Turbulence Prof. E.G.

Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Chapter 1

Lecture 8

Introduction - 8
Topics

General remarks on energy spectrum

1.3.3 Intermittency
1.3.4 Conditional Sampling
1.3.5. Quadrant analysis
1.4 Miscellaneous topics
1.4.1 Conditions for convergence of time average to true average
1.4.2 References on terminology for turbulent flows
General remarks on energy spectrum
(i) One dimensional spectrum :
Figure 1.8 presents the plot of spectral density (E11 (n)) vs n of the signal shown in
Fig.1.1; E11 (n) is defined in Eq.(1.42). The same plot as wave number spectrum
(E11    vs  ) is presented in Fig.1.20. The quantities E11  1  and 1 are non-

dimensionalized with “ u2 d ” and „d‟ respectively; „d‟ is a typical length scale of the flow.
Example 1.7 gives the details.

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

(ii) Energy spectrum :

The turbulent kinetic energy has been defined (Eq.1.53a) as :

k=
2

1 2
1
u1 +u22 +u32 = ui ui
2
The spectrum for turbulent kinetic energy is denoted by E(  ) . The energy spectrum
shown schematically in Fig.1.19 is for isotropic turbulence. Reference 1.30 chapter 6
and appendices E & G therein, give a detailed description of the spectrum analysis of
turbulent flows. Herein, only a few facts are pointed out.
(a) In isotropic flow E(  ) is related to E11  1  , which is the spectrum of u1 fluctuation as

:
1 3 d  1 dE11    
E   =    (1.88)
2 d   d 

(b) The quantity E(  ) is zero at  = 0. Figure 1.21(a) is a schematic representation of

E(  ) vs  . Note ud and nd are Kolmogorov scales of velocity and length respectively.
This curve is for a low value, of around 30, for the Reynolds number based on Taylor
microscale ( R eλ ).

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

(c) To bring out other features of E(  ) vs  curve, a typical curve at R eλ  300 is

presented in Fig.1.21b. Three regions of the curve are marked in the figure viz. energy-
containing range, inertial subrange and dissipation range.
It may be recalled that (A) the turbulent kinetic energy is produced due to interaction of
larger eddies with the mean flow and (B) the size of the largest eddy is roughly indicated
by the integral length scale, (L11), defined by Eq.(1.55). Based on Ref.1.30, chapter 6,
the extent of the energy-containing range is roughly from L11 to L11/6.

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

The dissipation takes place in the region indicated by dissipation range in Fig.1.21b.
Based on Ref.1.30, chapter 6, the dissipation range begins roughly at a length scale of
60 η d . As mentioned earlier, the rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy ( ε ) and

the kinematic viscosity (  ) decide the scales of length ( η d ), velocity (ud) and the time (

d ). The expression for these three scales are given by Eqs.(1.82), (1.83) and (1.84).
The inertial subrange lies inbetween the energy-containing range and the dissipation
range. In the inertial subrange the energy produced by larger eddies is mainly
transferred to smaller eddies. The viscosity does not play significant role and the
parameter influencing the scales is only ε .
The other features of the inertial subrange are as follows.
(A) Based on the analysis by Kolmogorov (Ref.1.30, chapter 6 be referred for details), it
can be shown that in this subrange E(  ) is proportional to  -5/3.
(B) The extent of the inertial subrange depends on R eλ . At , Reλ  30 , the extent could

be just one decade (e.g. ηd from 0.5 to 0.5 x 10-1) at Reλ  1000 the extent could be

about three decades (e.g. ηd from 0.5 to 0.5 x 10-3).

(iii) In chapter 2, the experimental techniques to measure u2 , v2 , w2 , u v  , uw

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

and vw  are outlined using multiple hot-wire probes. However, the wires of these
probes are not at the same spatial locations and deducing energy spectrum in
inhomogeneous, anisotropic flows using these probe is not accurate. However,
E11 ( 1 ) , E22 ( 1 ), E33 ( 1 ) and E12 ( 1 ) have been measured with confidence. Reference

1.59 be referred for measurements in a boundary layer.

(iv) Reference 1.59 has also presented spectrum of E11 in various types of flows viz.
wake, boundary layer, channel and flow behind grid of bars. This is an important figure
and is reproduced in Fig.1.21c.
The figure indicates that, in the dissipation region, all the curves show nearly same
variation. This feature is used in Large Eddy Simulation (LES) which is described in
chapter 8.
(iv) Figure 1.21a shows that E(  ) goes to zero as   0 . However, E11( 1 ) in Fig.1.21c

tends to a non-zero value as 1  0 . The reason for this, is the fact that E11( 1 ) has

contributions to it from wave numbers greater than 1 . This is called aliasing. The

explanation of aliasing is some what involved and Ref.1.30, chapter 6 may be consulted
for details. The feature that as E11 ( 1 ), reaches a constant value as 1  0 should

serve as a cross check when E11 is measured.

(v) Tsinober (Ref. 1.43), has critically examined various ideas regarding turbulent flows.
In chapter 5, he points out that the notion of energy cascade, though helpful in certain
respects, is flawed for the following reasons.
(A) The larger eddies may break up directly into smaller eddies.
(B) Though the dissipation takes place at the smallest eddies, the dynamics of small
scale eddies is affected by large scale eddies especially in turbulent shear flows.
(C) The energy transfer is not only from larger to smaller eddies but could be also in the
reverse direction.

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Fig. 1.21 (c) Spectrum of u fluctuation in various flows from Ref. 1.59
Note: For Bibliographic details of references cited in the figure, see Ref. 1.59
[Based on Fig. 9 of Ref. 1.59 „„This figure cannot be reproduced, shared,
altered or exploited commercially in any way without the permission of
Cambridge University Press, as it is copyrighted material and therefore not
subject to the allowances permitted by a CC-BY licence‟]

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

1.3.3 Intermittency

In flows like boundary layers, jets and wakes, the rotational flow region (where vorticity
is non-zero) is separated from the outer irrotational flow region. The edge between the
rotational and irrotational regions is zigzag and changes with time. The presence of this
zigzag edge was detected in 1950‟s when these flows were examined by placing the
probe at various distances. For example, in a turbulent boundary layer, studied by
Klebanoff (Ref.1.60), the signal near the wall (y/ δ less that 0.4) looks completely
irregular (Fig.1.22a). As the probe is moved away from the wall the signal shows some
periods of non-turbulent flow (i.e. with negligible fluctuation) in between turbulent flow
periods (see signals corresponds to y/ δ of 0.6, 0.8, 1 and 1.2 in Fig.1.22a ); δ is the
usual boundary layer thickness where U/Ue is 0.99. Flow visualization picture in
Fig.1.22b shows, at a certain instant of time, the edge between the turbulent flow in the
boundary layer and the irrotational flow outside. The edge is seen to be in zigzag. It
(edge) also changes with time. Thus, a point in the outer part of the boundary layer is
sometimes in turbulent flow and at other times in non-turbulent flow. Figure 1.7, shows a
flow visualization picture of a jet where the white regions are the turbulent jet and the
black regions show the irrotational flow outside.

Intermittency factor
To characterize the intermittent behavior, the intermittency factor (  ) is defined in the
following manner :
Let, I (x,t) = 1, if the flow at the point x is turbulent.
= 0, if the flow at the point x is non-turbulent.
Then
t 0 +T
1
 (x )= I =
T 
t0
I(x, t) dt (1.88)

Note : Intermittency factor (  ) equals one in fully turbulent flow.

A typical plot of  in a boundary layer is shown in Fig.1.23. It is seen that the flow is fully
turbulent upto y/ δ roughly equal to 0.4. At the outer edge of the boundary layer, the
intermittently turbulent region could extend upto y/ δ of 1.2. Thus, the velocity may

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

reach the external value around y/ δ of 1 but the turbulent fluctuations would extend
beyond this height. This behaviour has implications when two flows interact with each
other, for example, a wake-boundary layer interaction. Another implication of
intermittency is that, in models of turbulence the expressions for eddy viscosity should
take into account the intermittency in external flow. See chapter 5 on turbulence
modeling especially the Cebeci and Smith and Baldwin and Lomax mixing length
models.

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Remark :
(i) The edge between the rotational and irrotational flow regions is zig-zag but, sharp.
Reference 1.10, chapter 5, compares this edge with that between the turbulent region
within a cloud and the air outside. The edge of the cloud is zigzag but sharp.
(ii) For details regarding measurement of intermittency factor, Chapter 11 of Rec. 2.5 be
referred to
(iii) Internal intermittency is different from intermittency factor mentioned above.
Reference 1.30, chapter 6 be consulted for a description.
1.3.4 Conditional Sampling
Conditional sampling is a special type of generalized cross correlation. Herein, the
definition is presented. For details Ref.1.61, may be consulted. Conditional sampling is
defined as :

R  x, Δx,  j  = Lim N 
1
N

 C  x,ti  f x  Δx, ti   j 
where, C = Digital conditioning of signal derived from one or more turbulent signals.
f = A digital function which may also be derived from one or more turbulent signals.
The signals used for C and f may be identical or generated at different positions in
space.
N = number of digital points to be averaged
 j = time delay

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Chapter-1

In simpler terms, for conditional sampling two events are related i.e. a sample is taken
only when a certain condition is satisfied. As an example, consider the intermittently
turbulent flow in the outer region of a boundary layer discussed in the previous section.
Now, one may be interested in finding out the mean velocity at a point when the flow at
that point is non-turbulent. To measure this, in addition to a probe to measure velocity,
another probe is needed to detect whether the flow at the desired point is non-turbulent.
Capture the signal only when this condition is satisfied. For further details Ref.1.62 be
consulted.
Remark:
Conditional sampling is very useful in detecting coherent structures in turbulent flows. A
coherent structure can be defined as a recognizable pattern which occurs with sufficient
regularity in a turbulent flow. For example a mixing layer is formed when a jet comes out
in stagnant surrounding. The edge between the rotational flow and irrotational flow
forms a mixing layer which has discernible structures. Figure 1.24, shows such
structures.
Coherent structures have been detected experimentally, in many flows. However, these
structures are found to appear randomly in the flow. Consequently, a statistical
treatment of turbulent flow is still useful in practical situations.
Coherent structures have also been obtained by processing the results of Direct
Numerical simulation (DNS). However, these structures also, appear randomly in the
flow field. These features of coherent structures have the following consequences.
(1) Since, the coherent structures appear randomly, the statistical treatment of flow can
be regarded as applicable as a first approximation. In this approach the flow variables
are expressed as sum of the time average and a fluctuating part (e.g. U = U + u' ). This
is known as „Reynolds decomposition‟. It has been mentioned earlier that the turbulent
flows are also governed by Navier-Stokes equations. Hence, the instantaneous values
like U are replaced by ( U + u ) and time average is taken. Chapter 3 gives the
derivation. These equations are called „Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equation
(RANS)‟. It will be observed (chapter 3) that these equations involve unknown
correlations among fluctuating quantities and need models of turbulence. Chapter five
describes some models. Since, each turbulent flow has different coherent structures, a

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

universal model of turbulence is not possible. For practical calculations, suitable models
of turbulence are adopted for a class of flows.
(2) When two flows interact e.g. when the wake of the slat interacts with the boundary
layer on the main wing, the details of the interaction region are not predicted properly by
solution of RANS equations. Subsection 6.5.4 be referred for further discussion.
(3) Control of turbulent flows involves control of the flow structures. However, these
structures are found to be sensitive to small disturbances. Only limited success in
controlling the structures has been achieved by experimental / computational means.
In summary, the study of turbulent flows is a challenging task. An attempt is being made
in the subsequent chapters to highlight various possibilities to analyze practical flows.

Fig. 1.24 Coherent structures in a mixing layer

[Based on Fig. 20(a) of plate 7 of Ref. 1.63. „This figure cannot be reproduced,
shared, altered or exploited commercially in any way without the permission of
Cambridge University Press, as it is copyrighted material and therefore not
subject to the allowances permitted by a CC-BY licence‟]

1.3.5. Quadrant analysis

This is yet another way to analyze and understand turbulent flows. In boundary layers
and flow near walls in channels, it is found that near the wall vortices called streaks are
formed which rise, oscillate and burst (Ref.1.64). Wallace et al. (Ref. 1.64a) suggested
quadrant analysis to study these events. In this analysis u‟ and v‟, at different instants of
time are plotted at various heights away from the wall. Figure 1.25 shows a quadrant
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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

analysis done from DNS data on flow near the wall of a channel (Ref.1.65 gives the
details).
In the first quadrant, u‟ > 0 and v‟ > 0 . This indicates outward motion of relatively high
speed flow. In the second quadrant, u‟ < 0 and v‟>0. This indicates motion associated
with ejection of relatively low speed fluid away from the wall. In the third quadrant, u‟< 0
and v‟< 0. This indicates in rush of relatively low speed flow. In the fourth quadrant, u‟ >
0 and v‟ < 0. This indicates in rush of relatively high speed flow.

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Fig. 1.25 Quadrant analysis of u‟ & v‟ at various heights form the channel wall

{Note : „‟ denotes half the height of the channel; u‟ & v‟ are normalized with a
characteristic velocity called frication velocity (u). See chapter 4 for explanation of this
term}

[Based on Fig. 21 of Ref. 1.65. „This figure cannot be reproduced, shared, altered or
exploited commercially in any way without the permission of Cambridge University
Press, as it is copyrighted material and therefore not subject to the allowances
permitted by a CC-BY licence‟]

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

1.4 Miscellaneous topics

While defining the time average in subsection 1.2.1, it was mentioned that the averaging
time, „T‟ should be finite but large enough to give a proper average. This topic and
references on terminology for turbulent flows are mentioned in the concluding sections
of this chapter.

1.4.1 Conditions for convergence of time average to true average

In actual measurements, the average is taken over a finite time. Let, the average for an
averaging time of T, be UT then,
T
1
U  t  dt
T 0
UT = (1.90)

Let, the true average be U . It is the average, when T is very large or infinite in
mathematical sense. The error between UT and U is :

T T
UT -U =
1
T0   1
U  t  -U dt =  u  t  dt
T0
(1.91)

The r.h.s. of Eq.(1.91) should be zero for a stationary random phenomena. However, it
may not be zero as the averaging time is finite. Consider, the r.m.s. value of such
differences. Reference 1.4, shows that:

U -U
2
T 2u2 
= (1.92)
 U  
2 2
U T

where,  = integral time scale.

Thus, for the error in the measured value to be small T >>  . This is illustrated in
example 1.6.
Example 1.6

It is desired, to measure UT with an accuracy of 1 % in a flow where, u2 / UT is 15%

and  is 2 x 10-3 s. What should be T?.

Solution :

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Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

U -U
2

=  0.01 = 0.0001
T 2
Since, the desired measuring accuracy is 1 %,
 U
2

Substituting in Eq.(1.92),

2×u2 2×0.152 ×2×10 -3

0.0001 = × =
 
2
T U T

2×0.152 ×2×10-3
Or, T = = 0.9 s
0.0001
Note :

1) If u2 / UT is higher, as it may happen in the outer regions of a jet, a longer T

would be needed.
2) Generally, T lies between 1 to 3 s during actual measurements.

1.4.2 References on terminology for turbulent flows

Reference 1.6, gives at the beginning of that book, a glossary of terms used in
turbulence literature. Reference 1.66 contains explanations of terms in use till about
1980. Appendix D of Ref.1.43 contains glossary of terms especially regarding chaos.

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