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Development of students' competencies: Comparable analysis

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DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS‘ COMPETENCIES:

COMPARABLE ANALYSIS
Ramunė Čiarnienė1, Vilmantė Kumpikaitė2, Milita Vienažindienė3
1
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania, ramune.ciarniene@ktu.lt
2
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania, vilmante.kumpikaite@ktu.lt
3
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania, milita.vienazindiene@ktu.lt

Abstract
Well-developed competencies help an organization align its strategic development with human
resources (HR) planning using various HR processes such as effective recruiting, training, coaching, and
rewarding. The lack of consensus about the definition of a competency means that competency- related
discussions have as well as theoretical and empirical actuality. Review of the literature suggests that
competencies range from personal traits to work behaviours, and include everything in between.
Paper analyses theoretical aspects of competence characteristics and competency development. The
study design is based on competence defined as a cluster of related knowledge, skills, and abilities. The
empirical research is based on theoretical background and presets investigation of student’s competencies,
developing factors, skills and differences according to students’ speciality, gender, work experience and study
course. These results could be useful for professors teaching students and for every person identifying their
week sides and necessity to develop competency.
Keywords: students, competency, knowledge, skills, abilities (KSA), Lithuania.

Introduction
A review of the literature suggests many definitions of competency. In this study we follow
conception of competency as a cluster of related knowledge, skills, abilities (KSA), and behaviour patterns
that affect a major part of one’s job (a role or responsibility), that correlate with performance on the job, that
can be measured against well-accepted standards, that can be improved via training and development, and
that the incumbent needs to bring to a position in order to perform its tasks and functions with competence
(Woodruffe, 1993; Parry, 1996).
Questions of competency and employees’ skills and knowledge development, were quite widely
researched by foreign and Lithuanian authors: Parry (1998), Klein & Richey (2005), Hagan et al, (2006),
Yonghak (2009), Kazlauskaite & Buciuniene (2008), Zakarevicius & Zuperkiene (2008), Kumpikaite (2007,
2008, 2009), Kumpikaite & Ciarniene (2008), Savaneviciene et al. (2008), Pundziene et al (2007),
Girdauskiene & Savaneviciene (2007), Kersiene & Savaneviciene (2009), Ciutiene & Adamoniene (2009)
and others. Moreover Dumciuviene et al (2007), Sakalas (2008), Kumpikaite & Alas (2009) studied these
questions from students’ perspective.
Research object – competencies’ development.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the theoretical and practical aspects of competencies
development. This paper reports the findings of survey based on students’ view on research object.
Research methods – the analysis of scientific literature and empirical research (structured
questionnaire survey).
The paper consists from theoretical part analyzing background of the meaning, characteristics of
competency and competency development and empirical part, presenting data of research of students’
competencies and comparison analysis of results.

The Meaning of Competency

Unfortunately, there is no widely accepted definition of the term competency. Hooghiemstra (1992)
defines competencies as motives, traits, self-concepts, attitudes or values, content knowledge, or cognitive or
behavioural skills - any individual characteristic that can be measured or counted reliably and that can be
shown to differentiate significantly between superior and average performers, or between effective and
ineffective performers. Parry (1996, 1998) defined competency as a cluster of related knowledge, attitudes,
and skills that affect a major part of one’s key roles or responsibilities; correlate with performance on the
job; can be measured against well-accepted standards; and can be improved via training and development.
Hagan, Konopaske, Bernardin, and Tyler (2006) suggest that “competencies” range from personal
traits to work behaviours, and include everything in between.

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Milkovich and Newman (2005) assert that the definition of competency is evolving such that vague
ideas relating to self-concepts, traits, and motives are being replaced by business-related descriptions of
behaviours. Tett, Guterman, Bleier, and Murphy (2000) define competencies as work behaviours that are
predicated on individual traits. A review of the competencies used by three major managerial consulting
firms (cited in Tett et al., 2000) suggests that competencies include traits (e.g., “creativity,” “self-
knowledge,” and “objectivity”), knowledge (e.g., “technical knowledge,” “procedural knowledge,” and
“business knowledge”), skills (e.g., “delivering presentations” and “coaching”), abilities (e.g., “political
savvy,” “drive for results,” and “strategic agility”), and behaviours (e.g., “confronting direct reports,”
“directing others,” and “listening”). Competencies should be recognized and judged based on specific
contextual features, particularly how they are developed, what they represent within an organization, and the
role that they play in delivering customer value.
Many other definitions based on various perspectives on competency can be categorized into three
particular approaches to the definition process:
1. A worker-oriented approach,
2. A work-oriented approach, and
3. A multidimensional approach (Horton, 2000).
Spencer and Spencer (1993) described a competency as an individual characteristic existing at three
levels:
1. Knowledge and skill are “on the surface” and are, therefore, observable and measurable.
2. Traits and motives are embedded deeply within an individual and tend to relate to more enduring
characteristics like personality.
3. Self-concept is found in between and includes an individual’s attitudes, values, and self-image.
These three levels are linked to individual performance through an Intent–Action–Outcome model. On
the basis of this theory, organizations were advised to focus on the more “bedrock” individual elements
(traits and motives), because the surface characteristics (knowledge and skills) were easier to change through
training and development. Such “bedrock” dimensions would best be measured, they suggested, by
examining an individual’s behaviour.
Review of the literature suggests that competency-based programs are distinguished from traditional
job-based programs in three respects (Yonghak, 2009; Schippmann et al., 2000).
1. Competencies are about what jobs share in common, rather than what makes each job unique.
2. These commonalities are directly linked to achievement of organizational success, rather than
success in any individual job.
3. Because they are such fundamental commonalities, these core competencies become the primary
mechanism that drives organization design, job structure, and managerial practices.

The Purpose and Characteristics of Competency

The main purpose of identifying competencies is to define standards of behaviour in the workplace
(Yonghak, 2009). Competencies may reflect the graduation requirement of academic institutes or training
cycles for future professionals (Williams, 2003). To improve the skills of the workforce, many countries
started to adopt standard competencies (Brady & Associates, 2001). Well-defined competencies can help an
organization align its strategic development with HR (Human Resource) planning using various HR
processes such as effective recruiting, training, coaching, and rewarding (Garavan & McGuire, 2001;
Gonzales & Nelson, 2005; Yelden & Albers, 2004). In their review of competency modelling procedures,
Shippmann et al. (2000) also found that competency modelling was felt to provide more direct information
related to business goals and strategies than other methods.
Many researchers have identified the underlying components of competencies. Generalization of
various authors’ minds is presented in Table 1.
The competency characteristics identified in these studies shared the common features of being
context-bound and relating to work skills and to workplace learning. Furthermore, some researchers have
noted that technological advance may also revolutionize the workplace situation and affect which
competencies are to be adopted (Berge et al., 2002).

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Table 1. The Main Characteristics of Competency

Characteristics
Context, interdependence between competence and
values, person
Value, rarity, and appropriability
Context-bound, visible, changeable, connected to
activities and tasks, required learning and development
process.
Authors
Nalbandian and Nalbandian (2003)
Metcalfe, Wilson, and Joham (2002)
Biemans, Nieuwenhuis, Poell, Mulder, and
Wesselink (2004)

Although the main purposes of competencies are in HR practice, other areas are also using them for
more efficiency of evaluation in higher education or general management (IDS, 2001; Klink & Boon, 2002).
Morrison (2003) suggests a number of signals of a major transformation in higher education such as
competency-based degree award. Also, Williams (2000), Kupper and van Wulfften Palthe (2001) viewed
competency-based curriculum as a way of preparing graduate students to function in a fast-changing
environment. Competency can be used in the area of human resource management and human resource
development.
Competency development
Most definitions of competency development involve supporting or improving human performance.
According to Richey, Fields, and Foxon (2001), a competency describes the critical ways in which
competence is demonstrated; competence is the state of being well qualified. Parry (1998) identifies a
competency as knowledge, attitudes, or skills that define the core abilities required for successful
performance in a given job. McLagan (1997) suggests that competencies can be viewed in six different ways:
1) job tasks; 2) results of work efforts; 3) outputs; 4) knowledge, skills, and attitudes; 5) qualities that
describe superior performers, and 6) bundles of attributes.
The ibstpi (International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction) defines
competency as a set of related knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable an individual to effectively
perform the activities of a given occupation or job function to the standards expected in employment. As
such, competency is related to performance on a job and can be measured against commonly accepted
standards. This approach combines several points of view, including:
1. Collection of knowledge, skills, and attitudes;
2. Identification of job tasks;
3. Qualities of superior performers that can be measured reliably (Klein & Richey, 2005).
Competency models are valued because they offer a consistent framework for integrating human
capital management systems, and they help align employee actions with common strategic organizational
goals (Moinat, 2003). Competency development models are used to identify required knowledge, skills,
attitudes, capabilities, and job tasks within a defined occupation or organizational role. The construction of a
valid set of competency standards is a large-scale research and development process. The generic ibstpi
competency development model is shown on Figure 1.

Job Role

Current Practice Standards of Performance Ethics and Values Vision of the Future

Identified Skills, Knowledge & Future

Validated Skills, Knowledge & Attitudes

Performance
Domains Competencies
Statements

Figure 1. The Ibstpi Competency Development Model

(Klein & Richey, 2005)

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According to this model competency identification begins with a well-defined job role. If a well-
defined job role does not exist, then defining it becomes the initial step. Once a job is defined, specific
current practice and existing standards are identified to facilitate competency development. Furthermore, the
ethics and values commonly used to evaluate such behaviours must also be determined. Finally, a future
vision of the job role is clarified. This vision may be the result of emerging trends and interpretations or it
may be the result of societal or business pressures. Current practice, existing standards, ethics, values, and
future vision all provide major input into the identification and validation of the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes critical to a particular job role

Method and sample of survey

As a basis of the empirical research the Ibstpi Competency Development Model (see Figure 1) was
taken, paying special attention to skills identification.
The aim of the empirical research was to investigate students’ competencies. More specific questions
were:
1. What are the most developing factors for students?
2. How do students evaluate their skills?
3. What are differences among different criteria according to students’ speciality, gender, work
experience and study course?
Evaluating students’ skills it was used Katz’s (1974) description of three essential types of skills as
technical, human (interpersonal) and conceptual adding personal skills (Alas & Kumpikaite, 2009):
• Technical skills include knowledge of proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as
engineering, computers, finance or manufacturing. Katz proposed that technical skills become less
important as manager moves into higher levels of management, but even top managers need some
proficiency in the organization’s specialty.
• Human or interpersonal skills represent the ability to work well with and understand others, to
build cooperative effort within a team, to motivate, to work in group and to manage conflicts.
These skills are important for managers at all levels. Because managers deal directly with people,
interpersonal skills are crucial.
• Conceptual skills. Performers must also have the ability to conceptualize and to think about abstract
situations. Managers must be able to see the organization as the whole and understand the
relationships among various subunits and to visualize how the organization fits into its broader
environment.
• Personal skills include values connected direct with a person and are innate or developed from
childhood. Such skills are responsibility sense, creativeness, activity and criticism tolerance.
Speaking about students developing factors it was used a list of traditional and modern information-
technologies based methods (Noe, 2003, Ciarniene & Kumpikaite, 2008a, 2008b).
Structured questionnaire was prepared for the study. The questionnaire was put to Internet. Survey was
provided in December of 2009. The sample of the survey was 380 undergraduate students. 334 students from
one university and 46 students from one higher school participated in the poll.

Results of survey
In this section results of the survey and comparable analysis are presented. It starts from general
information about respondents, which is provided in Table 2.
As we see, the biggest part of students (69 percent) is on the second year of their studies, 5 percent –
the third course and 24 percent on the fourth course. 59 percent of respondents were females. 39 percent of
respondents do not have any work experience and 49 percent have experience up to 3 years.
31 percent of respondents’ students study Management, 5 percent -Business and administration, 37
percent – Economics, 21 percent – Information technologies and 3 percent other specialties.
More than 92 percent of all groups agreed that it is useful to have several specialties and 74,7 percent
of IT specialists and 68,5 economists agreed with a concept of continual learning. Results are quite high;
however it shows that not all students are going to develop their skills continually.

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Table 2. General information about respondents

Study program or specialty Total
Business and Information
Management Economics administration technologies Other Management
Age Under 20 61 87 0 0 4 152
21 - 30 56 54 19 83 10 222
31-35 2 0 1 0 0 3
Over 35 2 1 0 0 0 3
Sex Male 29 38 9 74 5 155
Female 92 104 11 9 9 225
Course 1 2 0 0 0 0 2
of studies 2 114 143 1 0 7 265
3 1 0 19 0 0 20
4 4 0 0 82 7 93
Work No 49 67 3 24 6 149
experience Under 1 36 53 2 18 2 111
in years Under 3 17 16 11 28 5 77
Under 5 14 2 0 9 1 26
Under 10 3 2 3 4 0 12
Over 10 2 2 1 0 0 5
Total 121 142 20 83 14 380

The most developing factors. No statistical difference was found among specialities and students
developing factors. Figure 2 shows that development courses are the most developing factor for three groups
of repondents: students studying Management, Economics and other specialities. 75 percent of students
studying business and administration selected two the most developing factors: development courses and
considering of recieved tasks with superviser. At the same time IT specialists noticed project perfomance as
the most developing factor (48 percent of answers).

Figure 2. Students developing criteria according to specialities in percent

Evaluation of skills. Looking at skills evaluated by students (3-very well, 2 –well, 1-average, 0-weak)
the highest is responsibility sense (mean 2,56), communicability (2,24) and ability to work in team (2,22),
and the lowest is specialty experience (mean is 1,42). Technical skills evaluation’s mean is 1,72 and this is
the lowest of all groups, conceptual skills evaluated by 2,05, interpersonal 2,14 and personal – 2,15.

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Figure 3. Students‘ skills evaluation as very well and well according to gender in percent

According statistical analysis we can say that there is not a significant difference between men and
women evaluations. However it was found statistical dependence among skills evaluation. Those students,
who evaluated their personal skills higher, evaluated all other skills higher too. Moreover it should be
mentioned that statistical dependence was found that females evaluated their personal and interpersonal skills
better than males and technical skills worse than males. Results of students‘ skills evaluation according to
gender are presented on Figure 3.

Figure 4. Students‘ skills evaluation according specialities in percent

Figure 4 demonstrates respondents’ skills evaluation according to specialty. Responsibility sense’s

evaluation is the highest for all groups of respondents. The maximum value from all is responsibility sense
marked by students studying Economics. Moreover we can see that students studying Business and
Administration and Economics evaluated their skills the best of all. Also high rates got activity and
communicability. However students evaluated their self presentation skills as the lowest of all groups. From
figure we can see that IT students’ evaluation is the lowest of all respondents groups. IT students just
analytical thinking evaluated higher than other respondents.

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It was found statistical relevance dependence among studies course and technical and interpersonal
skills. It means that students, studying in the higher course evaluate their technical skills better and
interpersonal skill worse than younger students.

Conclusions
In this study, competency is defined as a cluster of related knowledge, skills, abilities (KSA), and
behaviour patterns that affect a major part of one’s job (a role or responsibility), that correlate with
performance on the job, that can be measured against well-accepted standards, that can be improved via
training and development, and that the incumbent needs to bring to a position in order to perform its tasks
and functions with competence. Competency development models are used to identify required knowledge,
skills, attitudes, capabilities, and job tasks within a defined occupation or organizational role.
Looking at research results we can see differences according evaluation of different students groups. It
shows what kind of skills should be developed for every group of respondents. These results could be useful
for professors teaching students and for every person identifying their week sides and necessity to develop
competency.

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