried out using the same type of test specimens as used in Part 1 with the inclusion of a
thermocouple between the steel plate and the LVL, and also in the centre of the timber thickness. The
specimens were placed in the furnace and loaded by a tension force of 9.6 kN which was one third of
the predicted maximum ambient design strength. This force was manually applied by a controlled
hydraulic jack and was measured by a calibrated load cell. The furnace was then switched on and the
load maintained at the required level until the connection could no longer resist the applied load.

3. RESULTS FOR THE HEATED TESTS

3.1. Part 1 – Two Hour Heated Tests on Screwed Connections
The load-deformation curves for the screwed connections tested are shown in Figure 3(a). In all the
tests, the screws remained relatively straight on one side of the connection, while on the other side the
screws were bent with the formation of two plastic hinges along the screws as shown in Figure 1(a,
bottom). In some cases there was eventual fracture of the screw heads brought about by restraint from
the steel side plates. The formation of two plastic hinges along the screws corresponds to a mode d
failure according to Eurocode 5 [17]. In order to calculate the embedment strength, fh, for the screws,
it is necessary to determine the withdrawal strength Fax . The withdrawal strength for the screws used

Volume 2 · Number 4 · 2011

246 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

(a) 35

30 Ambient 1
Ambient 2
25 120C
140C
Load (kN)

20 160C
180C
15 200C
220C
10 240C
260C
5 280C

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Displacement (mm)

(b) 1.2
Experimental results for
1.0 screwed connections
Tri-linear approximation for
Embedment factor

screwed connections
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)

Figure 3. Load-slip curves for the screwed connections tested in tension at different
temperatures (a), and embedment strength variation of screwed connection failing
by mode d, Johansen equations (b) in the Part 1 tests.

in these tests was based on tests by Gaunt and Penellum [18], modified to allow for differences in screw
diameters and lengths. This gives a mean withdrawal strength per screw, Fax , of approximately 5.7 kN,
which corresponds to an addition by rope effect of 1.4 kN per screw (1/4 of Fax ) at ambient conditions.
1.4 kN equals 39% of the Johansen part in the ambient tests performed on the screwed connection and
is less than the 100% limit permitted by EC5 [17]. The change of withdrawal strength at elevated
temperature is unknown and a 39% constant rope effect is therefore assumed at any temperature. The
resulting embedment strength as a function of temperature, fh(θ ) is given in Figure 3(b) as a ratio of the
embedment strength at ambient temperature, fh(20) and is discussed more fully in Section 4.

3.2. Part 2 – Long Duration Heated Tests on Nails, Screws, and Bolts
The load-displacement curves for the connections tested are shown in Figure 4. The results for the
screwed connections were similar to those for the nailed connections, while the results for the bolted
connections in 36 mm LVL were similar to those shown for the 63 mm LVL.
The load-deflection curves for the nailed and screwed connections show similar results for both the
parallel and perpendicular to grain tests. All the nailed connections show increasing load capacity as
the displacement increased beyond 5 mm, except for the 150°C tests, which failed after only 3–4 mm

Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 247

10 10
9 9
8 Ambient 1
8 Ambient 1
Ambient 2
7 7 Ambient 2
Load (kN)

Ambient 3

Load (kN)
6 6 Ambient 3
100C 100C
5 5
135C 135C
4 4
150C 150C
3 3
200C 200C
2 2
250C 250C
1 1
5 mm disp 5 mm disp
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(a) Nailed connection in 63 mm LVL loaded (b) Nailed connection in 63 mm LVL loaded
parallel to grain perp. to grain

16 14
Ambient 1
14 12
Ambient 1 Ambient 2
12 Ambient 2 Ambient 3
Ambient 3 10
Load (kN)

Load (kN)
10 100C
Ambient 4 8
8 100C 135C
135C 6 150C
6
150C
4 200C 4 200C
250C 2 250C
2 5 mm disp 5 mm disp
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(c) Screwed connection in 63 mm LVL loaded (d) Screwed connection in 63 mm LVL loaded
parallel to grain perp. to grain

40 40
35 35
Ambient 1 30
30 Ambient 2 Ambient 1
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

Ambient 3 25 Ambient 2
25 Ambient 3
Ambient 4 Ambient 4
20 20
100C 100C
15 135C 15 135C
150C 150C
10 200C 10
200C
5 250C 5 250C
5 mm disp 5 mm disp
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)

(e) Bolted connection in 63 mm LVL loaded (f) Bolted connection in 63 mm LVL loaded
parallel to grain perp. to grain

25 16
14
20 Ambient 1 Ambient 1
Ambient 2 12 Ambient 2
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

15 Ambient 3 10 Ambient 3
100C 100C
8
135C 135C
10 6
150C 150C
200C 4 200C
5 250C
2 250C
5 mm disp 5 mm disp
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(g) Bolted connection in 36 mm LVL loaded (h) Bolted connection in 36 mm LVL loaded
parallel to grain perp. to grain

Figure 4. Load-displacement curves for the nailed, screwed, and bolted connections
in the Part 2 tests.

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248 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

TABLE 1. Maximum Experimental Loads (kN), Part 2

Temp (°C) 20* 100 135 150 200 250

Connection Type Grain
Bolt 36 mm LVL1 Par. 19.8 17.0 19.0 13.0 12.8 15.5
Bolt 36 mm LVL1 Perp. 14.4 13.6 15.5 10.6 8.8 4.7
Bolt 63 mm LVL1 Par. 37.1 33.0 34.0 30.2 35.0 21.0
Bolt 63 mm LVL1 Perp. 30.5 25.0 25.3 22.2 16.2 12.1
Nail2 Par. 8.7 7.1 5.2 6.4 4.8 5.4
Nail2 Perp. 8.1 7.2 7.0 6.0 6.2 5.2
Screw2 Par. 12.4 9.9 9.7 12.1 7.1 10.4
Screw2 Perp. 11.9 10.4 8.2 12.6 6.8 7.0
*Average of three tests
1Resisted on two shear planes for each bolt
2Resisted on one shear plane for each nail or screw

displacement. The screwed connections also showed similar results for both the parallel and
perpendicular load cases, and increasing strength up to failure at 5–7 mm displacement. The failure
mode for both the nailed and screwed connections was the same as in the Part 1 tests on screwed
connections with two plastic hinges formed along the fasteners and eventually followed by fracture.
The bolted connections failed at larger displacements and larger loads. In both the parallel and
perpendicular load to the grain tests, the bolt holes elongated and the wood eventually split in the
direction of the grain. In the perpendicular to grain tests, the connections resisted increasing load
as the displacements increased and failed at displacements greater than 5 mm. The parallel to grain
tests generally reached the maximum load at less than 5 mm displacement (i.e. about 2–3 mm). The
tests using 63 mm LVL reached loads in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 of those for tests using 36 mm LVL.
For the parallel to grain tests using 63 mm LVL, the 100°C and 200°C tests failed at low
displacements, but after the maximum loads were reached. The bolts in the bolted connections
remained straight at failure and this was a failure by crushing of the wood in mode j according to
Johansen’s equations [17].
The maximum loads obtained are summarized in Table 1. These maximum loads are used when
calculating the embedment strength. Maximum load was either that found at 5 mm displacement or the
maximum value if that occurred earlier. As expected the parallel to grain bolted connections achieved
higher maximum loads than the perpendicular ones. For the nailed and screwed connections, there is
little difference between the parallel and perpendicular to grain results. This was generally expected
because current regulations such as the Eurocode 5 [17] assume the same embedment strength at
ambient temperature for small diameter screws and nails. Screwed connections could withstand higher
loads than nails due to the extra withdrawal strength of the screws. It can be seen that there is not much
drop off until a temperature of 150°C or 200°C is reached, as indicated in Table 1.

4. EMBEDMENT STRENGTH
4.1. Eurocode 5
Eurocode 5 Part 1–1 [17] states that the characteristic embedment strength at ambient temperature for
nails and screws can be determined from the equation:

fh,k = 0.082 ρk d 0.3 (1)

while that for bolts can be determined from the equation:

fh,k = 0.082 (1.0 − 0.01d)ρk (2)

Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 249

where d = nail, screw, or bolt diameter, and ρk = characteristic timber density.

For the LVL used in these tests, the 63 mm thick LVL has a characteristic density of 527 kg/m3 and
a mean density of 567 kg/m3 while the 36 mm thick LVL has a characteristic density of 512 kg/m3 and
a mean density of 547 kg/m3.
If the density of the LVL varies with temperature as given in Table B2/Figure B3 of Eurocode 5 –
Part 1–2 [19], it is possible to estimate how the characteristic embedment strength might vary with
temperature (Figure 5). On the other hand, since charring begins at a temperature of about 300°C and
the char has no strength, it would be better to assume a reduction in the characteristic embedment
strength that was more in line with that for compression and shear as given in Figure B4 of EC5-1–2 [19]
and shown Figure 5.

TABLE 2. Embedment Strengths (kN/mm2)

Based on EC5 formulae [17]

Based on
LVL thickness characteristic Based on mean
(mm) density density Experimental
Nails 63 66.5 71.6 70.2
Screws 63 65.4 70.0 61.4
Bolts parallel to 36 33.6 35.9 45.8
grain 63 34.6 37.2 49.1
Bolts perp. to 36 21.0 22.4 33.3
grain 63 21.6 23.2 38.5

1.2
Density
Compression
1 Shear

0.8
Embedment factor

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 100 200 300
Temperature (°C)

Figure 5. Embedment strength factor based on the density, compression, or shear

reductions with temperature given in EC5-1-2 [19].

Volume 2 · Number 4 · 2011

250 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

4.2. Screws and Nails

The embedment strength is found by back calculating the Johansen’s equation that corresponds to the
failure mode. The formation of two plastic hinges along the screws and nails corresponds to a mode d
failure according to Eurocode 5 Part 1–1 [17]. The corresponding Johansen’s equation is:

Fv ,Rk = 2.3 M y ,Rk . fh ,1,k + 1 4 Fax ,Rk (3)

where:
Fv,rk is the characteristic load-carrying capacity per shear plane per fastener;
My,rk is the characteristic fastener yield moment;
Fax,rk is the characteristic withdrawal capacity of the fastener; and
fh,1,k is the characteristic embedment strength in the timber member.
While the use of characteristic values is necessary when calculating design values, the use of mean
values is more accurate when trying to evaluate the embedment strength derived from individual tests.
Also, as the specimens in the individual tests, and in the fire test, failed by fracture of several screws
in bending, the ultimate strength of the screws should be used rather than the yield strength. Hence,
rather than using equation 3, the following equation should be used:

Fv ,m = 2.3 M y ,m . fh ,m + 1 4 Fax ,m (4)

where:
Fv,m is the mean load-carrying capacity per shear plane per fastener;
My,m is the mean fastener ultimate moment;
Fax,m is the mean withdrawal capacity of the fastener; and
fh,m is the mean embedment strength in the timber member.
For both the nailed and screwed connections, this requires that the withdrawal strength is known.
The withdrawal strength of a nail and a screw in NZ radiata pine LVL was based on values provided
by Gaunt and Penellum [18] modified for the different diameters and lengths. Gaunt and Penellum
used three different types of LVL, one of which was similar in mechanical properties to that used in
our tests.
For the screws, a mean withdrawal strength per screw, Fax,m, of approximately 5.7 kN was derived,
which corresponds to an addition by rope effect of 1.4 kN per screw (1/4 of Fax,m) at ambient conditions.
1.4 kN equals 39% of the Johansen part in the ambient tests performed on the screwed connection and
is less than the 100% limit permitted by EC5 [17]. The change of withdrawal strength at elevated
temperature is unknown and a 39% constant rope effect is therefore assumed at any temperature. In the
absence of any other information, it seems reasonable to assume that the rope effect should decline
along with the first part of the equation relating to the bending strength of the nails or screws. A
reduction in the ratio from 39% to a lesser value might occur, but in the tests the screwed connections
failed by bending of the screws followed by fracture rather than by withdrawal of the screws.
For the nails, modification of the Gaunt and Penellum [18] results gives a mean withdrawal strength
of 1.60 kN per nail. The rope effect is, according to EC5, 1/4 of the withdrawal strength, which equals
0.40 kN per nail. This is the same as 10% of the experimental Johansen term for ambient temperature
and is less than the 15% allowed in EC5 [17]. The change of withdrawal strength at elevated
temperature is unknown and 10% constant rope effect is therefore assumed at any temperature based
on considerations similar to those made for screws.
Tests on the screws gave a yield moment of 11.4 kNmm and an ultimate moment of 15.2 kNmm at
ambient temperature, while tests on the nails gave a yield moment of 6.4 kNmm and an ultimate
moment of 9.3 kNmm at ambient temperature. It was assumed that these values would show a linear
decay after 215°C in line with the yield stress [20].

Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 251

4.3. Bolts
The bolts in the bolted connections remained straight for the parallel and perpendicular to the grain tests
on both thicknesses of LVL tested. Since the 6 mm steel side plates are seen as thin, only j and k failure
modes are applicable to the specimens tested herein. Thus the failure mode for all the bolted tests was
in mode j according to Eurocode 5 Part 1–1 [17]. The corresponding Johansen’s equation is:

Fv,m = 0.5 fh,m t2d (5)

where:
Fv,m is the mean load-carrying capacity per shear plane per fastener;
fh,m is the mean embedment strength in the timber member;
t2 is the thickness of the timber (LVL); and d is the diameter of the bolt.

4.4. Results
Figure 6 shows the embedment strength determined from the experimental results as a ratio of that at
ambient temperature (embedment factor fh,m(θ)/fh,m(20), θ denoting the temperature) for all connections
investigated in this research. The same figure also displays the best fit linear variation, the tri-linear
approximation based on that of Moss et al. [11, 12], and a proposed analytical approximation to be used
in design. It can be seen that the tri-linear approximation derived from short duration heated tests is not
a good fit to the data from the tests on dry LVL. The grain direction does not appear to be important,
particularly for screws and nails. This agrees with provisions of EC5, which provides empirical
formulas for the embedment strength independent of the grain direction for nails and screws of less than
6 mm diameter, as opposed to bolts where there is a dependency upon the grain direction for any
diameter.

1.2 1.2

1.0 Bolt in 36 mm 1.0 Bolt in 36 mm

par perp
Embedment factor

Embedment factor

0.8 Bolt in 63 mm 0.8 Bolt in 63 mm

par perp
0.6 Tri-linear 0.6 Tri-linear
approx. approx.
0.4 Linear 0.4 Linear
(trend par.) (trend perp.)
0.2 Analytical 0.2 Analytical
approximation approximation
0.0 0.0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(a) Bolted connections loaded parallel to grain (b) Bolted connections loaded perpendicular to grain

1.2 1.2
Possibly
1.0 erroneous 1.0
Screw par
readings
Embedment factor
Embedment factor

Screw perp Nails par

0.8 0.8
Tri-linear Nails perp
0.6 approximation 0.6 Tri-linear
Tri-linear line approx. nails
fig. 3 Analytical
0.4 0.4
Linear approximation
(trend screws) Linear
0.2 0.2
Analytical (trend nails)
approximation
0.0 0.0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(c) Screwed connections (d) Nailed connections

Figure 6. Embedment strength variation with temperature for the connections

tested in Part 2.

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252 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

For screwed and nailed connections, it can be seen that the linear best-fit curves are fairly close to
each other and tend to approach zero when the temperature tends to 300°C. Based on this, a linear
decrease of the embedment factor from ambient to 300°C temperature can be recommended for design
of screwed and nailed connections irrespective of the load direction:

fh ,k (θ ) f (θ ) θ − 20
= h ,m = 1− (6)
fh ,k (20) fh ,m (20) 280

For bolted connections, the linear best-fit curves are slightly different parallel and perpendicular
to the grain. Unlike screws and nails, the best-fit curves do not approach the zero value for
temperatures of 300°C. It should be pointed out, however, that due to ignition of wood no
experimental testing was possible above 250°C. Since there is a general consensus, in literature,
upon assuming zero timber strength at 300°C, it seems appropriate to consider a bilinear curve as a
conservative analytical approximation of the decrease in embedment strength of bolted connections
with temperature:

fh ,k (θ ) f (θ ) θ − 20
= h ,m = 1− forr θ ≤ 200°C (7)
fh ,k (20) fh ,m (20) 450

fh ,k (θ ) f (θ ) θ − 200
= h ,m = 0.6 − for 200°C ≤ θ ≤ 300°C (8)
fh ,k (20) fh ,m (20) 167

Eqs. (6) and (7)–(8) can then be recommended for design of connections under fire conditions, and
proposed for implementation in current codes of practice such as the Eurocode 5 Part 1–2 [19] which
do not currently provide any value for the degradation of the embedment strength with temperature.

5. FIRE TEST
The applied load of 9.6 kN was kept as constant as possible during the fire and the test was stopped
when the load could no longer be kept constant due the rapidly increasing deflection. At the end of the
fire test, 2 out of 6 screws on one half of the connection had broken while 4 out of 6 had broken on the
other half connection. One side of the connection is shown in Figure 7. The temperatures of the steel
plate (and bolt head) and the timber are shown in Figure 8, along with the air temperature in the
furnace. The ISO 834 [21] fire curve is also shown for comparison. Unfortunately the electrically
heated furnace could not follow the standard ISO fire curve at the beginning of the test, while the
abrupt increase in temperature at about 41/2 minutes was caused by the ignition of the outer surface of
the LVL. The steel plate temperature was measured at the inner steel/timber interface and not the fire
exposed outer surface.
Figures 9 & 10 show a comparison of the predicted failure loads compared to the experimental load
by assuming different degradation laws for the embedment strength, namely:

(i) the tri-linear approximation suggested by Moss et al. [11, 12] and displayed in Fig. 6c (Fig. 9 (a));
(ii) (ii) the linear approximation recommended in this paper for screwed and nailed connections given
by Eq. (6) and displayed in Fig. 6c (Fig. 9 (b));
(iii) (iii) the bilinear approximation of the compressive strength suggested by the Eurocode 5 Part 1–2
and displayed in Fig. 5 (Fig. 10 (a)); and

Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 253

Figure 7. The connection after the fire test; three screws can still be seen on the left
side but the three screws on the right side have failed.

800
Air temp.
700 Steel plate
Timber
600 ISO 834
Temperature (°C)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (minutes)

Figure 8. Temperature variations in the air, steel plate, and timber.

(iv) (iv) the degradation law of the density suggested by the Eurocode 5 Part 1–2 and displayed in
Fig. 5 (Fig. 10 (b)).

Assuming the screws have the same temperature as the steel splice plates, the embedment strength
and the ultimate bending strength of the screws can be determined. These values, along with those for
the other parameters, can be used in the relevant Johansen’s equations to give the three curves, c, d, and
e, shown in Figures 9 & 10, representative of the corresponding failure mechanisms. Also shown in
Figures 9 & 10 are the applied load and the axial displacement of the connection.

Volume 2 · Number 4 · 2011

254 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

(a) 100 1.2 20

1.0

Embedment ratio
e 0.8

0.6
80 c d e 0.4
16
0.2

Displacement (mm)
Load/6 screws (kN)
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
60 c Temperature (°C)
12

40 d 8

20 4
Experimental
Displacement
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

(b) 100 1.2

20
1.0
e
Embedment ratio

0.8

80 c d e 0.6 16
0.4

Displacement (mm)
Load/6 screws (kN)

0.2

60 c 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 12
Temperature (°C)

40 d 8

20 4
Experimental
Displacement
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

Figure 9. Predicted failure loads for a screwed connection with the embedment
strength based on (a) the scaled tri-linear variation, and (b) the linear variation with
temperature, both from Figure 6(c).

6. DISCUSSION
When the surface timber heats up, moisture will move inward and the moisture content at the centre
will rise, so that the 63 mm thick wood in the two hour heated exposure is not fully dried at the time
of testing. In the long duration heated tests, both the temperature and moisture content were uniform
throughout the member. As a result, these tests showed much higher and more linear embedment
strength than in the case where the LVL members were heated for only two hours.
Figure 9 shows that for both tri-linear and bilinear variations in the embedment strength according
to Fig. 6(c), failure is most likely to occur in moded as observed in the fire test. It can be seen that
the linear variation in embedment strength gives a slightly closer prediction of the failure strength
than does the tri-linear variation which is derived from the short duration heating tests. Both
variations predict failure at between 6–7 minutes, but the linear variation is closer to the connection
failure just before 8 minutes. However, from the plot of displacement variation, the increase in the
rate of deflection just after 7 minutes is probably a more realistic estimate of the time of failure. From

Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 255

(a) 100 1.2

20
1.0
e

Embedment ratio
0.8

80 c d e 0.6 16
0.4

Displacement (mm)
Load/6 screws (kN) 0.2

0.0
60 c 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 12
Temperature (°C)

40 d 8

20 4
Experimental

Displacement
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

(b) 100 1.2

20
1.0

Embedment ratio
e 0.8
0.6
80 0.4 16
0.2

Displacement (mm)
Load/6 screws (kN)

0
c d e 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

60 c Temperature (°C)
12

d
40 8

20 4
Experimental

Displacement
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

Figure 10. Predicted failure loads for a screwed connection with the embedment
strength based on (a) the compression variation, and (b) the density variation with
temperature, both from Figure 5.

Figure 10, it can be seen that the variation based on the reduction in compressive strength with
temperature rise given in EC5-1-2 does not provide a reasonable estimate of the likely failure time
for the connection. On the other hand, the variation based on the density variation with temperature
gives the same failure time as the linear variation in Figure 9 on account of the assumed loss of
strength once charring begins but appears to be unrealistic in terms of strength reduction with
temperature.

7. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of the experimental tests carried out in this research, the primary conclusions are
listed herein after.

• The nailed and screwed connections generally showed an increasing load-displacement curve up
to and beyond 5 mm displacement, for temperatures up to 250°C, with no dependency on grain
direction.

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256 Fire Resistance of Connections Using Steel Plates
and Mechanical Fasteners in Timber Structures

• The failure of bolts is more predictable and more dependent on grain direction than nailed or
screwed connections.
• Bolted connections loaded parallel to grain are stronger than bolted connections loaded
perpendicular to grain, but reached their ultimate load at 2–3 mm displacement whereas in the
perpendicular to grain case, the ultimate load was reached at greater than 5 mm displacement.
• Strength of all fasteners is dependent on moisture content.
• A linear trend of embedment strength versus temperature was found for oven dry wood, which
provides better correlation than the previous tri-linear trend determined from short duration
heating and a moisture gradient.
• A linear trend of embedment strength versus temperature gives a reasonable estimate of the likely
failure time for the screwed connections in a fire.
• New conservative degradation functions for the embedment strength fh,k have been proposed for
bolted, screwed and nailed connections.

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Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

P. J. Moss, A. H. Buchanan, T. M. Nilsen and M. Fragiacomo 257

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Volume 2 · Number 4 · 2011