Turbulence Prof. E.G.

Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Chapter 1

Lecture 3

Introduction - 3
Topics

Appendix – A

Historical note

1.3 Characterization of turbulent flows

1.3.1 Statistical features
(I) Probability density function

Appendix – A

Historical Note

A historical background of the subject under study, helps in developing an overall

perspective. Brief historical accounts on turbulent flow are available in Refs. A.1 to A.5.
Some important events in the development of the subject are presented below.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) observed the flow of water behind pillars of a bridge. He
sketched the flow involving vortical motion which are characteristics of turbulent flow.
G.H.L. Hagen (1797-1884) and J.C.B Saint-venant (1797-1886), during their studies on
motion of liquids, found that the flows were of two types which were later called as
laminar and turbulent flows. L.M.H. Navier (1785-1836), in 1822, formulated the
equations for motion of viscous fluid. G.G. Stokes (1819-1903), in 1845, derived these
equations in the form they are used currently. J. Boussinesq (1842-1929), while
dealing with turbulent flow in “Essai sur la theorie des euax courantes”, which was
presented in 1877, mentions that the coefficient of viscosity, now called eddy viscosity,
should depend on the local flow parameters and above all on mean intensity of
fluctuations. Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912) reported the famous Reynolds experiment
d U
in 1883 on laminar and turbulent flows in pipes and deduced the parameter ( )


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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

whose critical value decides whether the flow is laminar or turbulent ; d, ρ, U and μ are
respectively the diameter of pipe , fluid density, average fluid velocity in pipe and
coefficient of viscosity of fluid. In a later paper in 1895, he derived equations for
turbulent flow expressing the instantaneous velocity (U) as sum of average velocity ( U )
and fluctuating part (u‟) and pointed out that additional stresses, now called Reynolds
stresses, appear in these equations. Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) introduced, in 1887, the
word “turbulence” to designate fluid motion beyond critical Reynolds number. The
du
parameter ( ) was called as Reynolds number by M. Weber (1871-1951) in his

paper in 1919.

Prandtl (1875-1953) presented his famous paper on boundary layer theory in 1904. He
and his principal co-workers J. Nikuradse (1894-1979), J. Tollmien and H. Schlichting
(1907-1981) made significant contributions to boundary layer transition, measurement
and predictions of pipe flow, channel flow and thin shear flows. In 1925 Prandtl gave the
mixing length hypothesis which was the first step towards a model of turbulence. In
1945 he gave what is now known as one-equation model.
T. Von Karman (1881-1963) is well known for the vortex street behind circular cylinder.
He made significant contribution to statistical theory of turbulence. G.I. Taylor (1886-
1975) studied the eddy motion in atmosphere in 1915 & 1916 and later in 1930s gave
the statistical theory of turbulence and emphasized the role of correlations between
turbulent fluctuations. L.F. Richardson (1881-1953), in 1922, gave the concept that
turbulent flows consist of a hierarchy of eddies. The larger eddies draw energy from the
mean flow and pass it on to the smaller eddies, which in turn pass on to smaller eddies
and finally dissipation takes place at the smallest eddies. These ideas were later
developed into a theory by A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987) in 1941. G.K. Batchelor
(1920-2000) developed the theory of homogeneous turbulence.

Since, late 1950s an approach to the theoretical treatment of turbulence has been to
treat it as non-equilibrium statistical system with strong coupling. Renormalized
perturbation theory and renormalized group theory have been applied to this problem.
R.H. Kraichnan(1928-2008), J.L., Lumley (1930-) and S.A. Orszag have made

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significant contributions in this effort. References A.6 and A.7 cover these
developments.

M.J. Lighthill (1924-1998) gave the theory of sound generation from turbulence in 1951.
Computation of turbulent boundary layers has been an important activity for design of
ships, airplanes, turbines etc. Earlier approach was based on momentum integral
equation derived by Von Karman in 1921. Developments in these methods have been
described in Refs. A.8 and A.9.

With the availability of computing power in 1960s, it was possible to solve Navier-Stokes
equations with models for Reynolds stress terms. Prandtl had already given mixing
length and one-equation models of turbulence. In late 1960s and early 1970s two-
equation and by mid-seventies Reynolds stress model and a simpler version called
algebraic stress model were developed. J.C. Rotta (1912- ) , D.B. Spalding (1924-) ,
B.E. Launder (1939-), W. Rodi , D.C. Wilcox , P.A. Durbin, T. Cebeci (1940-), F.R.
Menter are among those who made significant contributions to turbulence modelling.
J.L. Lumley, U. Schumann and C.G. Speziale have evolved conditions which the
models of turbulence must satisfy to give realistic results. S.J.Kline (1922-1997) and his
co-workers at Stanford university and P. Bradshaw (1935-) pointed out that there cannot
be a single universal model of turbulence. Hence, for engineering purposes one uses a
model or a combination of models which give good results in certain types of situations.
On the other hand there are groups in various countries which solve the time dependent
Navier-Stokes equations. This approach is called Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). It
is highly computation intensive and has been restricted to simpler flows and low
Reynolds numbers. Significant contributions have been made among others, by J.Kim,
P. Moin, N.N. Mansour and P.R. Spalart . To reduce the computing power requirement,
Large Eddy Simulation (LES) is used in which the large eddies are resolved
computationally but modeling is adopted for smaller eddies. Significant contribution to
LES have been made by I. Smagorinsky, D.K. Lilley, S.A. Orszag, J.F. Ferziger, M.
Germano and U. Piomelli .

On the experimental side, H.L. Dryden and A.M. Kuethe developed hot-wire
anemometer in 1929. It is based on the analysis of heat transfer from electrically heated

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
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wire kept in an air stream, carried out by L.V. King (1886-1956) and presented in 1914.
This technique has evolved over the years and is a standard and reliable measuring
techniques. S. Corrsin (1920-1986), G. Comte-Bellot, L.S.G. Kowznay, A.E. Perry, F.H.
Champagne , H.H. Bruun, P. Bradshaw, R.A. Antonia (1943-) and P. Freymuth are
some of those who made significant contributions to the development of hot-wire
anemometer.
By late 1950‟s LASER was invented. Using a LASER as source of coherent light and
Doppler principle, Y.Yeh and H.Z. Cummins developed the Laser Doppler
Anemometer (LDA) in 1964. LDA is a non-intrusive method and is specially suited for
hot and separated flows. Commercial systems which are accurate to measures three-
dimensional flows are available since 1980‟s. W.K. George, F.Durst, J.H. Whitelaw and
R.J. Adrian are among those who made significant contribution in development of LDA.
Currently, a new technique viz. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is being used. In this
technique, the fluid is seeded with suitable particles and illuminated with LASER sheet.
Motion of fluid is deduced from pictures of these particles taken in rapid succession.
Reference A.10 contains chapters on life and work of twelve great men who have made
significant contributions to the field of turbulence. They are O.Reynolds (1842-1912),
L.Prandtl (1875-1953), T.Von Karman (1881-1963), G.I.Taylor (1886-1975), L.F.
Richardson (1881-1953), A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987), S.Corrsin (1920-1986), G.K.
Batchelor (1920-2000), A.A. Townsend (1917-2010), R.H.Kraichnan (1928-2008),
S.Dhawan (1920-2002) and P.G. Saffman (1931-2008).

Remark:
A brief historical account of a developing subject would always be biased depending on
the background of the author. A look at the author indices in books on turbulence would
show that there are literally thousands of workers in the field of turbulence. The aim
here is only to highlight major developments in the subject. Omissions are entirely
unintentional. References A.1 to A.5 can be seen for further details.

References
A.1 Rouse, H. and Ince, S. “History of hydraulics” Dover, New York, 1963.
A.2 Monin, A.S and Yaglom, A.M. “Statistical fluid mechanics” Translation
editor J.L. Lumley, M.I.T. Press, vol.I, 1971, Vol.II, 1975.

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A.3 Libby, P.A., “Introduction to turbulence” Taylor and Francis, Washington, 1996.
A.4 Chen, C.J and Jaw S.V. “Fundamentals of turbulence modeling” Taylor &
Francis, Washington, 1998.
A.5 Lumley, J.L and Yaglom, A.M. “A century of turbulence”, Flow, turbulence and
combustion, Vol.66, pp 241-286, 2001.
A.6 Leslie, D. C., "Developments in the theory of turbulence" Oxford University Press,
xford, U.K, 1983.
A.7 McComb, W.D. "The Physics of fluid turbulence" Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1991.
A.8 Schlichting, H. and Gersten K "Boundary layer theory" 8th edition, Springer,
Berlin, 2000.
A.9 Young, A.D, “Boundary layers” BSB Professional Books, Oxford, UK, 1989.
A.10 Davidson, P.A., Kaneda, Y, Moffatt, K. and Sreenivasan, K.R.(Editors) “A
voyage through turbulence” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.,
2011.

1.3 Characterization of turbulent flows

All turbulent flows have the features mentioned in the previous section. However, to
differentiate various turbulent flows, the characteristics given in this section can be
used. First the statistical features are described. Then other aspects like correlations,
scales and spectrum are explained. It may be pointed out that the turbulent flows, are
chaotic, as far as detailed behavior is concerned, but are organized so that statistical
averages can be taken. Further, in practical applications, one is more interested in
average quantities like mean values of velocity, pressure, temperature, pressure loss
and heat transfer. Hence, statistical approach, though having limitations, is useful.
1.3.1 Statistical features
The terms like time average, space average, phase average and ensamble average
have been defined in subsection 1.2.1.
I) Probability density function :
Following the approach of Ref.1.9, chapter 6, this function can be explained as follows.
A stationary random phenomenon is considered. Let U be a fluctuating quantity as
shown in the upper part of Fig.1.9. Consider an interval of time T.

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Consider the question, as to during what fraction of the interval T, does the fluctuating
quantity U remain between U1 and (U1 + ΔU)?. One way of to answer this question, is to
have a gating circuit such that during the time, when U lies between U 1 and (U1 + ΔU),
the output is unity and at other instants it is zero. The output of such a circuit is shown in
the lower half of the Fig.1.9. Then, the probability (ΔP) of U occurring between U1 and
(U1 + ΔU) is :

ΔP =
 Δt1 + Δt 2 +......+ Δt n
=
 Δt (1.13)
T T

It is evident that the quantity  Δt depends on the interval ΔU. For a small interval ΔU,

a function P(U), can be defined such that :

ΔP
P(U) = Lim ΔU  0 (1.14)
ΔU

Or P(U) ΔU =
 Δt (1.15)
T

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The quantity P(U) is called probability density function (PDF). Note that P (U 1) dU is the
probability of finding U between U1 and U1 + dU. A typical PDF is shown in Fig.1.10; it is
the PDF of the signal shown in Fig.1.1.

Remarks :
(i) The experimental data from a data acquisition system is in the form of a set of
numerical values acquired over a sufficiently long interval of time. Example 1.7 presents
such a data. In this case, the PDF can be obtained using the following steps. These are
based on the definition of PDF in Ref.1.30, chapter 3.
(1) Let the data set consist of N values of a flow variable U. Let U min and Umax be the
minimum and maximum values respectively.
(2) For the sake of generality, the values that the variable takes are denoted by V which
is called sample space variable.
(3) Let Nv be the number of data points for which U < V. Then, the cumulative
distribution function, F(V), is defined as the probability of U < V.
F(V) = Probability of U < V = Nv/N (1.15a)

Note : (a) F(   ) = 0 , (b) F(  ) = 1 (1.15b)

(c) F (V) is a non-decreasing function

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(4) The probability density function (PDF or P(V) ) is defined as :

dF  V 
P(V) = (1.15c)
dV
(5) From the given data set, the number of data points (N) is known. For a value of V
between Umin and Umax , the number of data points (Nv) for which U < V , can be obtained
by computation. Then, F(V) can be calculated using Eq.(1.15a). In some cases, F(V)
may need smoothing before the derivative (dF/dV), is calculated. Equation (1.15c) gives
the PDF.
(ii) P(U) is called probability density. Then, P(U)dU is the probability of finding U
between U1 and (U1+ ΔU). Probability density function has the following two properties:

(a) P(U) ≥ 0

(b) Sum of all the probabilities is unity i.e.:




 P(U)dU = 1 (1.16)

(iii) Making use of the probability density function, the averages of various functions of
the fluctuating quantity can be obtained. For example, let f(U) be a function of the
fluctuating quantity U. Then, the average f (U) of f(U) is defined as :
t0 +T (1.17)
1
f U   f(U)dt
T t0

This average, f U , can also be obtained from P(U). For this purpose, it is noted that,

in the interval t0 to (t0 + T), the probability of U lying between U and (U +  U) is P(U) 
U. Hence, the contribution to the right hand side of equation (1.17), from the interval U
to (U +  U) is f(U) P(U)  U. Since, U can lie between   to  , the total contribution
is obtained by summing over all intervals i.e.

t0 +T 
1
f U =  f U dt =  f U P U dU (1.18)
T t0 

(iv) Normal or Gaussian distribution:

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The probability density function given by :

2
 U-U 
-0.5 
1 σ 
P(U) = e  , where, σ = r.m.s valueof (U-U) , (1.18a)
σ 2π
is called „normal‟ or „Gaussian distribution‟. It is also plotted in Fig.1.10. It may be
pointed out that the PDF of the turbulent signal appears nearly Gaussian. This is
because turbulent quantities at a point are affected by a large number of vortices and
this renders the PDF of the fluctuating quantity as nearly Gaussian. However, if the
PDF, is obtained for a quantity like (a) the difference of velocities at neighboring points
U
i.e. [U(x +  x) – U(x)] or (b) the derivative, , then, it (PDF) would be significantly
t
different from the normal distribution. The reason for this is as follows.
As noted earlier (subsection 1.2.8) the turbulent flow is also governed Navier-Stokes
equations. Now, the velocities at two neighboring points (i.e. at X and X+  X) or those
at the same point but at a close intervals of time(i.e. t and t +  t ), are governed by
Navier-Stokes equations. As such the two velocities are not statistically independent of
each other. Consequently, the PDF will be significantly different from Gaussian
distribution.
Figure 1.11 gives the PDF of the derivative of the velocity fluctuation i.e. of   u / t 

.This figure shows   u / t  /  on the x-axis ; where  is the r.m.s value of   u / t  .

The significant difference between PDF of   u / t  and the normal distribution is

evident from the figure.

Figure 1.12 shows the same data as in Fig.1.11 but in a different manner. To highlight
the difference between the normal distribution and the experimental PDF distribution at
higher values of   u / t  /  , the quantity on the y-axis is chosen as log (PDF x  ).

This manner of plotting is used in Ref.1.57, which is also quoted in Ref.1.30, chapter 6.

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(v) Reference 1.30, chapter 5, be referred to for PDF‟s of u‟, v‟ and w‟ fluctuations in a
homogeneous shear flow.
(vi) Reference 1.1, chapter 8, be referred to for PDF‟s of u‟ and  u / t  in
homogeneous flow behind a grid of bars.

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